Alternative transcription exceeds alternative splicing in generating the transcriptome diversity of cerebellar development

Uncovering the dynamics and consequences of RNA isoform changes during neuronal differentiation

Static gene expression programs have been extensively characterized in stem cells and mature human cells. However, the dynamics of RNA isoform changes upon cell-state-transitions during cell differentiation, the determinants and functional consequences have largely remained unclear. Here, we established an improved model for human neurogenesis in vitro that is amenable for systems-wide analyses of gene expression. Our multi-omics analysis reveals that the pronounced alterations in cell morphology correlate strongly with widespread changes in RNA isoform expression. Our approach identifies thousands of new RNA isoforms that are expressed at distinct differentiation stages. RNA isoforms mainly arise from exon skipping and the alternative usage of transcription start and polyadenylation sites during human neurogenesis. The transcript isoform changes can remodel the identity and functions of protein isoforms. Finally, our study identifies a set of RNA binding proteins as a potential determinant of differentiation stage-specific global isoform changes. This work supports the view of regulated isoform changes that underlie state-transitions during neurogenesis.

mRNA initiation and termination are spatially coordinated

The expression of a precise mRNA transcriptome is crucial for establishing cell identity and function, with dozens of alternative isoforms produced for a single gene sequence. The regulation of mRNA isoform usage occurs by the coordination of co-transcriptional mRNA processing mechanisms across a gene. Decisions involved in mRNA initiation and termination underlie the largest extent of mRNA isoform diversity, but little is known about any relationships between decisions at both ends of mRNA molecules. Here, we systematically profile the joint usage of mRNA transcription start sites (TSSs) and polyadenylation sites (PASs) across tissues and species. Using both short and long read RNA-seq data, we observe that mRNAs preferentially using upstream TSSs also tend to use upstream PASs, and congruently, the usage of downstream sites is similarly paired. This observation suggests that mRNA 5' end choice may directly influence mRNA 3' ends. Our results suggest a novel "Positional Initiation-Termination Axis" (PITA), in which the usage of alternative terminal sites are coupled based on the order in which they appear in the genome. PITA isoforms are more likely to encode alternative protein domains and use conserved sites. PITA is strongly associated with the length of genomic features, such that PITA is enriched in longer genes with more area devoted to regions that regulate alternative 5' or 3' ends. Strikingly, we found that PITA genes are more likely than non-PITA genes to have multiple, overlapping chromatin structural domains related to pairing of ordinally coupled start and end sites. In turn, PITA coupling is also associated with fast RNA Polymerase II (RNAPII) trafficking across these long gene regions. Our findings indicate that a combination of spatial and kinetic mechanisms couple transcription initiation and mRNA 3' end decisions based on ordinal position to define the expression mRNA isoforms.

Identification of novel loci associated with starch content in maize kernels by a genome-wide association study using an enlarged SNP panel

Starch is a major component of cereals, comprising over 70% of dry weight. It serves as a primary carbon source for humans and animals. In addition, starch is an indispensable industrial raw material. While maize (Zea mays) is a key crop and the primary source of starch, the genetic basis for starch content in maize kernels remains poorly understood. In this study, using an enlarged panel, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) based on best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) value for starch content of 261 inbred lines across three environments. Compared with previous study, we identified 14 additional significant quantitative trait loci (QTL), encompassed a total of 42 genes, and indicated that increased marker density contributes to improved statistical power. By integrating gene expression profiling, Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment and haplotype analysis, several potential target genes that may play a role in regulating starch content in maize kernels have been identified. Notably, we found that ZmAPC4, associated with the significant SNP chr4.S_175584318, which encodes a WD40 repeat-like superfamily protein and is highly expressed in maize endosperm, might be a crucial regulator of maize kernel starch synthesis. Out of the 261 inbred lines analyzed, they were categorized into four haplotypes. Remarkably, it was observed that the inbred lines harboring hap4 demonstrated the highest starch content compared to the other haplotypes. Additionally, as a significant achievement, we have developed molecular markers that effectively differentiate maize inbred lines based on their starch content. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the genetic basis of starch content and the molecular markers can be useful in breeding programs aimed at developing maize varieties with high starch content, thereby improving breeding efficiency.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11032-023-01437-6.

Current technical advancements in plant epitranscriptomic studies

The growth and development of plants are the result of the interplay between the internal developmental programming and plant-environment interactions. Gene expression regulations in plants are made up of multi-level networks. In the past few years, many studies were carried out on co- and post-transcriptional RNA modifications, which, together with the RNA community, are collectively known as the "epitranscriptome." The epitranscriptomic machineries were identified and their functional impacts characterized in a broad range of physiological processes in diverse plant species. There is mounting evidence to suggest that the epitranscriptome provides an additional layer in the gene regulatory network for plant development and stress responses. In the present review, we summarized the epitranscriptomic modifications found so far in plants, including chemical modifications, RNA editing, and transcript isoforms. The various approaches to RNA modification detection were described, with special emphasis on the recent development and application potential of third-generation sequencing. The roles of epitranscriptomic changes in gene regulation during plant-environment interactions were discussed in case studies. This review aims to highlight the importance of epitranscriptomics in the study of gene regulatory networks in plants and to encourage multi-omics investigations using the recent technical advancements.

Feeding during hibernation shifts gene expression toward active season levels in brown bears (Ursus arctos)

Hibernation in bears involves a suite of metabolical and physiological changes, including the onset of insulin resistance, that are driven in part by sweeping changes in gene expression in multiple tissues. Feeding bears glucose during hibernation partially restores active season physiological phenotypes, including partial resensitization to insulin, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this transition remain poorly understood. Here, we analyze tissue-level gene expression in adipose, liver, and muscle to identify genes that respond to midhibernation glucose feeding and thus potentially drive postfeeding metabolical and physiological shifts. We show that midhibernation feeding stimulates differential expression in all analyzed tissues of hibernating bears and that a subset of these genes responds specifically by shifting expression toward levels typical of the active season. Inferences of upstream regulatory molecules potentially driving these postfeeding responses implicate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) and other known regulators of insulin sensitivity, providing new insight into high-level regulatory mechanisms involved in shifting metabolic phenotypes between hibernation and active states.

Differential exon usage of developmental genes is associated with deregulated epigenetic marks

Alternative exon usage is known to affect a large portion of genes in mammalian genomes. Importantly, different splice isoforms sometimes possess distinctly different protein functions. Here, we analyzed data from the Human Epigenome Atlas for 11 different human adult tissues and for 8 cultured cells that mimic early developmental stages. We found a significant enrichment of cases where differential usage of exons in various developmental stages of human cells and tissues is associated with differential epigenetic modifications in the flanking regions of individual exons. Many of the genes that were differentially regulated at the exon level and showed deregulated histone marks at the respective exon flanks are functionally associated with development and metabolism.

TP53BP1, a dual-coding gene, uses promoter switching and translational reinitiation to express a smORF protein

The complexity of the metazoan proteome is significantly increased by the expression of small proteins (<100 aa) derived from smORFs within lncRNAs, uORFs, 3' UTRs and, reading frames overlapping the CDS. These smORF encoded proteins (SEPs) have diverse roles, ranging from the regulation of cellular physiological to essential developmental functions. We report the characterization of a new member of this protein family, SEP53BP1, derived from a small internal ORF that overlaps the CDS encoding 53BP1. Its expression is coupled to the utilization of an alternative, cell-type specific promoter coupled to translational reinitiation events mediated by a uORF in the alternative 5' TL of the mRNA. This uORF-mediated reinitiation at an internal ORF is also observed in zebrafish. Interactome studies indicate that the human SEP53BP1 associates with components of the protein turnover pathway including the proteasome, and the TRiC/CCT chaperonin complex, suggesting that it may play a role in cellular proteostasis.

Temporal Analysis of Gene Expression and Isoform Switching in Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)

Hibernation in brown bears is an annual process involving multiple physiologically distinct seasons-hibernation, active, and hyperphagia. While recent studies have characterized broad patterns of differential gene regulation and isoform usage between hibernation and active seasons, patterns of gene and isoform expression during hyperphagia remain relatively poorly understood. The hyperphagia stage occurs between active and hibernation seasons and involves the accumulation of large fat reserves in preparation for hibernation. Here, we use time-series analyses of gene expression and isoform usage to interrogate transcriptomic regulation associated with all three seasons. We identify a large number of genes with significant differential isoform usage (DIU) across seasons and show that these patterns of isoform usage are largely tissue-specific. We also show that DIU and differential gene-level expression responses are generally non-overlapping, with only a small subset of multi-isoform genes showing evidence of both gene-level expression changes and changes in isoform usage across seasons. Additionally, we investigate nuanced regulation of candidate genes involved in the insulin signaling pathway and find evidence of hyperphagia-specific gene expression and isoform regulation that may enhance fat accumulation during hyperphagia. Our findings highlight the value of using temporal analyses of both gene- and isoform-level gene expression when interrogating complex physiological phenotypes and provide new insight into the mechanisms underlying seasonal changes in bear physiology.

Alternative transcription start sites contribute to acute-stress-induced transcriptome response in human skeletal muscle

Background

More than half of human protein-coding genes have an alternative transcription start site (TSS). We aimed to investigate the contribution of alternative TSSs to the acute-stress-induced transcriptome response in human tissue (skeletal muscle) using the cap analysis of gene expression approach. TSSs were examined at baseline and during recovery after acute stress (a cycling exercise).

Results

We identified 44,680 CAGE TSS clusters (including 3764 first defined) belonging to 12,268 genes and annotated for the first time 290 TSSs belonging to 163 genes. The transcriptome dynamically changes during the first hours after acute stress; the change in the expression of 10% of genes was associated with the activation of alternative TSSs, indicating differential TSSs usage. The majority of the alternative TSSs do not increase proteome complexity suggesting that the function of thousands of alternative TSSs is associated with the fine regulation of mRNA isoform expression from a gene due to the transcription factor-specific activation of various alternative TSSs. We identified individual muscle promoter regions for each TSS using muscle open chromatin data (ATAC-seq and DNase-seq). Then, using the positional weight matrix approach we predicted time course activation of “classic” transcription factors involved in response of skeletal muscle to contractile activity, as well as diversity of less/un-investigated factors.

Conclusions

Transcriptome response induced by acute stress related to activation of the alternative TSSs indicates that differential TSSs usage is an essential mechanism of fine regulation of gene response to stress stimulus. A comprehensive resource of accurate TSSs and individual promoter regions for each TSS in muscle was created. This resource together with the positional weight matrix approach can be used to accurate prediction of TFs in any gene(s) of interest involved in the response to various stimuli, interventions or pathological conditions in human skeletal muscle.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40246-022-00399-8.

Miat and interacting protein Metadherin maintain a stem-like niche to promote medulloblastoma tumorigenesis and treatment resistance

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play essential roles in the development and progression of many cancers. However, the contributions of lncRNAs to medulloblastoma (MB) remain poorly understood. Here, we identify Miat as an lncRNA enriched in the sonic hedgehog group of MB that is required for maintenance of a treatment-resistant stem-like phenotype in the disease. Loss of Miat results in the differentiation of tumor-initiating, stem-like MB cells and enforces the differentiation of tumorigenic stem-like MB cells into a nontumorigenic state. Miat expression in stem-like MB cells also facilitates treatment resistance by down-regulating p53 signaling and impairing radiation-induced cell death, which can be reversed by therapeutic inhibition of Miat using antisense oligonucleotides. Mechanistically, the RNA binding protein Metadherin (Mtdh), previously linked to resistance to cytotoxic therapy in cancer, binds to Miat in stem-like MB cells. Like the loss of Miat, the loss of Mtdh reduces tumorigenicity and increases sensitivity to radiation-induced death in stem-like MB cells. Moreover, Miat and Mtdh function to regulate the biogenesis of several microRNAs and facilitate tumorigenesis and treatment resistance. Taken together, these data reveal an essential role for the lncRNA Miat in sustaining a treatment-resistant pool of tumorigenic stem-like MB cells.

Myocardin regulates exon usage in smooth muscle cells through induction of splicing regulatory factors

Differentiation of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) depends on serum response factor (SRF) and its co-activator myocardin (MYOCD). The role of MYOCD for the SMC program of gene transcription is well established. In contrast, the role of MYOCD in control of SMC-specific alternative exon usage, including exon splicing, has not been explored. In the current work we identified four splicing factors (MBNL1, RBPMS, RBPMS2, and RBFOX2) that correlate with MYOCD across human SMC tissues. Forced expression of MYOCD family members in human coronary artery SMCs in vitro upregulated expression of these splicing factors. For global profiling of transcript diversity, we performed RNA-sequencing after MYOCD transduction. We analyzed alternative transcripts with three different methods. Exon-based analysis identified 1637 features with differential exon usage. For example, usage of 3´ exons in MYLK that encode telokin increased relative to 5´ exons, as did the 17 kDa telokin to 130 kDa MYLK protein ratio. Dedicated event-based analysis identified 239 MYOCD-driven splicing events. Events involving MBNL1, MCAM, and ACTN1 were among the most prominent, and this was confirmed using variant-specific PCR analyses. In support of a role for RBPMS and RBFOX2 in MYOCD-driven splicing we found enrichment of their binding motifs around differentially spliced exons. Moreover, knockdown of either RBPMS or RBFOX2 antagonized splicing events stimulated by MYOCD, including those involving ACTN1, VCL, and MBNL1. Supporting an in vivo role of MYOCD-SRF-driven splicing, we demonstrate altered Rbpms expression and splicing in inducible and SMC-specific Srf knockout mice. We conclude that MYOCD-SRF, in part via RBPMS and RBFOX2, induce a program of differential exon usage and alternative splicing as part of the broader program of SMC differentiation.

Direct analysis of ribosome targeting illuminates thousand-fold regulation of translation initiation

Translational control shapes the proteome in normal and pathophysiological conditions. Current high-throughput approaches reveal large differences in mRNA-specific translation activity but cannot identify the causative mRNA features. We developed direct analysis of ribosome targeting (DART) and used it to dissect regulatory elements within 5' untranslated regions that confer 1,000-fold differences in ribosome recruitment in biochemically accessible cell lysates. Using DART, we determined a functional role for most alternative 5' UTR isoforms expressed in yeast, revealed a general mode of increased translation via direct binding to a core translation factor, and identified numerous translational control elements including C-rich silencers that are sufficient to repress translation both in vitro and in vivo. DART enables systematic assessment of the translational regulatory potential of 5' UTR variants, whether native or disease-associated, and will facilitate engineering of mRNAs for optimized protein production in various systems.

Identification of alternative splicing-derived cancer neoantigens for mRNA vaccine development

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have shown great potential for anti-tumor therapy due to the advantages in safety, efficacy and industrial production. However, it remains a challenge to identify suitable cancer neoantigens that can be targeted for mRNA vaccines. Abnormal alternative splicing occurs in a variety of tumors, which may result in the translation of abnormal transcripts into tumor-specific proteins. High-throughput technologies make it possible for systematic characterization of alternative splicing as a source of suitable target neoantigens for mRNA vaccine development. Here, we summarized difficulties and challenges for identifying alternative splicing-derived cancer neoantigens from RNA-seq data and proposed a conceptual framework for designing personalized mRNA vaccines based on alternative splicing-derived cancer neoantigens. In addition, several points were presented to spark further discussion toward improving the identification of alternative splicing-derived cancer neoantigens.

Widespread occurrence of hybrid internal-terminal exons in human transcriptomes

Messenger RNA isoform differences are predominantly driven by alternative first, internal, and last exons. Despite the importance of classifying exons to understand isoform structure, few tools examine isoform-specific exon usage. We recently observed that alternative transcription start sites often arise near internal exons, often creating “hybrid” first/internal exons. To systematically detect hybrid exons, we built the hybrid-internal-terminal (HIT) pipeline to classify exons depending on their isoform-specific usage. On the basis of splice junction reads in RNA sequencing data and probabilistic modeling, the HIT index identified thousands of previously misclassified hybrid first-internal and internal-last exons. Hybrid exons are enriched in long genes and genes involved in RNA splicing and have longer flanking introns and strong splice sites. Their usage varies considerably across human tissues. By developing the first method to classify exons according to isoform contexts, our findings document the occurrence of hybrid exons, a common quirk of the human transcriptome.

Genome-Wide Profiling of Transcription Initiation with STRIPE-seq

Transcription start site (TSS) usage is a critical factor in the regulation of gene expression. A number of methods for global TSS mapping have been developed, but barriers of expense, technical difficulty, time, and/or cost have limited their broader adoption. To address these issues, we developed Survey of TRanscription Initiation at Promoter Elements with high-throughput sequencing (STRIPE-seq). Requiring only three enzymatic steps with intervening bead cleanups, a STRIPE-seq library can be prepared from as little as 50 ng total RNA in ~5 h at a cost of ~$12 (US). In addition to profiling TSS usage, STRIPE-seq provides information on transcript levels that can be used for differential expression analysis. Thanks to its simplicity and low cost, we envision that STRIPE-seq could be employed by any molecular biology laboratory interested in profiling transcription initiation.

Transcriptome programs involved in the development and structure of the cerebellum

In the past two decades, mounting evidence has modified the classical view of the cerebellum as a brain region specifically involved in the modulation of motor functions. Indeed, clinical studies and engineered mouse models have highlighted cerebellar circuits implicated in cognitive functions and behavior. Furthermore, it is now clear that insults occurring in specific time windows of cerebellar development can affect cognitive performance later in life and are associated with neurological syndromes, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder. Despite its almost homogenous cytoarchitecture, how cerebellar circuits form and function is not completely elucidated yet. Notably, the apparently simple neuronal organization of the cerebellum, in which Purkinje cells represent the only output, hides an elevated functional diversity even within the same neuronal population. Such complexity is the result of the integration of intrinsic morphogenetic programs and extracellular cues from the surrounding environment, which impact on the regulation of the transcriptome of cerebellar neurons. In this review, we briefly summarize key features of the development and structure of the cerebellum before focusing on the pathways involved in the acquisition of the cerebellar neuron identity. We focus on gene expression and mRNA processing programs, including mRNA methylation, trafficking and splicing, that are set in motion during cerebellar development and participate to its physiology. These programs are likely to add new layers of complexity and versatility that are fundamental for the adaptability of cerebellar neurons.

Deconvolution of Expression for Nascent RNA sequencing data (DENR) highlights pre-RNA isoform diversity in human cells

Motivation

Quantification of isoform abundance has been extensively studied at the mature RNA level using RNA-seq but not at the level of precursor RNAs using nascent RNA sequencing.

Results

We address this problem with a new computational method called Deconvolution of Expression for Nascent RNA-sequencing data (DENR), which models nascent RNA-sequencing read-counts as a mixture of user-provided isoforms. The baseline algorithm is enhanced by machine-learning predictions of active transcription start sites and an adjustment for the typical ‘shape profile’ of read-counts along a transcription unit. We show that DENR outperforms simple read-count-based methods for estimating gene and isoform abundances, and that transcription of multiple pre-RNA isoforms per gene is widespread, with frequent differences between cell types. In addition, we provide evidence that a majority of human isoform diversity derives from primary transcription rather than from post-transcriptional processes.

Availability and implementation

DENR and nascentRNASim are freely available at https://github.com/CshlSiepelLab/DENR (version v1.0.0) and https://github.com/CshlSiepelLab/nascentRNASim (version v0.3.0).

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Flexible analysis of TSS mapping data and detection of TSS shifts with TSRexploreR

Heterogeneity in transcription initiation has important consequences for transcript stability and translation, and shifts in transcription start site (TSS) usage are prevalent in various developmental, metabolic, and disease contexts. Accordingly, numerous methods for global TSS profiling have been developed, including most recently Survey of TRanscription Initiation at Promoter Elements with high-throughput sequencing (STRIPE-seq), a method to profile transcription start sites (TSSs) on a genome-wide scale with significant cost and time savings compared to previous methods. In anticipation of more widespread adoption of STRIPE-seq and related methods for construction of promoter atlases and studies of differential gene expression, we built TSRexploreR, an R package for end-to-end analysis of TSS mapping data. TSRexploreR provides functions for TSS and transcription start region (TSR) detection, normalization, correlation, visualization, and differential TSS/TSR analyses. TSRexploreR is highly interoperable, accepting the data structures of TSS and TSR sets generated by several existing tools for processing and alignment of TSS mapping data, such as CAGEr for Cap Analysis of Gene Expression (CAGE) data. Lastly, TSRexploreR implements a novel approach for the detection of shifts in TSS distribution.

A Dynamic Splicing Program Ensures Proper Synaptic Connections in the Developing Cerebellum

Tight coordination of gene expression in the developing cerebellum is crucial for establishment of neuronal circuits governing motor and cognitive function. However, transcriptional changes alone do not explain all of the switches underlying neuronal differentiation. Here we unveiled a widespread and highly dynamic splicing program that affects synaptic genes in cerebellar neurons. The motifs enriched in modulated exons implicated the splicing factor Sam68 as a regulator of this program. Sam68 controls splicing of exons with weak branchpoints by directly binding near the 3' splice site and competing with U2AF recruitment. Ablation of Sam68 disrupts splicing regulation of synaptic genes associated with neurodevelopmental diseases and impairs synaptic connections and firing of Purkinje cells, resulting in motor coordination defects, ataxia, and abnormal social behavior. These findings uncover an unexpectedly dynamic splicing regulatory network that shapes the synapse in early life and establishes motor and cognitive circuitry in the developing cerebellum.

CRISPRi enables isoform-specific loss-of-function screens and identification of gastric cancer-specific isoform dependencies

Introduction

Genes contain multiple promoters that can drive the expression of various transcript isoforms. Although transcript isoforms from the same gene could have diverse and non-overlapping functions, current loss-of-function methodologies are not able to differentiate between isoform-specific phenotypes.

Results

Here, we show that CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) can be adopted for targeting specific promoters within a gene, enabling isoform-specific loss-of-function genetic screens. We use this strategy to test functional dependencies of 820 transcript isoforms that are gained in gastric cancer (GC). We identify a subset of GC-gained transcript isoform dependencies, and of these, we validate CIT kinase as a novel GC dependency. We further show that some genes express isoforms with opposite functions. Specifically, we find that the tumour suppressor ZFHX3 expresses an isoform that has a paradoxical oncogenic role that correlates with poor patient outcome.

Conclusions

Our work finds isoform-specific phenotypes that would not be identified using current loss-of-function approaches that are not designed to target specific transcript isoforms.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13059-021-02266-6.

Spatial and temporal diversity of DCLK1 isoforms in developing mouse brain

Doublecortin-like kinase 1 (DCLK1) is a Doublecortin family kinase involved in a range of brain development processes including cell migration, axon/dendrite growth, and synapse development. The Dclk1 gene potentially generates multiple splicing isoforms, but the detailed expression patterns in the brain as well as in vivo functions of each isoform are still incompletely understood. Here we assessed expression patterns of DCLK1 isoforms using multiple platforms including in silico, in situ, and in vitro datasets in the developing mouse brain, and show quantitative evidence that among the four DCLK1 isoforms, DCLK1-L and DCL are mainly expressed in the embryonic cortex whereas DCLK1-L and CPG16 become dominant compared to DCL and CARP in the postnatal cortex. We also provide compelling evidence that DCLK1 isoforms are distributed in the partially distinct brain regions in the embryonic and the postnatal stages. We further show that overexpression of DCLK1-L, but not the other isoforms, in neural progenitors causes severe migration defects in the cortex, and that the migration defects are dependent on the kinase activity of DCLK1-L. Our data thus uncover partially segregated localization of DCLK1 isoforms in the developing mouse brain and suggest different roles for distinct DCLK1 isoforms in the brain development and function.

High-resolution analysis of cell-state transitions in yeast suggests widespread transcriptional tuning by alternative starts

BACKGROUND

The start and end sites of messenger RNAs (TSSs and TESs) are highly regulated, often in a cell-type-specific manner. Yet the contribution of transcript diversity in regulating gene expression remains largely elusive. We perform an integrative analysis of multiple highly synchronized cell-fate transitions and quantitative genomic techniques in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to identify regulatory functions associated with transcribing alternative isoforms.

RESULTS

Cell-fate transitions feature widespread elevated expression of alternative TSS and, to a lesser degree, TES usage. These dynamically regulated alternative TSSs are located mostly upstream of canonical TSSs, but also within gene bodies possibly encoding for protein isoforms. Increased upstream alternative TSS usage is linked to various effects on canonical TSS levels, which range from co-activation to repression. We identified two key features linked to these outcomes: an interplay between alternative and canonical promoter strengths, and distance between alternative and canonical TSSs. These two regulatory properties give a plausible explanation of how locally transcribed alternative TSSs control gene transcription. Additionally, we find that specific chromatin modifiers Set2, Set3, and FACT play an important role in mediating gene repression via alternative TSSs, further supporting that the act of upstream transcription drives the local changes in gene transcription.

CONCLUSIONS

The integrative analysis of multiple cell-fate transitions suggests the presence of a regulatory control system of alternative TSSs that is important for dynamic tuning of gene expression. Our work provides a framework for understanding how TSS heterogeneity governs eukaryotic gene expression, particularly during cell-fate changes.

Powerful quantifiers for cancer transcriptomics

Every day, investigators find a new link between a form of cancer and a particular alteration in the sequence or/and expression level of a key gene, awarding this gene the title of “biomarker”. The clinician may choose from numerous available panels to assess the type of cancer based on the mutation or expression regulation (“transcriptomic signature”) of “driver” genes. However, cancer is not a “one-gene show” and, together with the alleged biomarker, hundreds other genes are found as mutated or/and regulated in cancer samples. Regardless of the platform, a well-designed transcriptomic study produces three independent features for each gene: Average expression level, expression variability and coordination with expression of each other gene. While the average expression level is used in all studies to identify what genes were up-/down-regulated or turn on/off, the other two features are unfairly ignored. We use all three features to quantify the transcriptomic change during the progression of the disease and recovery in response to a treatment. Data from our published microarray experiments on cancer nodules and surrounding normal tissue from surgically removed tumors prove that the transcriptomic topologies are not only different in histopathologically distinct regions of a tumor but also dynamic and unique for each human being. We show also that the most influential genes in cancer nodules [the Gene Master Regulators (GMRs)] are significantly less influential in the normal tissue. As such, “smart” manipulation of the cancer GMRs expression may selectively kill cancer cells with little consequences on the normal ones. Therefore, we strongly recommend a really personalized approach of cancer medicine and present the experimental procedure and the mathematical algorithm to identify the most legitimate targets (GMRs) for gene therapy.

So close, no matter how far: multiple paths connecting transcription to mRNA translation in eukaryotes

Transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into proteins are two major processes underlying gene expression. Due to the distinct molecular mechanisms, timings, and locales of action, these processes are mainly considered to be independent. During the last two decades, however, multiple factors and elements were shown to coordinate transcription and translation, suggesting an intricate level of synchronization. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms that impact both processes in eukaryotic cells of different origins. The emerging global picture suggests evolutionarily conserved regulation and coordination between transcription and mRNA translation, indicating the importance of this phenomenon for the fine-tuning of gene expression and the adjustment to constantly changing conditions.

Canonical ErbB-2 isoform and ErbB-2 variant c located in the nucleus drive triple negative breast cancer growth

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) refers to tumors that do not express clinically significant levels of estrogen and progesterone receptors, and lack membrane overexpression or gene amplification of ErbB-2/HER2, a receptor tyrosine kinase. Transcriptome and proteome heterogeneity of TNBC poses a major challenge to precision medicine. Clinical biomarkers and targeted therapies for this disease remain elusive, so chemotherapy has been the standard of care for early and metastatic TNBC. Our present findings placed ErbB-2 in an unanticipated scenario: the nucleus of TNBC (NErbB-2). Our study on ErbB-2 alternative splicing events, using a PCR-sequencing approach combined with an RNA interference strategy, revealed that TNBC cells express either the canonical (wild-type) ErbB-2, encoded by transcript variant 1, or the non-canonical ErbB-2 isoform c, encoded by alternative variant 3 (RefSeq), or both. These ErbB-2 isoforms function in the nucleus as transcription factors. Evicting both from the nucleus or silencing isoform c only, blocks TN cell and tumor growth. This reveals not only NErbB-2 canonical and alternative isoforms role as targets of therapy in TNBC, but also isoform c dominant oncogenic potential. Furthermore, we validated our findings in the clinic and observed that NErbB-2 correlates with poor prognosis in primary TN tumors, disclosing NErbB-2 as a novel biomarker for TNBC. Our discoveries challenge the present scenario of drug development for personalized BC medicine that focuses on wild-type RefSeq proteins, which conserve the canonical domains and are located in their classical cellular compartments.

SOX10-regulated promoter use defines isoform-specific gene expression in Schwann cells

Background

Multicellular organisms adopt various strategies to tailor gene expression to cellular contexts including the employment of multiple promoters (and the associated transcription start sites (TSSs)) at a single locus that encodes distinct gene isoforms. Schwann cells—the myelinating cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)—exhibit a specialized gene expression profile directed by the transcription factor SOX10, which is essential for PNS myelination. SOX10 regulates promoter elements associated with unique TSSs and gene isoforms at several target loci, implicating SOX10-mediated, isoform-specific gene expression in Schwann cell function. Here, we report on genome-wide efforts to identify SOX10-regulated promoters and TSSs in Schwann cells to prioritize genes and isoforms for further study.

Results

We performed global TSS analyses and mined previously reported ChIP-seq datasets to assess the activity of SOX10-bound promoters in three models: (i) an adult mammalian nerve; (ii) differentiating primary Schwann cells, and (iii) cultured Schwann cells with ablated SOX10 function. We explored specific characteristics of SOX10-dependent TSSs, which provides confidence in defining them as SOX10 targets. Finally, we performed functional studies to validate our findings at four previously unreported SOX10 target loci: ARPC1A, CHN2, DDR1, and GAS7. These findings suggest roles for the associated SOX10-regulated gene products in PNS myelination.

Conclusions

In sum, we provide comprehensive computational and functional assessments of SOX10-regulated TSS use in Schwann cells. The data presented in this study will stimulate functional studies on the specific mRNA and protein isoforms that SOX10 regulates, which will improve our understanding of myelination in the peripheral nerve.

A Pan-cancer Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Pervasive Regulation through Alternative Promoters

Most human protein-coding genes are regulated by multiple, distinct promoters, suggesting that the choice of promoter is as important as its level of transcriptional activity. However, while a global change in transcription is recognized as a defining feature of cancer, the contribution of alternative promoters still remains largely unexplored. Here, we infer active promoters using RNA-seq data from 18,468 cancer and normal samples, demonstrating that alternative promoters are a major contributor to context-specific regulation of transcription. We find that promoters are deregulated across tissues, cancer types, and patients, affecting known cancer genes and novel candidates. For genes with independently regulated promoters, we demonstrate that promoter activity provides a more accurate predictor of patient survival than gene expression. Our study suggests that a dynamic landscape of active promoters shapes the cancer transcriptome, opening new diagnostic avenues and opportunities to further explore the interplay of regulatory mechanisms with transcriptional aberrations in cancer.

Platform-Independent Classification System to Predict Molecular Subtypes of High-Grade Serous Ovarian Carcinoma

PURPOSE

Molecular cancer subtyping is an important tool in predicting prognosis and developing novel precision medicine approaches. We developed a novel platform-independent gene expression-based classification system for molecular subtyping of patients with high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC).

METHODS

Unprocessed exon array (569 tumor and nine normal) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq; 376 tumor) HGSOC data sets, with clinical annotations, were downloaded from the Genomic Data Commons portal. Sample clustering was performed by non-negative matrix factorization by using isoform-level expression estimates. The association between the subtypes and overall survival was evaluated by Cox proportional hazards regression model after adjusting for the covariates. A novel classification system was developed for HGSOC molecular subtyping. Robustness and generalizability of the gene signatures were validated using independent microarray and RNA-seq data sets.

RESULTS

Sample clustering recaptured the four known The Cancer Genome Atlas molecular subtypes but switched the subtype for 22% of the cases, which resulted in significant (P = .006) survival differences among the refined subgroups. After adjusting for covariate effects, the mesenchymal subgroup was found to be at an increased hazard for death compared with the immunoreactive subgroup. Both gene- and isoform-level signatures achieved more than 92% prediction accuracy when tested on independent samples profiled on the exon array platform. When the classifier was applied to RNA-seq data, the subtyping calls agreed with the predictions made from exon array data for 95% of the 279 samples profiled by both platforms.

CONCLUSION

Isoform-level expression analysis successfully stratifies patients with HGSOC into groups with differing prognosis and has led to the development of robust, platform-independent gene signatures for HGSOC molecular subtyping. The association of the refined The Cancer Genome Atlas HGSOC subtypes with overall survival, independent of covariates, enhances the clinical annotation of the HGSOC cohort.

Characterization of Arabidopsis thaliana Promoter Bidirectionality and Antisense RNAs by Inactivation of Nuclear RNA Decay Pathways

In animals, RNA polymerase II initiates transcription bidirectionally from gene promoters to produce pre-mRNAs on the forward strand and promoter upstream transcripts (PROMPTs) on the reverse strand. PROMPTs are degraded by the nuclear exosome. Previous studies based on nascent RNA approaches concluded that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) does not produce PROMPTs. Here, we used steady-state RNA sequencing in mutants defective in nuclear RNA decay including the exosome to reassess the existence of Arabidopsis PROMPTs. While they are rare, we identified ∼100 cases of exosome-sensitive PROMPTs in Arabidopsis. Such PROMPTs are sources of small interfering RNAs in exosome-deficient mutants, perhaps explaining why plants have evolved mechanisms to suppress PROMPTs. In addition, we found ∼200 long, unspliced and exosome-sensitive antisense RNAs that arise from transcription start sites within parts of the genome encoding 3'-untranslated regions on the sense strand. The previously characterized noncoding RNA that regulates expression of the key seed dormancy regulator, DELAY OF GERMINATION1, is a typical representative of this class of RNAs. Transcription factor genes are overrepresented among loci with exosome-sensitive antisense RNAs, suggesting a potential for widespread control of gene expression via this class of noncoding RNAs. Lastly, we assess the use of alternative promoters in Arabidopsis and compare the accuracy of existing TSS annotations.

Rbfox1 Is Expressed in the Mouse Brain in the Form of Multiple Transcript Variants and Contains Functional E Boxes in Its Alternative Promoters

The RNA-binding protein RBFOX1 is an important regulator of neuron development and neuronal excitability. Rbfox1 is a dosage-sensitive gene and in both mice and humans, decreased expression of Rbfox1 has been linked to neurodevelopmental disorders. Alternative promoters drive expression of Rbfox1 transcript isoforms that encode an identical protein. The tissue- and developmental stage-specific expression of these isoforms, as well as the underlying regulatory mechanisms, are, however, unclear. Here, we set out to capture all of the Rbfox1 transcript isoforms and identify transcriptional mechanisms that regulate brain-specific Rbfox1 expression. Isoform sequencing identified multiple alternative Rbfox1 transcript variants in the mouse cerebral cortex, including transcripts with novel first exons, alternatively spliced exons and 3′-truncations. Quantitative RT-PCR determined the expression of the alternative first exons in the developing cerebral cortex and different subregions of the juvenile brain. Alternative first exons were found to be highly stage- and subregion specific in their expression patterns suggesting that they fulfill specific functions during cortex development and in different brain regions. Using reporter assays we found that the promoter regions of the two first exons E1B and E1C/E1C.1 contain several functional E-boxes. Together, we provide an extensive picture of Rbfox1 isoform expression. We further identified important regulatory mechanisms that drive neuron-specific Rbfox1 expression. Thus, our study forms the basis for further research into the mechanisms that ensure physiological Rbfox1 expression in the brain. It also helps to understand why, in patients with neurodevelopmental disorders deletion of individual RBFOX1 transcript isoforms could affect brain function.

Dopamine response gene pathways in dorsal striatum MSNs from a gene expression viewpoint: cAMP-mediated gene networks

BACKGROUND

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) comprise the main body (95% in mouse) of the dorsal striatum neurons and represent dopaminoceptive GABAergic neurons. The cAMP (cyclic Adenosine MonoPhosphate)-mediated cascade of excitation and inhibition responses observed in MSN intracellular signal transduction is crucial for neuroscience research due to its involvement in the motor and behavioral functions. In particular, all types of addictions are related to MSNs. Shedding the light on the mechanics of the above-mentioned cascade is of primary importance for this research domain.

RESULTS

A mouse model of chronic social conflicts in daily agonistic interactions was used to analyze dorsal striatum neurons genes implicated in cAMP-mediated phosphorylation activation pathways specific for MSNs. Based on expression correlation analysis, we succeeded in dissecting Drd1- and Drd2-dopaminoceptive neurons (D1 and D2, correspondingly) gene pathways. We also found that D1 neurons genes clustering are split into two oppositely correlated states, passive and active ones, the latter apparently corresponding to D1 firing stage upon protein kinase A (PKA) activation. We observed that under defeat stress in chronic social conflicts the loser mice manifest overall depression of dopamine-mediated MSNs activity resulting in previously reported reduced motor activity, while the aggressive mice with positive fighting experience (aggressive mice) feature an increase in both D1-active phase and D2 MSNs genes expression leading to hyperactive behavior pattern corresponded by us before. Based on the alternative transcript isoforms expression analysis, it was assumed that many genes (Drd1, Adora1, Pde10, Ppp1r1b, Gnal), specifically those in D1 neurons, apparently remain transcriptionally repressed via the reversible mechanism of promoter CpG island silencing, resulting in alternative promoter usage following profound reduction in their expression rate.

CONCLUSION

Based on the animal stress model dorsal striatum pooled tissue RNA-Seq data restricted to cAMP related genes subset we elucidated MSNs steady states exhaustive projection for the first time. We correspond the existence of D1 active state not explicitly outlined before, and connected with dynamic dopamine neurotransmission cycles. Consequently, we were also able to indicate an oscillated postsynaptic dopamine vs glutamate action pattern in the course of the neurotransmission cycles.

Targeted deletion of an NRL- and CRX-regulated alternative promoter specifically silences FERM and PDZ domain containing 1 (Frmpd1) in rod photoreceptors

Regulation of cell type-specific gene expression is critical for generating neuronal diversity. Transcriptome analyses have unraveled extensive heterogeneity of transcribed sequences in retinal photoreceptors because of alternate splicing and/or promoter usage. Here we show that Frmpd1 (FERM and PDZ domain containing 1) is transcribed from an alternative promoter specifically in the retina. Electroporation of Frmpd1 promoter region, -505 to +382 bp, activated reporter gene expression in mouse retina in vivo. A proximal promoter sequence (-8 to +33 bp) of Frmpd1 binds to neural retina leucine zipper (NRL) and cone-rod homeobox protein (CRX), two rod-specific differentiation factors, and is necessary for activating reporter gene expression in vitro and in vivo. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/Cas9-mediated deletion of the genomic region, including NRL and CRX binding sites, in vivo completely eliminated Frmpd1 expression in rods and dramatically reduced expression in rod bipolar cells, thereby overcoming embryonic lethality caused by germline Frmpd1 deletion. Our studies demonstrate that a cell type-specific regulatory control region is a credible target for creating loss-of-function alleles of widely expressed genes.

Short AIP1 (ASK1-Interacting Protein-1) Isoform Localizes to the Mitochondria and Promotes Vascular Dysfunction

OBJECTIVE

Vascular endothelial cells (ECs) normally maintain vascular homeostasis and are regulated by proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species. A human genome-wide association study identified that AIP1 (ASK1 [apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1]-interacting protein-1; also identified as DAB2IP) gene variants confer susceptibility to cardiovascular disease, but the underlying mechanism is unknown. Approach and Results: We detected a normal AIP1 form (named AIP1A) in the healthy aorta, but a shorter form of AIP1 (named AIP1B) was found in diseased aortae that contained atherosclerotic plaques and graft arteriosclerosis. AIP1B transcription in resting ECs was suppressed through epigenetic inhibition by RIF1 (Rap1 [ras-related protein 1]-interacting factor 1)/H3K9 (histone H3 lysine 9) methyltransferase-mediated H3K9 trimethylation, and this inhibition was released by proinflammatory cytokines. AIP1A, but not AIP1B, was downregulated by proteolytic degradation through a Smurf1 (SMAD [suppressor of mothers against decapentaplegic miscellaneous] ubiquitylation regulatory factor 1)-dependent pathway in ECs under inflammation. Therefore, AIP1B was the major form present during inflammatory conditions. AIP1B, which lacks the N-terminal pleckstrin homology domain of AIP1A, localized to the mitochondria and augmented TNFα (tumor necrosis factor alpha)-induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation and EC activation. AIP1B-ECTG (EC-specific AIP1B transgenic) mice exhibited augmented reactive oxygen species production, EC activation, and neointima formation in vascular remodeling models.

CONCLUSIONS

Our current study suggests that a shift from anti-inflammatory AIP1A to proinflammatory AIP1B during chronic inflammation plays a key role in inflammatory vascular diseases.

Hidden Aspects of Valency in Immune System Regulation

Valency can be defined as the number of discrete interactions a biomolecule can engage in. Valency can be critical for function, such as determining whether a molecule acts as a scaffold for assembling large supramolecular complexes or forms a functional dimer. Here, we highlight the importance of the role of valency in regulating immune responses, with a focus on innate immunity. We discuss some of the ways in which valency itself is regulated through transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational modifications. Finally, we propose that the valency model can be applied at the whole cell level to study differences in individual cell responses with relevance to putative therapeutic applications.

Evolution of Yin and Yang isoforms of a chromatin remodeling subunit precedes the creation of two genes

Genes can encode multiple isoforms, broadening their functions and providing a molecular substrate to evolve phenotypic diversity. Evolution of isoform function is a potential route to adapt to new environments. Here we show that de novo, beneficial alleles in the nurf-1 gene became fixed in two laboratory lineages of C. elegans after isolation from the wild in 1951, before methods of cryopreservation were developed. nurf-1 encodes an ortholog of BPTF, a large (>300 kD) multidomain subunit of the NURF chromatin remodeling complex. Using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing and transgenic rescue, we demonstrate that in C. elegans, nurf-1 has split into two, largely non-overlapping isoforms (NURF-1.D and NURF-1.B, which we call Yin and Yang, respectively) that share only two of 26 exons. Both isoforms are essential for normal gametogenesis but have opposite effects on male/female gamete differentiation. Reproduction in hermaphrodites, which involves production of both sperm and oocytes, requires a balance of these opposing Yin and Yang isoforms. Transgenic rescue and genetic position of the fixed mutations suggest that different isoforms are modified in each laboratory strain. In a related clade of Caenorhabditis nematodes, the shared exons have duplicated, resulting in the split of the Yin and Yang isoforms into separate genes, each containing approximately 200 amino acids of duplicated sequence that has undergone accelerated protein evolution following the duplication. Associated with this duplication event is the loss of two additional nurf-1 transcripts, including the long-form transcript and a newly identified, highly expressed transcript encoded by the duplicated exons. We propose these lost transcripts are non-functional side products necessary to transcribe the Yin and Yang transcripts in the same cells. Our work demonstrates how gene sharing, through the production of multiple isoforms, can precede the creation of new, independent genes.

PennDiff: detecting differential alternative splicing and transcription by RNA sequencing

Motivation

Alternative splicing and alternative transcription are a major mechanism for generating transcriptome diversity. Differential alternative splicing and transcription (DAST), which describe different usage of transcript isoforms across different conditions, can complement differential expression in characterizing gene regulation. However, the analysis of DAST is challenging because only a small fraction of RNA-seq reads is informative for isoforms. Several methods have been developed to detect exon-based and gene-based DAST, but they suffer from power loss for genes with many isoforms.

Results

We present PennDiff, a novel statistical method that makes use of information on gene structures and pre-estimated isoform relative abundances, to detect DAST from RNA-seq data. PennDiff has several advantages. First, grouping exons avoids multiple testing for 'exons' originated from the same isoform(s). Second, it utilizes all available reads in exon-inclusion level estimation, which is different from methods that only use junction reads. Third, collapsing isoforms sharing the same alternative exons reduces the impact of isoform expression estimation uncertainty. PennDiff is able to detect DAST at both exon and gene levels, thus offering more flexibility than existing methods. Simulations and analysis of a real RNA-seq dataset indicate that PennDiff has well-controlled type I error rate, and is more powerful than existing methods including DEXSeq, rMATS, Cuffdiff, IUTA and SplicingCompass. As the popularity of RNA-seq continues to grow, we expect PennDiff to be useful for diverse transcriptomics studies.

Availability and implementation

PennDiff source code and user guide is freely available for download at https://github.com/tigerhu15/PennDiff.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Landscape of ribosome-engaged transcript isoforms reveals extensive neuronal-cell-class-specific alternative splicing programs

Nervous system function relies on complex assemblies of distinct neuronal cell types that have unique anatomical and functional properties instructed by molecular programs. Alternative splicing is a key mechanism for the expansion of molecular repertoires, and protein splice isoforms shape neuronal cell surface recognition and function. However, the logic of how alternative splicing programs are arrayed across neuronal cells types is poorly understood. We systematically mapped ribosome-associated transcript isoforms in genetically defined neuron types of the mouse forebrain. Our dataset provides an extensive resource of transcript diversity across major neuron classes. We find that neuronal transcript isoform profiles reliably distinguish even closely related classes of pyramidal cells and inhibitory interneurons in the mouse hippocampus and neocortex. These highly specific alternative splicing programs selectively control synaptic proteins and intrinsic neuronal properties. Thus, transcript diversification via alternative splicing is a central mechanism for the functional specification of neuronal cell types and circuits.

Comprehensive profiling of the fission yeast transcription start site activity during stress and media response

Fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is an attractive model organism for transcriptional and chromatin biology research. Such research is contingent on accurate annotation of transcription start sites (TSSs). However, comprehensive genome-wide maps of TSSs and their usage across commonly applied laboratory conditions and treatments for S. pombe are lacking. To this end, we profiled TSS activity genome-wide in S. pombe cultures exposed to heat shock, nitrogen starvation, hydrogen peroxide and two commonly applied media, YES and EMM2, using Cap Analysis of Gene Expression (CAGE). CAGE-based annotation of TSSs is substantially more accurate than existing PomBase annotation; on average, CAGE TSSs fall 50–75 bp downstream of PomBase TSSs and co-localize with nucleosome boundaries. In contrast to higher eukaryotes, dispersed TSS distributions are not common in S. pombe. Our data recapitulate known S. pombe stress expression response patterns and identify stress- and media-responsive alternative TSSs. Notably, alteration of growth medium induces changes of similar magnitude as some stressors. We show a link between nucleosome occupancy and genetic variation, and that the proximal promoter region is genetically diverse between S. pombe strains. Our detailed TSS map constitutes a central resource for S. pombe gene regulation research.

Glucocerebrosidase regulators SCARB2 and TFEB are up-regulated in Lewy body disease brain

Mutations in the glucocerebrosidase (GCase) gene (GBA) and GCase deficiency are major risk factors for Lewy body diseases. Decreased GCase activity enhances alpha-synuclein aggregation and disease development. Lysosomal integral membrane protein type 2, encoded by SCARB2, binds GCase targeting it to lysosomes and transcription factor EB (Tfeb) regulates lysosomal proteostasis. Our aim was to find out if GCase deficiency in Lewy body diseases is accompanied by SCARB2 and TFEB deregulation at the transcriptional level involving alternative splicing as well. Relative mRNA expression of two SCARB2 and two TFEB transcripts was studied by real-time PCR in post-mortem brain samples of cases with pure Lewy body pathology (LBP), cases with concomitant LBP and Alzheimer disease-like pathology, and controls. TFEB expression was increased in the temporal cortex and caudate nucleus of LBP cases, and SCARB2 was differentially expressed. Female-gender associated overexpression of all transcripts was found in the caudate nucleus, and disease duration associated TFEB expression changes in the temporal cortex. SCARB2 and TFEB expression correlated negatively with GBA mRNA expression in the temporal cortex. Our findings show disease-specific deregulation of TFEB and SCARB2 expression affecting alternative promoter usage and alternative splicing in Lewy body diseases.

Alternative Transcription at Venom Genes and Its Role as a Complementary Mechanism for the Generation of Venom Complexity in the Common House Spider

The complex composition of venom, a proteinaceous secretion used by diverse animal groups for predation or defense, is typically viewed as being driven by gene duplication in conjunction with positive selection, leading to large families of diversified toxins with selective venom gland expression. Yet, the production of alternative transcripts at venom genes is often overlooked as another potentially important process that could contribute proteins to venom, and requires comprehensive datasets integrating genome and transcriptome sequences together with proteomic characterization of venom to be fully documented. In the common house spider, Parasteatoda tepidariorum, we used RNA sequencing of four tissue types in conjunction with the sequenced genome to provide a comprehensive transcriptome annotation. We also used mass spectrometry to identify a minimum of 99 distinct proteins in P tepidariorum venom, including at least 33 latrotoxins, pore-forming neurotoxins shared with the confamilial black widow. We found that venom proteins are much more likely to come from multiple transcript genes, whose transcripts produced distinct protein sequences. The presence of multiple distinct proteins in venom from transcripts at individual genes was confirmed for eight loci by mass spectrometry, and is possible at 21 others. Alternative transcripts from the same gene, whether encoding or not encoding a protein found in venom, showed a range of expression patterns, but were not necessarily restricted to the venom gland. However, approximately half of venom protein encoding transcripts were found among the 1,318 transcripts with strongly venom gland biased expression. Our findings revealed an important role for alternative transcription in generating venom protein complexity and expanded the traditional model of venom evolution.

CATANA: a tool for generating comprehensive annotations of alternative transcript events

SUMMARY

In higher eukaryotes, the generation of transcript isoforms from a single gene through alternative splicing (AS) and alternative transcription (AT) mechanisms increases functional and regulatory diversities. Annotating these alternative transcript events is essential for genomic studies. However, there are no existing tools that generate comprehensive annotations of all these alternative transcript events including both AS and AT events. In the present study, we develop CATANA, with the encoded exon usage patterns based on the flattened gene model, to identify ten types of AS and AT events. We demonstrate the power and versatility of CATANA by showing greater depth of annotations of alternative transcript events according to either genome annotation or RNA-seq data.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

CATANA is available on https://github.com/shiauck/CATANA.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

A junction coverage compatibility score to quantify the reliability of transcript abundance estimates and annotation catalogs

Comparison of observed exon–exon junction counts to those predicted from estimated transcript abundances can identify genes with misannotated or misquantified transcripts.

Most methods for statistical analysis of RNA-seq data take a matrix of abundance estimates for some type of genomic features as their input, and consequently the quality of any obtained results is directly dependent on the quality of these abundances. Here, we present the junction coverage compatibility score, which provides a way to evaluate the reliability of transcript-level abundance estimates and the accuracy of transcript annotation catalogs. It works by comparing the observed number of reads spanning each annotated splice junction in a genomic region to the predicted number of junction-spanning reads, inferred from the estimated transcript abundances and the genomic coordinates of the corresponding annotated transcripts. We show that although most genes show good agreement between the observed and predicted junction coverages, there is a small set of genes that do not. Genes with poor agreement are found regardless of the method used to estimate transcript abundances, and the corresponding transcript abundances should be treated with care in any downstream analyses.

Genetic effects on promoter usage are highly context-specific and contribute to complex traits

Genetic variants regulating RNA splicing and transcript usage have been implicated in both common and rare diseases. Although transcript usage quantitative trait loci (tuQTLs) have been mapped across multiple cell types and contexts, it is challenging to distinguish between the main molecular mechanisms controlling transcript usage: promoter choice, splicing and 3' end choice. Here, we analysed RNA-seq data from human macrophages exposed to three inflammatory and one metabolic stimulus. In addition to conventional gene-level and transcript-level analyses, we also directly quantified promoter usage, splicing and 3' end usage. We found that promoters, splicing and 3' ends were predominantly controlled by independent genetic variants enriched in distinct genomic features. Promoter usage QTLs were also 50% more likely to be context-specific than other tuQTLs and constituted 25% of the transcript-level colocalisations with complex traits. Thus, promoter usage might be an underappreciated molecular mechanism mediating complex trait associations in a context-specific manner.

Networks of mRNA Processing and Alternative Splicing Regulation in Health and Disease

mRNA processing events introduce an intricate layer of complexity into gene expression processes, supporting a tremendous level of diversification of the genome's coding and regulatory potential, particularly in vertebrate species. The recent development of massive parallel sequencing methods and their adaptation to the identification and quantification of different RNA species and the dynamics of mRNA metabolism and processing has generated an unprecedented view over the regulatory networks that are established at this level, which contribute to sustain developmental, tissue specific or disease specific gene expression programs. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the recent evolution of transcriptome profiling methods and the surprising insights that have emerged in recent years regarding distinct mRNA processing events - from the 5' end to the 3' end of the molecule.

Transcriptome-Wide Analysis Reveals the Landscape of Aberrant Alternative Splicing Events in Liver Cancer

Alternative splicing (AS) is assumed to be a pivotal determinant for the generation of diverse transcriptional variants in cancer. However, the comprehensive dysregulation of AS and the prospective biological and clinical relevance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain obscure. Here, we identified and depicted the AS landscape in HCC by performing reference-based assembly of sequencing reads from over 600 RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) libraries. We detected various differentially spliced ASEs across patients covering not only protein-coding genes, but also considerable numbers of noncoding genes. Strikingly, alternative transcription initiation was found to frequently occur in HCC. These differential ASEs were highly related to "cancer hallmarks" and involved in metabolism-related pathways in particular. In addition, 243 differential ASEs were identified as risk predictors for HCC patient survival. The isoform switch of metabolism-related gene UGP2 (UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase 2) might play an essential role in HCC. We further constructed regulatory networks between RNA-binding protein (RBP) genes and the corresponding ASEs. Further analysis demonstrated that the regulated networks were enriched in a variety of metabolism-related pathways. Conclusion: Differential ASEs are prevalent in HCC, where alternative transcription initiation was found to frequently occur. We found that genes having differential ASEs were significantly enriched in metabolism-related pathways. The expression variations, binding relations, and even mutations of RBP genes largely influenced differential ASEs in HCC.

Enantioselective Synthesis of a Cyclopropane Derivative of Spliceostatin A and Evaluation of Bioactivity

Spliceostatin A is a potent inhibitor of spliceosomes and exhibits excellent anticancer activity against multiple human cancer cell lines. We describe here the design and synthesis of a stable cyclopropane derivative of spliceostatin A. The synthesis involved a cross-metathesis or a Suzuki cross-coupling reaction as the key step. The functionalized epoxy alcohol ring was constructed from commercially available optically active tri- O-acetyl-d-glucal. The biological properties of the cyclopropyl derivative revealed that it is active in human cells and inhibits splicing in vitro comparable to spliceostatin A.

Cilia-Associated Oxysterols Activate Smoothened

Primary cilia are required for Smoothened to transduce vertebrate Hedgehog signals, but how Smoothened accumulates in cilia and is activated is incompletely understood. Here, we identify cilia-associated oxysterols that promote Smoothened accumulation in cilia and activate the Hedgehog pathway. Our data reveal that cilia-associated oxysterols bind to two distinct Smoothened domains to modulate Smoothened accumulation in cilia and tune the intensity of Hedgehog pathway activation. We find that the oxysterol synthase HSD11β2 participates in the production of Smoothened-activating oxysterols and promotes Hedgehog pathway activity. Inhibiting oxysterol biosynthesis impedes oncogenic Hedgehog pathway activation and attenuates the growth of Hedgehog pathway-associated medulloblastoma, suggesting that targeted inhibition of Smoothened-activating oxysterol production may be therapeutically useful for patients with Hedgehog-associated cancers.