Inflammation-mediated skin tumorigenesis induced by epidermal c-Fos

Molecular and Histopathological Characterization of Metastatic Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinomas: A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

A subset of patients affected by cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) can exhibit locally invasive or metastatic tumors. Different staging classification systems are currently in use for cSCC. However, precise patient risk stratification has yet to be reached in clinical practice. The study aims to identify specific histological and molecular parameters characterizing metastatic cSCC.

METHODS

Patients affected by metastatic and non-metastatic cSCC (controls) were included in the present study and matched for clinical and histological characteristics. Skin samples from primary tumors were revised for several histological parameters and also underwent gene expression profiling with a commercially available panel testing 770 different genes.

RESULTS

In total, 48 subjects were enrolled in the study (24 cases, 24 controls); 67 genes were found to be differentially expressed between metastatic and non-metastatic cSCC. Most such genes were involved in immune regulation, skin integrity, angiogenesis, cell migration and proliferation.

CONCLUSION

The combination of histological and molecular profiles of cSCCs allows the identification of features specific to metastatic cSCC, with potential implications for more precise patient risk stratification.

Matrix metalloproteinase-10 deficiency has protective effects against peritoneal inflammation and fibrosis via transcription factor NFκΒ pathway inhibition

One of the most common causes of discontinued peritoneal dialysis is impaired peritoneal function. However, its molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Previously, by microarray analysis of mouse peritoneum, we showed that MMP (matrix metalloproteinase)-10 expression is significantly increased in mice with peritoneal fibrosis, but its function remains unknown. Chlorhexidine gluconate (CG) was intraperitoneally injected to wild-type and MMP-10 knockout mice to induce fibrosis to elucidate the role of MMP-10 on peritoneal injury. We also examined function of peritoneal macrophages and mesothelial cells obtained from wild-type and MMP-10 knockout mice, MMP-10-overexpressing macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cells and MeT-5A mesothelial cells, investigated MMP-10 expression on peritoneal biopsy specimens, and the association between serum proMMP-10 and peritoneal solute transfer rates determined by peritoneal equilibration test on patients. MMP-10 was expressed in cells positive for WT1, a mesothelial marker, and for MAC-2, a macrophage marker, in the thickened peritoneum of both mice and patients. Serum proMMP-10 levels were well correlated with peritoneal solute transfer rates. Peritoneal fibrosis, inflammation, and high peritoneal solute transfer rates induced by CG were all ameliorated by MMP-10 deletion, with reduction of CD31-positive vessels and VEGF-A-positive cells. Expression of inflammatory mediators and phosphorylation of NFκΒ subunit p65 at S536 were suppressed in both MMP-10 knockout macrophages and mesothelial cells in response to lipopolysaccharide stimulation. Overexpression of MMP-10 in RAW 264.7 and MeT-5A cells upregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines with phosphorylation of NFκΒ subunit p65. Thus, our results suggest that inflammatory responses induced by MMP-10 are mediated through the NFκΒ pathway, and that systemic deletion of MMP-10 ameliorates peritoneal inflammation and fibrosis caused by NFκΒ activation of peritoneal macrophages and mesothelial cells.

LncRNA RP4-639F20.1 interacts with THRAP3 to attenuate atherosclerosis by regulating c-FOS in vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation and migration

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The aberrant proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play an essential role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (AS). Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been reported as important regulators in a number of diseases. However, very little is known regarding the functional role of lncRNAs in governing proliferation and migration of VSMCs and AS development.

METHODS

Both in vitro and in vivo assays were performed to investigate the role of lncRNA in the pathophysiology of AS. Our previous lncRNA arrays revealed that lncRNA RP4-639F20.1 was significantly decreased in atherosclerotic plaques. Lentivirus overexpressing RP4-639F20.1 and lncRNA RP4-639F20.1 silencing vectors (Si-lnc-RP4-639F20.1) were constructed and transfected in VSMCs. The in vitro functions of lncRNA were analyzed by CCK-8 assays, EdU assays, scratch wound assays, transwell assays, qRT-PCR and Western blot analyses. RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization, immunoprecipitation and mRNA microarrays were used to explore the underlying mechanism. Adeno-associated-virus-9 (AAV9) overexpressing RP4-639F20.1 was constructed and injected intravenously into ApoE-/- mice to explore the role of lncRNA in vivo.

RESULTS

In vitro experiments showed that lncRNA RP4-639F20.1 interacted with THRAP3 and downregulated c-FOS expression. Both increase of lncRNA RP4-639F20.1 expression and knockdown of c-FOS inhibited the expression of MMP10 and VEGF-α in VSMCs and suppressed VSMCs proliferation and migration. In vivo experiments using ApoE-/- mice fed a high-fat diet demonstrated that lncRNA RP4-639F20.1 overexpression deterred atherosclerosis and decreased lipid levels in atherosclerotic lesions. Patients with coronary artery disease were found to have higher c-FOS levels than healthy individuals and c-FOS expression was positively correlated with the SYNTAX score of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these data indicated that lncRNA RP4-639F20.1/THRAP3/c-FOS pathway protects against the development of atherosclerosis by suppressing VSMCs proliferation and migration. LncRNA RP4-639F20.1 and c-FOS could represent potential therapeutic targets to ameliorate atherosclerosis-related diseases.

Platelet lysate promotes hair growth: In vitro and in vivo mechanism and randomized, controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Platelet lysate (PL), a novel platelet derivative, has been widely used in regenerative medicine and is a potential therapy for improving hair growth. It is necessary to fully clarify the potential mechanism and evaluate preliminary clinical effect of PL on hair growth.

METHODS

We used the C57BL/6 model, organ-cultured hair follicles, and RNA-seq analysis to explore the mechanisms of PL regulating hair growth. Then, we performed a randomized, controlled, double-blind study of 107 AGA patients to verify the therapeutic efficacy of PL.

RESULTS

The results confirmed that PL improved hair growth and accelerated hair cycling in mice. Organ-cultured hair follicle evaluation confirmed that PL prolonged anagen remarkably and down-regulated IL-6, C-FOS, and p-STAT5a. Clinically, diameter, hair counts, absolute anagen counts and changes from baseline in the PL group showed a significant improvement at 6 months.

CONCLUSIONS

We elucidated the specific molecular mechanism of PL action on hair growth and proved equal changes in hair follicle performance after PL vs PRP in AGA patients. This study provided novel knowledge of PL, making it ideal for AGA.

c-FOS Expression in Metastatic Basal Cell Carcinoma with Spontaneous Basosquamous Transition

Abstract is missing (Short communication)

MicroRNA-139-5p mediates BMSCs impairment in diabetes by targeting HOXA9/c-Fos

The properties and functions of BMSCs were altered by the diabetic microenvironment, and its mechanism was not very clear. In recent years, the regulation of the function of BMSCs by microRNA has become a research hotspot, meanwhile, HOX genes also have been focused on and involved in multiple functions of stem cells. In this study, we investigated the role of miR-139-5p in diabetes-induced BMSC impairment. Since HOXA9 may be a target gene of miR-139-5p, we speculated that miR-139-5p/HOXA9 might be involved in regulating the biological characteristics and the function of BMSCs in diabetes. We demonstrated that the miR-139-5p expression was increased in BMSCs derived from STZ-induced diabetic rats. MiR-139-5p mimics were able to inhibit cell proliferation, and migration and promoted senescence and apoptosis in vitro. MiR-139-5p induced the down-regulated expression of HOXA9 and c-Fos in BMSCs derived from normal rats. Moreover, miR-139-5p inhibitors reversed the tendency in diabetic-derived BMSCs. Further, gain-and-loss function experiments indicated that miR-139-5p regulated the functions of BMSCs by targeting HOXA9 and c-Fos. In vivo wound model experiments showed that the downregulation of miR-139-5p further promoted the epithelialization and angiogenesis of diabetic BMSC-mediated skin. In conclusion, induction of miR-139-5p upregulation mediated the impairment of BMSCs through the HOXA9/c-Fos pathway in diabetic rats. Therefore, miR-139-5p/HOXA9 might be an important therapeutic target in treating diabetic BMSCs and diabetic complications in the future.

S100 Proteins as Novel Therapeutic Targets in Psoriasis and Other Autoimmune Diseases

Psoriasis is one of the most common inflammatory skin diseases affecting about 1-3% of the population. One of the characteristic abnormalities in psoriasis is the excessive production of antimicrobial peptides and proteins, which play an essential role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Antimicrobial peptides and proteins can be expressed differently in normal and diseased skin, reflecting their usefulness as diagnostic biomarkers. Moreover, due to their very important functions in innate immunity, members of host defense peptides and proteins are currently considered to be promising new therapeutic targets for many inflammatory diseases. Koebnerisin (S100A15) belongs to an S100 family of antimicrobial proteins, which constitute the multigenetic group of calcium-binding proteins involved in ion-dependent cellular functions and regulation of immune mechanisms. S100A15 was first discovered to be overexpressed in 'koebnerized' psoriatic skin, indicating its involvement in the disease phenotype and the same promising potential as a new therapeutic target. This review describes the involvement of antimicrobial peptides and proteins in inflammatory diseases' development and therapy. The discussion focuses on S100 proteins, especially koebnerisin, which may be involved in the underlying mechanism of the Köebner phenomenon in psoriasis, as well as other immune-mediated inflammatory diseases described in the last decade.

Single-Cell Transcriptomics Uncover Key Regulators of Skin Regeneration in Human Long-Term Mechanical Stretch-Mediated Expansion Therapy

Tissue expansion is a commonly performed therapy to grow extra skin invivo for reconstruction. While mechanical stretch-induced epidermal changes have been extensively studied in rodents and cell culture, little is known about the mechanobiology of the human epidermis in vivo. Here, we employed single-cell RNA sequencing to interrogate the changes in the human epidermis during long-term tissue expansion therapy in clinical settings. We also verified the main findings at the protein level by immunofluorescence analysis of independent clinical samples. Our data show that the expanding human skin epidermis maintained a cellular composition and lineage trajectory that are similar to its non-expanding neighbor, suggesting the cellular heterogeneity of long-term expanded samples differs from the early response to the expansion. Also, a decrease in proliferative cells due to the decayed regenerative competency was detected. On the other hand, profound transcriptional changes are detected for epidermal stem cells in the expanding skin versus their non-expanding peers. These include significantly enriched signatures of C-FOS, EMT, and mTOR pathways and upregulation of AREG and SERPINB2 genes. CellChat associated ligand-receptor pairs and signaling pathways were revealed. Together, our data present a single-cell atlas of human epidermal changes in long-term tissue expansion therapy, suggesting that transcriptional change in epidermal stem cells is the major mechanism underlying long-term human skin expansion therapy. We also identified novel therapeutic targets to promote human skin expansion efficiency in the future.

Synthesis compound XCR-7a ameliorates LPS-induced inflammatory response by inhibiting the phosphorylation of c-Fos

Inflammation is a biological process closely related to different kinds of diseases, such as cancer and metabolic diseases. Therefore, effective control of the occurrence and development of inflammation is of great significance for disease prevention and control. Recently, 2-substituted indoles have gradually become a research hotspot because of their stability and pharmacological activity. Here we synthesized a series of compound containing 2-substituted indoles and investigated XCR-7a's role in inflammatory response. Our data show that XCR-7a can inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and inflammatory mediator cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Also, XCR-7a has a protective effect on LPS-induced inflammatory response in mice. Mechanically, we found that XCR-7a could inhibit the phosphorylation of c-Fos induced by LPS, which suggested that the protective effect of XCR-7a on inflammation was related to its negative regulation to phosphorylation of c-Fos. Briefly, our results demonstrated that XCR-7a could be expected to be a potential drug for controlling inflammation.

DNA hypomethylation leads to cGAS-induced autoinflammation in the epidermis

DNA methylation is a fundamental epigenetic modification, important across biological processes. The maintenance methyltransferase DNMT1 is essential for lineage differentiation during development, but its functions in tissue homeostasis are incompletely understood. We show that epidermis-specific DNMT1 deletion severely disrupts epidermal structure and homeostasis, initiating a massive innate immune response and infiltration of immune cells. Mechanistically, DNA hypomethylation in keratinocytes triggered transposon derepression, mitotic defects, and formation of micronuclei. DNA release into the cytosol of DNMT1-deficient keratinocytes activated signaling through cGAS and STING, thus triggering inflammation. Our findings show that disruption of a key epigenetic mark directly impacts immune and tissue homeostasis, and potentially impacts our understanding of autoinflammatory diseases and cancer immunotherapy.

c-FOS drives reversible basal to squamous cell carcinoma transition

While squamous transdifferentiation within subpopulations of adenocarcinomas represents an important drug resistance problem, its underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, using surface markers of resistant basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) and patient single-cell and bulk transcriptomic data, we uncover the dynamic roadmap of basal to squamous cell carcinoma transition (BST). Experimentally induced BST identifies activator protein 1 (AP-1) family members in regulating tumor plasticity, and we show that c-FOS plays a central role in BST by regulating the accessibility of distinct AP-1 regulatory elements. Remarkably, despite prominent changes in cell morphology and BST marker expression, we show using inducible model systems that c-FOS-mediated BST demonstrates reversibility. Blocking EGFR pathway activation after c-FOS induction partially reverts BST in vitro and prevents BST features in both mouse models and human tumors. Thus, by identifying the molecular basis of BST, our work reveals a therapeutic opportunity targeting plasticity as a mechanism of tumor resistance.

Nucleolar localization of c-Jun

Nucleoli are well defined for their function in ribosome biogenesis, but only a small fraction of the nucleolar proteome has been characterized. Here, we report that the proto-oncogene, c-Jun, is targeted to the nucleolus. Using live cell imaging in myogenic cells, we document that the c-Jun basic domain contains a unique, evolutionarily conserved motif that determines nucleolar targeting. Fos family Jun dimer partners, such as Fra2, while nuclear, do not co-localize with c-Jun in the nucleolus. A point mutation in c-Jun that mimics Fra2 (M260E) in its Nucleolar Localization sequence (NoLS) results in loss of c-Jun nucleolar targeting while still preserving nuclear localization. Fra2 can sequester c-Jun in the nucleoplasm, indicating that the stoichiometric ratio of heterodimeric partners regulates c-Jun nucleolar targeting. Finally, nucleolar localization of c-Jun modulates nucleolar architecture and ribosomal RNA accumulation. These studies highlight a novel role for Jun family proteins in the nucleolus, having potential implications for a diverse array of AP-1-regulated cellular processes.

Defining Epidermal Basal Cell States during Skin Homeostasis and Wound Healing Using Single-Cell Transcriptomics

Our knowledge of transcriptional heterogeneities in epithelial stem and progenitor cell compartments is limited. Epidermal basal cells sustain cutaneous tissue maintenance and drive wound healing. Previous studies have probed basal cell heterogeneity in stem and progenitor potential, but a comprehensive dissection of basal cell dynamics during differentiation is lacking. Using single-cell RNA sequencing coupled with RNAScope and fluorescence lifetime imaging, we identify three non-proliferative and one proliferative basal cell state in homeostatic skin that differ in metabolic preference and become spatially partitioned during wound re-epithelialization. Pseudotemporal trajectory and RNA velocity analyses predict a quasi-linear differentiation hierarchy where basal cells progress from Col17a1^Hi/Trp63^Hi state to early-response state, proliferate at the juncture of these two states, or become growth arrested before differentiating into spinous cells. Wound healing induces plasticity manifested by dynamic basal-spinous interconversions at multiple basal transcriptional states. Our study provides a systematic view of epidermal cellular dynamics, supporting a revised “hierarchical-lineage” model of homeostasis.

Haensel et al. performed a comprehensive dissection of the cellular makeup of skin during homeostasis and wound healing and the molecular heterogeneity and cellular dynamics within its stem-cell-containing epidermal basal layer. Their work provides insights and stimulates further investigation into the mechanism of skin maintenance and repair.

Transcriptional and signalling regulation of skin epithelial stem cells in homeostasis, wounds and cancer

The epidermis and skin appendages are maintained by their resident epithelial stem cells, which undergo long-term self-renewal and multilineage differentiation. Upon injury, stem cells are activated to mediate re-epithelialization and restore tissue function. During this process, they often mount lineage plasticity and expand their fates in response to damage signals. Stem cell function is tightly controlled by transcription machineries and signalling transductions, many of which derail in degenerative, inflammatory and malignant dermatologic diseases. Here, by describing both well-characterized and newly emerged pathways, we discuss the transcriptional and signalling mechanisms governing skin epithelial homeostasis, wound repair and squamous cancer. Throughout, we highlight common themes underscoring epithelial stem cell plasticity and tissue-level crosstalk in the context of skin physiology and pathology.

A Double Edged Sword Role of Interleukin-22 in Wound Healing and Tissue Regeneration

Wound healing and tissue regeneration is an intricate biological process that involves repair of cellular damage and maintenance of tissue integrity. Cascades involved in wound healing and tissue regeneration highly overlap with cancer causing pathways. Usually, subsequent tissue damage events include release of a number of cytokines to accomplish post-trauma restoration. IL-22 is one of the cytokines that are immediately produced to initiate immune response against several tissue impairments. IL-22 is a fundamental mediator in inflammation, mucous production, protective role against pathogens, wound healing, and tissue regeneration. However, accumulating evidence suggests pivotal role of IL-22 in instigation of various cancers due to its pro-inflammatory and tissue repairing activity. In this review, we summarize how healing effects of IL-22, when executed in an uncontrollable fashion can lead to carcinogenesis.

Deciphering the Molecular Landscape of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma for Better Diagnosis and Treatment

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a common type of neoplasia, representing a terrible burden on patients' life and clinical management. Although it seldom metastasizes, and most cases can be effectively treated with surgical intervention, once metastatic cSCC displays considerable aggressiveness leading to the death of affected individuals. No consensus has been reached as to which features better characterize the aggressive behavior of cSCC, an achievement hindered by the high mutational burden caused by chronic ultraviolet light exposure. Even though some subtypes have been recognized as high risk variants, depending on certain tumor features, cSCC that are normally thought of as low risk could pose an increased danger to the patients. In light of this, specific genetic and epigenetic markers for cutaneous SCC, which could serve as reliable diagnostic markers and possible targets for novel treatment development, have been searched for. This review aims to give an overview of the mutational landscape of cSCC, pointing out established biomarkers, as well as novel candidates, and future possible molecular therapies for cSCC.

Genome-Wide Tiling Array Analysis of HPV-Induced Warts Reveals Aberrant Methylation of Protein-Coding and Non-Coding Regions

The human papillomaviruses (HPV) are a group of double-stranded DNA viruses that exhibit an exclusive tropism for squamous epithelia. HPV can either be low- or high-risk depending on its ability to cause benign lesions or cancer, respectively. Unsurprisingly, the majority of epigenetic research has focused on the high-risk HPV types, neglecting the low-risk types in the process. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to better understand the epigenetics of wart formation by investigating the differences in methylation between HPV-induced cutaneous warts and normal skin. A number of clear and very significant differences in methylation patterns were found between cutaneous warts and normal skin. Around 55% of the top-ranking 100 differentially methylated genes in warts were protein coding, including the EXOC4, KCNU, RTN1, LGI1, IRF2, and NRG1 genes. Additionally, non-coding RNA genes, such as the AZIN1-AS1, LINC02008, and MGC27382 genes, constituted 11% of the top-ranking 100 differentially methylated genes. Warts exhibited a unique pattern of methylation that is a possible explanation for their transient nature. Since the genetics of cutaneous wart formation are not completely known, the findings of the present study could contribute to a better understanding of how HPV infection modulates host methylation to give rise to warts in the skin.

Potential anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of TNF-α processing inhibitor-1 (TAPI-1): A new approach to the treatment of S. aureus arthritis

Treatment of septic arthritis has become more challenging due to the rise of multidrug resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in recent years. Failure of antibiotic therapies has compelled to initiate the search for new alternatives. This study aimed to unveil the potential anti-arthritic effects of TAPI-1 (TNF-α processing inhibitor-1), an inhibitor that inhibits TACE (TNF-α converting enzyme) mediated release of soluble TNF-α and its receptors along with attenuation of other inflammatory and joint destructive factors responsible for the progression of arthritis. Male Swiss albino mice were inoculated with live S. aureus (5 × 10⁶ cells/mouse) for the development of septic arthritis. TAPI-1 was administered intraperitoneally (10 mg/kg body weight) post S. aureus infection at regular intervals. Throughout the experiment, the severity of arthritis was obtained to be significantly low after TAPI-1 administration. Arthritis index and histopathology confirmed effectiveness of TAPI-1 in mitigating inflammation induced paw swelling and less bone-cartilage destruction in the arthritic knee joints. Lower levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor alpha (sTNF-α) and soluble tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor-1 (sTNFR-1) were detected in the TAPI-1 treated group suggesting TAPI-1 mediated blocking of TACE with subsequent inhibition of TNF-α signalling. Treatment with TAPI-1 lowered the levels of reactive species; matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) and osteopontin (OPN) denoting less matrix degradation and less osteoclastic bone resorption. Together, this experimental work authenticates TAPI-1 as an alternative therapeutic intervention for the treatment of S. aureus arthritis.

Myricetin inhibits migration and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma MHCC97H cell line by inhibiting the EMT process

The recurrence and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are a major concern in current research. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the leading cause underlying the high mobility and invasiveness of tumor cells. Myricetin is a natural flavonol with various pharmacological activities. The effects of myricetin on the migration and invasion of HCC MHCC97H cells were evaluated in the present study. Wound healing, Transwell migration and invasion assays were used to examine cell migration and invasion. Western blot analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) were used to examine the expression of epithelial (E)-cadherin, neural (N)-cadherin and vimentin. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of myricetin on the migration and invasion of HCC MHCC97H cells. It was indicated that myricetin decreased the viability of MHCC97H cells in a concentration and time-dependent manner, and inhibited MHCC97H cells migration and invasion. As the concentration of myricetin increased, filopodia and lamellipodia in cells weakened and cells were arranged more closely. RT-qPCR and western blotting revealed that myricetin upregulated E-cadherin expression and downregulated N-cadherin. Collectively, the results of the present study demonstrate that myricetin may inhibit the migration and invasion of HCC MHCC97H cells by inhibiting the EMT process.

Identification of key gene modules and transcription factors for human osteoarthritis by weighted gene co-expression network analysis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most prevalent causes of joint disease. However, the pathological mechanisms of OA have remained to be completely elucidated, and further investigation into the underlying mechanisms of OA development and the identification of novel therapeutic targets are urgently required. In the present study, the dataset GSE114007 was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Based on weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and the identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), the microarray data were further analyzed to identify hub genes, key transcription factors (TFs) and pivotal signaling pathways involved in the pathogenesis of OA. A total of 1,898 genes were identified to be differentially expressed between OA samples and normal samples. Based on WGCNA, the present study identified 5 hub modules closely associated with OA, and the potential key TFs for hub modules were further explored based on CisTargetX. The results demonstrated that B-Cell Lymphoma 6, Myelin Gene Expression Factor 2, Activating Transcription Factor 3, CCAAT Enhancer Binding Protein γ, Nuclear Factor Interleukin-3-Regulated, FOS Like Antigen-2, FOS-Like Antigen-1, Fos Proto-Oncogene, JunD Proto-Oncogene, Transcription Factor CP2 Like 1, RELA proto-oncogene NF-kB subunit, SRY-box transcription factor 3, V-Ets Avian Erythroblastosis Virus E26 Oncogene Homolog 2, Interferon Regulatory Factor 4 and REL proto-oncogene, NF-kB subunit were the potential key TFs. In addition, osteoclast differentiation, FoxO, MAPK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways were revealed to be imperative for the pathogenesis of OA, as these 4 pivotal signaling pathways were observed to be tightly linked through 4 key TFs Fos Proto-Oncogene, JUN, JunD Proto-Oncogene and MYC, and 4 DEGs Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A, Growth Arrest and DNA Damage Inducible α, Growth Arrest and DNA Damage Inducible β and Cyclin D1. The present study identified a set of potential key genes and signaling pathways, and provided an important opportunity to advance the current understanding of OA.

Translation regulation in skin cancer from a tRNA point of view

Protein synthesis is a central and dynamic process, frequently deregulated in cancer through aberrant activation or expression of translation initiation factors and tRNAs. The discovery of tRNA-derived fragments, a new class of abundant and, in some cases stress-induced, small Noncoding RNAs has perplexed the epigenomics landscape and highlights the emerging regulatory role of tRNAs in translation and beyond. Skin is the biggest organ in human body, which maintains homeostasis of its multilayers through regulatory networks that induce translational reprogramming, and modulate tRNA transcription, modification and fragmentation, in response to various stress signals, like UV irradiation. In this review, we summarize recent knowledge on the role of translation regulation and tRNA biology in the alarming prevalence of skin cancer.

The genomic landscape of cutaneous SCC reveals drivers and a novel azathioprine associated mutational signature

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) has a high tumour mutational burden (50 mutations per megabase DNA pair). Here, we combine whole-exome analyses from 40 primary cSCC tumours, comprising 20 well-differentiated and 20 moderately/poorly differentiated tumours, with accompanying clinical data from a longitudinal study of immunosuppressed and immunocompetent patients and integrate this analysis with independent gene expression studies. We identify commonly mutated genes, copy number changes and altered pathways and processes. Comparisons with tumour differentiation status suggest events which may drive disease progression. Mutational signature analysis reveals the presence of a novel signature (signature 32), whose incidence correlates with chronic exposure to the immunosuppressive drug azathioprine. Characterisation of a panel of 15 cSCC tumour-derived cell lines reveals that they accurately reflect the mutational signatures and genomic alterations of primary tumours and provide a valuable resource for the validation of tumour drivers and therapeutic targets.

ST2/IL-33 signaling promotes malignant development of experimental squamous cell carcinoma by decreasing NK cells cytotoxicity and modulating the intratumoral cell infiltrate

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the second most common form of skin cancer and the mechanism(s) involved in the progression of this tumor are unknown. Increases in the expression of IL-33/ST2 axis components have been demonstrated to contribute to neoplastic transformation in several tumor models and interleukin-33 is correlated with poor prognosis of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. Based on these observations, we sought to determine the role of the IL-33/ST2 pathway during the development of SCC. Our findings show that ST2-deficiency led to a marked decrease in the severity of skin lesions, suggesting that ST2 signaling contributed to tumor development. An analysis of tumor lesions in wild-type and ST2KO mice revealed that a lack of ST2 was associated with specific and significant reductions in the numbers of CD4⁺ T cells, CD8⁺ T cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. In addition, NK cells that were isolated from ST2KO mice exhibited higher cytotoxic activity than cells isolated from wild-type mice. Notably, ST2 deficiency resulted in lower IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-10, and IL-17 production in tumor samples. Our findings indicate that the IL-33/ST2 pathway contributes to the development of SCC by affecting leukocyte migration to tumor microenvironment and impairing NK cytotoxic activity.

Increased S100A15 expression and decreased DNA methylation of its gene promoter are involved in high metastasis potential and poor outcome of lung adenocarcinoma

Purpose

This study aims to determine the functional role of S100A15 and its promoter DNA methylation patterns in lung cancer progression.

Experimental Design

We analyzed 178 formalin-fixed paraffin embedded specimens from lung cancer patients, including 24 early stage and 91 advanced stage adenocarcinoma. S100A15 protein expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry stain, and its DNA methylation levels were measured by pyrosequencing.

Results

S100A15 nuclear staining was increased in lung adenocarcinoma patients with distant metastasis versus those without distant metastasis. There was reduced one/three-year overall survival in adenocarcinoma patients receiving first line target therapy and harboring high nuclear expressions of S100A15. Both DNA methylation levels over -423 and -248 CpG sites of the S100A15 gene promoter were decreased in adenocarcinoma patients with distant metastasis, and the former was associated with lower one-year overall survival. The highly invasive CL1-5 cell lines display decreased DNA methylation over −412/−248/−56 CpG sites of the S100A15 gene promoter and increased S100A15 gene/protein expressions as compared with the less invasive CL1-0 cell lines. Knockdown of S100A15 in CL1-5 cell line inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, while over-expression of S100A15 in CL1-0 cell line promoted cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. RNA sequencing analysis revealed potential biological effects of S100A15 over-expression and knock-down with CTNNB1, ZEB1, CDC42, HSP90AA1, BST2, and PCNA being the pivotal down-stream mediators.

Conclusions

Increased S100A15 expression and decreased DNA methylation of its gene promoter region were associated with high metastasis potential and poor outcome in lung adenocarcinoma, probably through triggering CTNNB1 -centered pathways.

IL27 controls skin tumorigenesis via accumulation of ETAR-positive CD11b cells in the pre-malignant skin

Establishment of a permissive pre-malignant niche in concert with mutant stem are key triggers to initiate skin carcinogenesis. An understudied area of research is finding upstream regulators of both these triggers. IL27, a pleiotropic cytokine with both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties, was found to be a key regulator of both. Two step skin carcinogenesis model and K15-KRAS^G12D mouse model were used to understand the role of IL27 in skin tumors. CD11b^−/− mice and small-molecule of ETAR signaling (ZD4054) inhibitor were used in vivo to understand mechanistically how IL27 promotes skin carcinogenesis. Interestingly, using in vivo studies, IL27 promoted papilloma incidence primarily through IL27 signaling in bone-marrow derived cells. Mechanistically, IL27 initiated the establishment of the pre-malignant niche and expansion of mutated stem cells in K15-KRAS^G12D mouse model by driving the accumulation of Endothelin A receptor (ETAR)-positive CD11b cells in the skin—a novel category of pro-tumor inflammatory identified in this study. These findings are clinically relevant, as the number of IL27RA-positive cells in the stroma is highly related to tumor de-differentiation in patients with squamous cell carcinomas.

Suppression of skin tumorigenesis in CD109-deficient mice

CD109 is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored glycoprotein that is highly expressed in several types of human cancers, particularly squamous cell carcinomas. We previously reported that CD109-deficient mice exhibit epidermal hyperplasia and chronic skin inflammation. Although we found that CD109 regulates differentiation of keratinocytes in vivo, the function of CD109 in tumorigenesis remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the role of CD109 in skin tumorigenesis using a two-stage carcinogenesis model in CD109-deficient mice with chronic skin inflammation. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed a higher level of TGF-β protein expression in the dermis of CD109-deficient mice than in that of wild-type mice. Additionally, immunofluorescence analysis showed that Smad2 phosphorylation and Nrf2 expression were enhanced in primary keratinocytes from CD109-deficient mice compared with in those from wild-type mice. Although no significant difference was found in conversion rates from papilloma to carcinoma between wild-type and CD109-deficient mice in the carcinogenesis model, we observed fewer and smaller papillomas in CD109-deficient mice than in wild-type mice. Apoptosis and DNA damage marker levels were significantly reduced in CD109-deficient skin compared with in wild-type skin at 24 h after 7, 12-dimethylbenz (α) anthracene treatment. Furthermore, mutation-specific PCR revealed that the mutation frequency of the H-ras gene was less in CD109-deficient skin than in wild-type skin in this model. These results suggest that CD109 deficiency suppresses skin tumorigenesis by enhancing TGF-β/Smad/Nrf2 pathway activity and decreasing the mutation frequency of the H-ras gene.

c-Fos mediates α1, 2-fucosyltransferase 1 and Lewis y expression in response to TGF-β1 in ovarian cancer

FUT1 is a key rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of Lewis y, a membrane-associated carbohydrate antigen. The aberrant upregulation of FUT1 and Lewis y antigen is related to proliferation, invasion and prognosis in malignant epithelial tumors. A c-Fos/activator protein-1 (AP-1) binding site was found in the FUT1 promoter. However, the mechanisms of transcriptional regulation of FUT1 remain poorly understood. TGF-β1 is positively correlated to Lewis y. In the present study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of FUT1 gene expression in response to TGF-β1. We demonstrated that c-Fos was highly expressed in 77.50% of ovarian epithelial carcinoma cases and was significantly correlated with Lewis y. Using luciferase activity and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay, we further revealed that c-Fos interacted with the FUT1 promoter in ovarian cancer cells and transcriptional capacity of the heterodimer formed by c-Fos and c-Jun was stronger than that of the c-Fos or c-Jun homodimers. Then, we demonstrated that TGF-β1 induced dose-dependent c-Fos expression, which was involved in TGF-β1-induced ovarian cancer cell proliferation. In addition, inhibition of MAPK activation or TGF-β1 receptor by pharmacological agents prevented TGF-β1-induced c-Fos and Lewis y expression. Silencing of c-Fos prevented TGF-β1-induced Lewis y expression. Collectively, the results of these studies demonstrated that TGF-β1 regulated FUT1 and Lewis y expression by activating the MAPK/c-Fos pathway.

Marketed drugs used for the management of hypercholesterolemia as anticancer armament

The design of novel pharmacologic agents as well as their approval for sale in markets all over the world is a tedious and pricey process. Inevitably, oncologic patients commonly experience unwanted effects of new anticancer drugs, while the acquisition of clinical experience for these drugs is largely based on doctor–patient partnership which is not always effective. The repositioning of marketed non-antineoplastic drugs that hopefully exhibit anticancer properties into the field of oncology is a challenging option that gains ground and attracts preclinical and clinical research in an effort to override all these hindrances and minimize the risk for reduced efficacy and/or personalized toxicity. This review aims to present the anticancer properties of drugs used for the management of hypercholesterolemia. A global view of the antitumorigenicity of all marketed antihypercholesterolemic drugs is of major importance, given that atherosclerosis, which is etiologically linked to hypercholesterolemia, is a leading worldwide cause of morbidity and mortality, while hypercholesterolemia and tumorigenesis are known to be interrelated. In vitro, in vivo and clinical literature data accumulated so far outline the mechanistic basis of the antitumor function of these agents and how they could find application at the clinical setting.

Liver carcinogenesis by FOS-dependent inflammation and cholesterol dysregulation

Hepatocellular cancers arise in a background of liver damage and inflammation. Bakiri et al. describe the function of the transcription factor c-Fos/AP-1 using mouse models and human data. c-Fos affects cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and induces DNA damage and inflammation, thus promoting liver cancer.

Human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs), which arise on a background of chronic liver damage and inflammation, express c-Fos, a component of the AP-1 transcription factor. Using mouse models, we show that hepatocyte-specific deletion of c-Fos protects against diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCCs, whereas liver-specific c-Fos expression leads to reversible premalignant hepatocyte transformation and enhanced DEN-carcinogenesis. c-Fos–expressing livers display necrotic foci, immune cell infiltration, and altered hepatocyte morphology. Furthermore, increased proliferation, dedifferentiation, activation of the DNA damage response, and gene signatures of aggressive HCCs are observed. Mechanistically, c-Fos decreases expression and activity of the nuclear receptor LXRα, leading to increased hepatic cholesterol and accumulation of toxic oxysterols and bile acids. The phenotypic consequences of c-Fos expression are partially ameliorated by the anti-inflammatory drug sulindac and largely prevented by statin treatment. An inverse correlation between c-FOS and the LXRα pathway was also observed in human HCC cell lines and datasets. These findings provide a novel link between chronic inflammation and metabolic pathways important in liver cancer.

TRAF1 Is Critical for DMBA/Solar UVR-Induced Skin Carcinogenesis

TRAF1 is a member of the TRAF protein family, which regulates the canonical and noncanonical NF-κB signaling cascades. Although aberrant TRAF1 expression in tumors has been reported, the role of TRAF1 remains elusive. Here, we report that TRAF1 is required for solar UV-induced skin carcinogenesis. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that TRAF1 expression is up-regulated in human actinic keratosis and squamous cell carcinoma. In vivo studies indicated that TRAF1 expression levels in mouse skin are induced by short-term solar UV irradiation, and a long-term skin carcinogenesis study showed that deletion of TRAF1 in mice results in a significant inhibition of skin tumor formation. Moreover, we show that TRAF1 is required for solar UV-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase-5 (ERK5) phosphorylation and the expression of AP-1 family members (c-Fos/c-Jun). Mechanistic studies showed that TRAF1 expression enhances the ubiquitination of ERK5 on lysine 184, which is necessary for its kinase activity and AP-1 activation. Overall, our results suggest that TRAF1 mediates ERK5 activity by regulating the upstream effectors of ERK5 and also by modulating its ubiquitination status. Targeting TRAF1 function might lead to strategies for preventing and treating skin cancer.

Interleukin-22 and Cyclosporine in Aggressive Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) account for up to 10,000 deaths annually in the United States. Most of the more than 700,000 SCCs diagnosed are cured by excision with clear margins; however, metastasis can occur despite seemingly adequate treatment in some cases. Immune-suppressed organ transplant recipients are 60 to 100 times more likely to develop SCC than immune-competent individuals. Transplant-associated SCCs occur more frequently and behave more aggressively, showing higher risk of recurrence and metastasis. This article identifies a potential role for interleukin-22 in driving SCC proliferation, particularly in solid organ transplant recipients taking cyclosporine.

Role of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Photoaging and Photocarcinogenesis

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-containing endopeptidases with an extensive range of substrate specificities. Collectively, these enzymes are able to degrade various components of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Based on their structure and substrate specificity, they can be categorized into five main subgroups, namely (1) collagenases (MMP-1, MMP-8 and MMP-13); (2) gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9); (3) stromelysins (MMP-3, MMP-10 and MMP-11); (4) matrilysins (MMP-7 and MMP-26); and (5) membrane-type (MT) MMPs (MMP-14, MMP-15, and MMP-16). The alterations made to the ECM by MMPs might contribute in skin wrinkling, a characteristic of premature skin aging. In photocarcinogenesis, degradation of ECM is the initial step towards tumor cell invasion, to invade both the basement membrane and the surrounding stroma that mainly comprises fibrillar collagens. Additionally, MMPs are involved in angiogenesis, which promotes cancer cell growth and migration. In this review, we focus on the present knowledge about premature skin aging and skin cancers such as basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma, with our main focus on members of the MMP family and their functions.

Tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxyl-thymopentin: a nano-conjugate for releasing pharmacophores to treat tumor and complications

To improve the therapeutic efficacy of cancer patients a novel conjugate of thymopentin (TP5) and (1S,3S)-1-methyl-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTC) was presented. In water and mouse plasma MTCTP5 forms the nanoparticles of 14-139 nm in diameter, the suitable size for delivery in blood circulation. In mouse plasma MTCTP5 releases MTC, while in the presence of trypsin MTCTP5 releases MTC and TP5. On mouse and rat models the MTCTP5 dose dependently slows down the tumor growth, inhibits inflammatory response and blocks thrombosis. The anti-tumor activity as well as the anti-inflammation activity and anti-thrombotic activity of MTCTP5 are 100 fold and 10 fold higher than those of MTC, respectively, which are attributed to the fact that it down-regulates the plasma levels of TNF-α and IL-8 of the treated animals. The immunology enhancing activities in vitro and in vivo of MTCTP5 are similar to those of TP5, which is attributed to the fact that MTCTP5 up-regulates the plasma levels of IL-2 and CD4 as well as down-regulates the plasma level of CD8 of the treated animals. The plasma alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase and creatinine assays indicate that MTCTP5 therapy does not injure the liver and the kidney of the animals. The survival time of MTCTP5 treated mice is significantly longer than that of TP5 treated mice.

ETS family transcriptional regulators drive chromatin dynamics and malignancy in squamous cell carcinomas

Tumor-initiating stem cells (SCs) exhibit distinct patterns of transcription factors and gene expression compared to healthy counterparts. Here, we show that dramatic shifts in large open-chromatin domain (super-enhancer) landscapes underlie these differences and reflect tumor microenvironment. By in vivo super-enhancer and transcriptional profiling, we uncover a dynamic cancer-specific epigenetic network selectively enriched for binding motifs of a transcription factor cohort expressed in squamous cell carcinoma SCs (SCC-SCs). Many of their genes, including Ets2 and Elk3, are themselves regulated by SCC-SC super-enhancers suggesting a cooperative feed-forward loop. Malignant progression requires these genes, whose knockdown severely impairs tumor growth and prohibits progression from benign papillomas to SCCs. ETS2-deficiency disrupts the SCC-SC super-enhancer landscape and downstream cancer genes while ETS2-overactivation in epidermal-SCs induces hyperproliferation and SCC super-enhancer-associated genes Fos, Junb and Klf5. Together, our findings unearth an essential regulatory network required for the SCC-SC chromatin landscape and unveil its importance in malignant progression.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10870.001

Many cancers contain a mixture of different types of cells. Of these, cells known as cancer stem cells can form new tumours and drive the growth and spread of the cancer around the body. A central question is how cancer stem cells differ from healthy adult stem cells. Recent evidence suggests that, in addition to having genetic mutations, cancer stem cells live in a very different environment to other cells within the tumour. This 'microenvironment'also has a major impact on how these cells behave compared to normal stem cells. Together, the genetic and environmental differences profoundly change the way genes are expressed in the cancer cells.

In 2013, a group of researchers identified regions of DNA called super-enhancers. These regions are long stretches of DNA that proteins called transcription factors can interact with to coordinate the expression of nearby genes to alter the production of certain proteins. Super-enhancers contain several transcription factor-binding sites that are close to each other with the different sites being associated with transcription factors that are only active in specific types of cells. Furthermore, super-enhancers are often self-regulatory, meaning that the binding of transcription factors to a super-enhancer can lead to an increase in the expression of the genes that encode the same transcription factors.

Yang, Schramek et al. have now identified the super-enhancers in a skin cancer called squamous cell carcinoma and showed that they differ dramatically from the super-enhancers of normal skin stem cells. Their experiments show that the active super-enhancers in cancer stem cells are associated with a very different set of genes that are highly and often specifically expressed in cancer stem cells. In the cancer stem cells, a transcription factor called ETS2 binds to the super-enhancers and reprograms the expression of genes to promote the development of cancer. Yang, Schramek et al. also show that over-active ETS2 is a major driver of squamous cell carcinoma. Furthermore, ETS2 also increases the expression of genes that cause inflammation and promote the growth of cancers.

Yang, Schramek et al.’s findings reveal a new regulatory network that governs the expression of genes involved in cancer. Furthermore, the experiments show that high levels of ETS2 are linked with poor outcomes for patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, which is one of the most life-threatening cancers world-wide. In the future, these findings might lead to the development of new therapies to treat these cancers.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10870.002

Langerhans Cells Facilitate UVB-Induced Epidermal Carcinogenesis

UVB light is considered the major environmental inducer of human keratinocyte (KC) DNA mutations, including within the tumor-suppressor gene p53, and chronic exposure is associated with cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma formation. Langerhans cells (LCs) comprise a dendritic network within the suprabasilar epidermis, yet the role of LCs in UVB-induced carcinogenesis is largely unknown. Herein we show that LC-intact epidermis develops UVB-induced tumors more readily than LC-deficient epidermis. Although levels of epidermal cyclopyrimidine dimers following acute UVB exposure are equivalent in the presence or absence of LCs, chronic UVB-induced p53 mutant clonal islands expand more readily in association with LCs, which remain largely intact and are preferentially found in proximity to the expanding mutant KC populations. The observed LC facilitation of mutant p53 clonal expansion is completely αβ and γδ T-cell independent and is associated with increased intraepidermal expression of IL-22 and the presence of group 3 innate lymphoid cells. These data demonstrate that LCs have a key role in UVB-induced cutaneous carcinogenesis and suggest that LCs locally stimulate KC proliferation and innate immune cells that provoke tumor outgrowth.

Genome-wide association between YAP/TAZ/TEAD and AP-1 at enhancers drives oncogenic growth

YAP/TAZ are nuclear effectors of the Hippo pathway regulating organ growth and tumorigenesis. Yet, their function as transcriptional regulators remains underinvestigated. By ChIP-seq analyses in breast cancer cells, we discovered that the YAP/TAZ transcriptional response is pervasively mediated by a dual element: TEAD factors, through which YAP/TAZ bind to DNA, co-occupying chromatin with activator protein-1 (AP-1, dimer of JUN and FOS proteins) at composite cis-regulatory elements harbouring both TEAD and AP-1 motifs. YAP/TAZ/TEAD and AP-1 form a complex that synergistically activates target genes directly involved in the control of S-phase entry and mitosis. This control occurs almost exclusively from distal enhancers that contact target promoters through chromatin looping. YAP/TAZ-induced oncogenic growth is strongly enhanced by gain of AP-1 and severely blunted by its loss. Conversely, AP-1-promoted skin tumorigenesis is prevented in YAP/TAZ conditional knockout mice. This work highlights a new layer of signalling integration, feeding on YAP/TAZ function at the chromatin level.

Matrix metalloproteinase 10 contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis in a novel crosstalk with the stromal derived factor 1/C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 axis

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) participate in tissue repair after acute injury, but also participate in cancer by promoting a protumorigenic microenvironment. Previously, we reported on a key role for MMP10 in mouse liver regeneration. Herein, we investigated MMP10 expression and function in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced mouse hepatocarcinogenesis. MMP10 was induced in human and murine HCC tissues and cells. MMP10-deficient mice showed less HCC incidence, smaller histological lesions, reduced tumor vascularization, and less lung metastases. Importantly, expression of the protumorigenic, C-X-C chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR4), was reduced in DEN-induced MMP10-deficient mice livers. Human HCC cells stably expressing MMP10 had increased CXCR4 expression and migratory capacity. Pharmacological inhibition of CXCR4 significantly reduced MMP10-stimulated HCC cell migration. Furthermore, MMP10 expression in HCC cells was induced by hypoxia and the CXCR4 ligand, stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF1), through the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 pathway, involving an activator protein 1 site in MMP10 gene promoter.

CONCLUSION

MMP10 contributes to HCC development, participating in tumor angiogenesis, growth, and dissemination. We identified a new reciprocal crosstalk between MMP10 and the CXCR4/SDF1 axis contributing to HCC progression and metastasis. To our knowledge, this is the first report addressing the role of a MMP in hepatocarcinogenesis in the corresponding genetic mouse model.

Age-associated inflammation connects RAS-induced senescence to stem cell dysfunction and epidermal malignancy

Aging is the single biggest risk factor for malignant transformation. Among the most common age-associated malignancies are non-melanoma skin cancers, comprising the most common types of human cancer. Here we show that mutant H-Ras activation in mouse epidermis, a frequent event in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), elicits a differential outcome in aged versus young mice. Whereas H-Ras activation in the young skin results in hyperplasia that is mainly accompanied by rapid hair growth, H-Ras activation in the aged skin results in more dysplasia and gradual progression to in situ SCC. Progression is associated with increased inflammation, pronounced accumulation of immune cells including T cells, macrophages and mast cells as well as excessive cell senescence. We found not only an age-dependent increase in expression of several pro-inflammatory mediators, but also activation of a strong anti-inflammatory response involving enhanced IL4/IL10 expression and immune skewing toward a Th2 response. In addition, we observed an age-dependent increase in the expression of Pdl1, encoding an immune suppressive ligand that promotes cancer immune evasion. Moreover, upon switching off oncogenic H-Ras activity, young but not aged skin regenerates successfully, suggesting a failure of the aged epidermal stem cells to repair damaged tissue. Our findings support an age-dependent link between accumulation of senescent cells, immune infiltration and cancer progression, which may contribute to the increased cancer risk associated with old age.

Expression of c-fos was associated with clinicopathologic characteristics and prognosis in pancreatic cancer

It has long been regarded that pancreatic cancer (PC) is a life-threatening malignant tumor. Thus, much attention has been paid for factors, especially relative molecules, predictive for prognosis of PC. However, c-fos expression in PC was less investigated. In addition, its association with clinicopathologic variables and prognosis remains unknown. In the present study, expression of c-fos was detected by tissue microarray-based immunohistochemical staining in cancer and adjacent tissues from 333 patients with PC. The staining results were correlated with clinicopathologic parameters and overall survival. Furthermore, prognostic significance of c-fos in subsets of PC was also evaluated. It was shown that low expression of c-fos was more often in cancer than in adjacent tissues of PC (P<0.001). Besides, high cancerous c-fos expression was significantly associated with tumor site and T stage, whereas peri-neural invasion was of a borderline significant relevance. Log-rank test revealed that high expression of c-fos in cancer tissues was a significant marker of poor overall survival, accompanied by some conventional clinicopathologic variables, such as sex, grade, peri-neural invasion, T and N stages. More importantly, cancerous c-fos expression was identified as an independent prognosticator in multivariate analysis. Finally, the prognostic implication of c-fos expression was proven in four subsets of patients with PC. These data suggested that c-fos expression was of relationships with progression and dismal prognosis of PC.

Distinct effects of anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic drugs on cancer characteristics at diagnosis

BACKGROUND

A previous study showed that regular use of low-dose aspirin was associated with smaller tumour size and fewer metastases for colorectal and lung cancer. We aim to explain these distinct effects in terms of the anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic properties of aspirin.

METHODS

From the Swedish Cancer Register, we identified patients diagnosed with colorectal and lung cancers between 1st October 2006 and 31st December 2009; each cancer was assessed in terms of tumour size/extent (T), lymph-node (N) and metastatic (M) status. Linkage with the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register was performed to obtain information on the use of low-dose aspirin, anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic drugs prior to cancer diagnosis.

RESULTS

We identified 14,743 individuals with colorectal cancer and 5888 with lung cancer. For low-dose aspirin users we observed a statistically significant association with smaller tumour size and fewer metastases. For both cancers, the use of non-aspirin anti-inflammatory drugs was associated with smaller tumour size in all categories T2-T4 odds ratio (OR = 0.76, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.63-0.92 for T2 versus T1 in colorectal cancer), but not with metastatic status (OR = 0.94, 95% CI 0.84-1.06 in colorectal cancer). In contrast, anti-thrombotic drug use was associated with fewer metastases, but not with tumour categories T2 and T3.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that the use of anti-inflammatories is associated with tumour-growth inhibition at the primary site, while the use of anti-thrombotics is associated with restriction of cancer-cell metastasising capability. These have clinical implications on the potential use of these drugs for chemoprevention or chemotherapy.

Terminal epidermal differentiation is regulated by the interaction of Fra-2/AP-1 with Ezh2 and ERK1/2

Wurm et al. identified Fra-2/AP-1 as a key regulator of terminal epidermal differentiation. Loss of Fra-2 in suprabasal keratinocytes is sufficient to cause skin barrier defects due to reduced expression of differentiation genes. The induction of epidermal differentiation by Fra-2 is controlled by a dual mechanism involving Ezh2-dependent methylation and activation by ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation.

Altered epidermal differentiation characterizes numerous skin diseases affecting >25% of the human population. Here we identified Fra-2/AP-1 as a key regulator of terminal epidermal differentiation. Epithelial-restricted, ectopic expression of Fra-2 induced expression of epidermal differentiation genes located within the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC). Moreover, in a papilloma-prone background, a reduced tumor burden was observed due to precocious keratinocyte differentiation by Fra-2 expression. Importantly, loss of Fra-2 in suprabasal keratinocytes is sufficient to cause skin barrier defects due to reduced expression of differentiation genes. Mechanistically, Fra-2 binds and transcriptionally regulates EDC gene promoters, which are co-occupied by the transcriptional repressor Ezh2. Fra-2 remains transcriptionally inactive in nondifferentiated keratinocytes, where it was found monomethylated and dimethylated on Lys104 and interacted with Ezh2. Upon keratinocyte differentiation, Fra-2 is C-terminally phosphorylated on Ser320 and Thr322 by ERK1/2, leading to transcriptional activation. Thus, the induction of epidermal differentiation by Fra-2 is controlled by a dual mechanism involving Ezh2-dependent methylation and activation by ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation.

The role of the IL-22/IL-22R1 axis in cancer

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is an IL-10 family cytokine produced by T cells and innate lymphoid cells. The IL-22 signaling pathway orchestrates mucosal immune defense and tissue regeneration through pleiotropic effects including pro-survival signaling, cell migration, dysplasia and angiogenesis. While these functions can prevent initial establishment of tumors, they can also be hijacked by aggressive cancers to enhance tumor growth and metastasis. Thus, the role of the IL-22/IL-22R1 axis in cancer is complex and context-specific. Evidence of IL-22 involvement manifests as dysregulation of IL-22 expression and signaling in patients with many common cancers including those of the gut, skin, lung and liver. Unlike other cancer-associated cytokines, IL-22 has restricted tissue specificity as its unique receptor IL-22R1 is exclusively expressed on epithelial and tissue cells, but not immune cells. This makes it an attractive target for therapy as there is potential achieve anti-tumor immunity with fewer side effects. This review summarizes current findings on functions of IL-22 in association with general mechanisms for tumorigenesis as well as specific contributions to particular cancers, and ponders how best to approach further research in the field.

Fos-dependent induction of Chk1 protects osteoblasts from replication stress

Stable Fos expression in the osteoblast lineage results in the development of osteosarcomas (OS) in mice, yet the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Using a genetic system in which Fos expression can be induced in osteoblasts in a doxycycline-dependent manner and through subsequent RNA sequencing and gene set enrichment analysis, we were able to identify novel transcriptional targets of Fos in osteoblasts. These included a distinct activation of cellular response toward replication stress (RS), exemplified by a Fos-dependent induction of the RS-suppressing Chk1 kinase. Importantly, Fos expression protects osteoblasts from RS and DNA damage likely through upregulation of Chk1 and facilitates transformation by Ras/E1A oncogenes. These data reveal a novel function of Fos in safeguarding genome stability during replication, which is particularly relevant in conditions of oncogene-induced S-phase entry.

Mechanisms regulating skin immunity and inflammation

Immune responses in the skin are important for host defence against pathogenic microorganisms. However, dysregulated immune reactions can cause chronic inflammatory skin diseases. Extensive crosstalk between the different cellular and microbial components of the skin regulates local immune responses to ensure efficient host defence, to maintain and restore homeostasis, and to prevent chronic disease. In this Review, we discuss recent findings that highlight the complex regulatory networks that control skin immunity, and we provide new paradigms for the mechanisms that regulate skin immune responses in host defence and in chronic inflammation.