Coding and noncoding variants in HFM1, MLH3, MSH4, MSH5, RNF212, and RNF212B affect recombination rate in cattle

Distinct and interdependent functions of three RING proteins regulate recombination during mammalian meiosis

During meiosis, each pair of homologous chromosomes becomes connected by at least one crossover, as required for accurate segregation, and adjacent crossovers are widely separated thereby limiting total numbers. In coarsening models, this crossover patterning results from nascent recombination sites competing to accrue a limiting pro-crossover RING-domain protein (COR) that diffuses between synapsed chromosomes. Here, we delineate the localization dynamics of three mammalian CORs in the mouse and determine their interdependencies. RNF212, HEI10, and the newest member RNF212B show divergent spatiotemporal dynamics along synapsed chromosomes, including profound differences in spermatocytes and oocytes, that are not easily reconciled by elementary coarsening models. Contrasting mutant phenotypes and genetic requirements indicate that RNF212B, RNF212, and HEI10 play distinct but interdependent functions in regulating meiotic recombination and coordinating the events of meiotic prophase-I by integrating signals from DNA breaks, homolog synapsis, the cell-cycle, and incipient crossover sites.

Genetics of Recombination Rate Variation Within and Between Species

Recombination diversifies the genomes of offspring, influences the evolutionary dynamics of populations, and ensures that chromosomes segregate properly during meiosis. Individuals recombine at different rates but observed levels of variation in recombination rate remain mostly unexplained. Genetic dissection of differences in recombination rate within and between species provides a powerful framework for understanding how this trait evolves. In this Perspective, I amalgamate published findings from genetic studies of variation in the genome-wide number of crossovers within and between species, and I use exploratory analyses to identify preliminary patterns. The narrow-sense heritability of crossover count is consistently low, indicating limited resemblance among relatives and predicting a weak response to short-term selection. Variants associated with crossover number within populations span the range of minor allele frequency. The size of the additive effect of recombination-associated variants, along with a negative correlation between this effect and minor allele frequency, raises the prospect that mutations inducing phenotypic shifts larger than a few crossovers are deleterious, though the contributions of methodological biases to these patterns deserve investigation. Quantitative trait loci that contribute to differences between populations or species alter crossover number in both directions, a pattern inconsistent with selection toward a constant optimum for this trait. Building on this characterization of genetic variation in crossover number within and between species, I describe fruitful avenues for future research. Better integrating recombination rate into quantitative genetics will reveal the balance of evolutionary forces responsible for genetic variation in this trait that shapes inheritance.

The Genetic Architecture of Recombination Rates is Polygenic and Differs Between the Sexes in Wild House Sparrows (Passer domesticus)

Meiotic recombination through chromosomal crossing-over is a fundamental feature of sex and an important driver of genomic diversity. It ensures proper disjunction, allows increased selection responses, and prevents mutation accumulation; however, it is also mutagenic and can break up favorable haplotypes. This cost-benefit dynamic is likely to vary depending on mechanistic and evolutionary contexts, and indeed, recombination rates show huge variation in nature. Identifying the genetic architecture of this variation is key to understanding its causes and consequences. Here, we investigate individual recombination rate variation in wild house sparrows (Passer domesticus). We integrate genomic and pedigree data to identify autosomal crossover counts (ACCs) and intrachromosomal allelic shuffling (r¯intra) in 13,056 gametes transmitted from 2,653 individuals to their offspring. Females had 1.37 times higher ACC, and 1.55 times higher r¯intra than males. ACC and r¯intra were heritable in females and males (ACC h2 = 0.23 and 0.11; r¯intra  h2 = 0.12 and 0.14), but cross-sex additive genetic correlations were low (rA = 0.29 and 0.32 for ACC and r¯intra). Conditional bivariate analyses showed that all measures remained heritable after accounting for genetic values in the opposite sex, indicating that sex-specific ACC and r¯intra can evolve somewhat independently. Genome-wide models showed that ACC and r¯intra are polygenic and driven by many small-effect loci, many of which are likely to act in trans as global recombination modifiers. Our findings show that recombination rates of females and males can have different evolutionary potential in wild birds, providing a compelling mechanism for the evolution of sexual dimorphism in recombination.

Multiple independent losses of crossover interference during yeast evolutionary history

Meiotic recombination is essential for the accurate chromosome segregation and the generation of genetic diversity through crossover and gene conversion events. Although this process has been studied extensively in a few selected model species, understanding how its properties vary across species remains limited. For instance, the ancestral ZMM pathway that generates interference-dependent crossovers has undergone multiple losses throughout evolution, suggesting variations in the regulation of crossover formation. In this context, we first characterized the meiotic recombination landscape and properties of the Kluyveromyces lactis budding yeast. We then conducted a comprehensive analysis of 29,151 recombination events (19, 212 COs and 9, 939 NCOs) spanning 577 meioses in the five budding yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces paradoxus, Lachancea kluyveri, Lachancea waltii and K. lactis. Eventually, we found that the Saccharomyces yeasts displayed higher recombination rates compared to the non-Saccharomyces yeasts. In addition, bona fide crossover interference and associated crossover homeostasis were detected in the Saccharomyces species only, adding L. kluyveri and K. lactis to the list of budding yeast species that lost crossover interference. Finally, recombination hotspots, although highly conserved within the Saccharomyces yeasts are not conserved beyond the Saccharomyces genus. Overall, these results highlight great variability in the recombination landscape and properties through budding yeasts evolution.

Understanding the Genetic Basis of Variation in Meiotic Recombination: Past, Present, and Future

Meiotic recombination is a fundamental feature of sexually reproducing species. It is often required for proper chromosome segregation and plays important role in adaptation and the maintenance of genetic diversity. The molecular mechanisms of recombination are remarkably conserved across eukaryotes, yet meiotic genes and proteins show substantial variation in their sequence and function, even between closely related species. Furthermore, the rate and distribution of recombination shows a huge diversity within and between chromosomes, individuals, sexes, populations, and species. This variation has implications for many molecular and evolutionary processes, yet how and why this diversity has evolved is not well understood. A key step in understanding trait evolution is to determine its genetic basis-that is, the number, effect sizes, and distribution of loci underpinning variation. In this perspective, I discuss past and current knowledge on the genetic basis of variation in recombination rate and distribution, explore its evolutionary implications, and present open questions for future research.

RNF212B E3 ligase is essential for crossover designation and maturation during male and female meiosis in the mouse

Meiosis, a reductional cell division, relies on precise initiation, maturation, and resolution of crossovers (COs) during prophase I to ensure the accurate segregation of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I. This process is regulated by the interplay of RING-E3 ligases such as RNF212 and HEI10 in mammals. In this study, we functionally characterized a recently identified RING-E3 ligase, RNF212B. RNF212B colocalizes and interacts with RNF212, forming foci along chromosomes from zygonema onward in a synapsis-dependent and DSB-independent manner. These consolidate into larger foci at maturing COs, colocalizing with HEI10, CNTD1, and MLH1 by late pachynema. Genetically, RNF212B foci formation depends on Rnf212 but not on Msh4, Hei10, and Cntd1, while the unloading of RNF212B at the end of pachynema is dependent on Hei10 and Cntd1. Mice lacking RNF212B, or expressing an inactive RNF212B protein, exhibit modest synapsis defects, a reduction in the localization of pro-CO factors (MSH4, TEX11, RPA, MZIP2) and absence of late CO-intermediates (MLH1). This loss of most COs by diakinesis results in mostly univalent chromosomes. Double mutants for Rnf212b and Rnf212 exhibit an identical phenotype to that of Rnf212b single mutants, while double heterozygous demonstrate a dosage-dependent reduction in CO number, indicating a functional interplay between paralogs. SUMOylome analysis of testes from Rnf212b mutants and pull-down analysis of Sumo- and Ubiquitin-tagged HeLa cells, suggest that RNF212B is an E3-ligase with Ubiquitin activity, serving as a crucial factor for CO maturation. Thus, RNF212 and RNF212B play vital, yet overlapping roles, in ensuring CO homeostasis through their distinct E3 ligase activities.

Divergence and conservation of the meiotic recombination machinery

Sexually reproducing eukaryotes use recombination between homologous chromosomes to promote chromosome segregation during meiosis. Meiotic recombination is almost universally conserved in its broad strokes, but specific molecular details often differ considerably between taxa, and the proteins that constitute the recombination machinery show substantial sequence variability. The extent of this variation is becoming increasingly clear because of recent increases in genomic resources and advances in protein structure prediction. We discuss the tension between functional conservation and rapid evolutionary change with a focus on the proteins that are required for the formation and repair of meiotic DNA double-strand breaks. We highlight phylogenetic relationships on different time scales and propose that this remarkable evolutionary plasticity is a fundamental property of meiotic recombination that shapes our understanding of molecular mechanisms in reproductive biology.

Recent advances in mechanisms ensuring the pairing, synapsis and segregation of XY chromosomes in mice and humans

Sex chromosome aneuploidies are among the most common variations in human whole chromosome copy numbers, with an estimated prevalence in the general population of 1:400 to 1:1400 live births. Unlike whole-chromosome aneuploidies of autosomes, those of sex chromosomes, such as the 47, XXY aneuploidy that causes Klinefelter Syndrome (KS), often originate from the paternal side, caused by a lack of crossover (CO) formation between the X and Y chromosomes. COs must form between all chromosome pairs to pass meiotic checkpoints and are the product of meiotic recombination that occurs between homologous sequences of parental chromosomes. Recombination between male sex chromosomes is more challenging compared to both autosomes and sex chromosomes in females, as it is restricted within a short region of homology between X and Y, called the pseudo-autosomal region (PAR). However, in normal individuals, CO formation occurs in PAR with a higher frequency than in any other region, indicating the presence of mechanisms that promote the initiation and processing of recombination in each meiotic division. In recent years, research has made great strides in identifying genes and mechanisms that facilitate CO formation in the PAR. Here, we outline the most recent and relevant findings in this field. XY chromosome aneuploidy in humans has broad-reaching effects, contributing significantly also to Turner syndrome, spontaneous abortions, oligospermia, and even infertility. Thus, in the years to come, the identification of genes and mechanisms beyond XY aneuploidy is expected to have an impact on the genetic counseling of a wide number of families and adults affected by these disorders.

Sequenced-based GWAS for linear classification traits in Belgian Blue beef cattle reveals new coding variants in genes regulating body size in mammals

BACKGROUND

Cohorts of individuals that have been genotyped and phenotyped for genomic selection programs offer the opportunity to better understand genetic variation associated with complex traits. Here, we performed an association study for traits related to body size and muscular development in intensively selected beef cattle. We leveraged multiple trait information to refine and interpret the significant associations.

RESULTS

After a multiple-step genotype imputation to the sequence-level for 14,762 Belgian Blue beef (BBB) cows, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for 11 traits related to muscular development and body size. The 37 identified genome-wide significant quantitative trait loci (QTL) could be condensed in 11 unique QTL regions based on their position. Evidence for pleiotropic effects was found in most of these regions (e.g., correlated association signals, overlap between credible sets (CS) of candidate variants). Thus, we applied a multiple-trait approach to combine information from different traits to refine the CS. In several QTL regions, we identified strong candidate genes known to be related to growth and height in other species such as LCORL-NCAPG or CCND2. For some of these genes, relevant candidate variants were identified in the CS, including three new missense variants in EZH2, PAPPA2 and ADAM12, possibly two additional coding variants in LCORL, and candidate regulatory variants linked to CCND2 and ARMC12. Strikingly, four other QTL regions associated with dimension or muscular development traits were related to five (recessive) deleterious coding variants previously identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study further supports that a set of common genes controls body size across mammalian species. In particular, we added new genes to the list of those associated with height in both humans and cattle. We also identified new strong candidate causal variants in some of these genes, strengthening the evidence of their causality. Several breed-specific recessive deleterious variants were identified in our QTL regions, probably as a result of the extreme selection for muscular development in BBB cattle.

Genetic architecture of individual meiotic crossover rate and distribution in Atlantic Salmon

Meiotic recombination through chromosomal crossovers ensures proper segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, while also breaking down linkage disequilibrium and shuffling alleles at loci located on the same chromosome. Rates of recombination can vary between species, but also between and within individuals, sex and chromosomes within species. Indeed, the Atlantic salmon genome is known to have clear sex differences in recombination with female biased heterochiasmy and markedly different landscapes of crossovers between males and females. In male meiosis, crossovers occur strictly in the telomeric regions, whereas in female meiosis crossovers tend to occur closer to the centromeres. However, little is known about the genetic control of these patterns and how this differs at the individual level. Here, we investigate genetic variation in individual measures of recombination in > 5000 large full-sib families of a Norwegian Atlantic salmon breeding population with high-density SNP genotypes. We show that females had 1.6 × higher crossover counts (CC) than males, with autosomal linkage maps spanning a total of 2174 cM in females and 1483 cM in males. However, because of the extreme telomeric bias of male crossovers, female recombination is much more important for generation of new haplotypes with 8 × higher intra-chromosomal genetic shuffling than males. CC was heritable in females (h2 = 0.11) and males (h2 = 0.10), and shuffling was also heritable in both sex but with a lower heritability in females (h2 = 0.06) than in males (h2 = 0.11). Inter-sex genetic correlations for both traits were close to zero, suggesting that rates and distribution of crossovers are genetically distinct traits in males and females, and that there is a potential for independent genetic change in both sexes in the Atlantic Salmon. Together, these findings give novel insights into the genetic architecture of recombination in salmonids and contribute to a better understanding of how rates and distribution of recombination may evolve in eukaryotes more broadly.

A pathogenic variant in the uncharacterized RNF212B gene results in severe aneuploidy male infertility and repeated IVF failure

Quantitative and qualitative spermatogenic impairments are major causes of men's infertility. Although in vitro fertilization (IVF) is effective, some couples persistently fail to conceive. To identify causal variants in patients with severe male infertility factor and repeated IVF failures, we sequenced the exome of two consanguineous family members who underwent several failed IVF cycles and were diagnosed with low sperm count and motility. We identified a rare homozygous nonsense mutation in a previously uncharacterized gene, RNF212B, as the causative variant. Recurrence was identified in another unrelated, infertile patient who also faced repeated failed IVF treatments. scRNA-seq demonstrated meiosis-specific expression of RNF212B. Sequence analysis located a protein domain known to be associated with aneuploidy, which can explain multiple IVF failures. Accordingly, FISH analysis revealed a high aneuploidy rate in the patients' sperm cells and their IVF embryos. Finally, inactivation of the Drosophila orthologs significantly reduced male fertility. Given that members of the evolutionary conserved RNF212 gene family are involved in meiotic recombination and crossover maturation, our findings indicate a critical role of RNF212B in meiosis, genome stability, and in human fertility. Since recombination is completely absent in Drosophila males, our findings may indicate an additional unrelated role for the RNF212-like paralogs in spermatogenesis.

The regulation of meiotic crossover distribution: a coarse solution to a century-old mystery?

Meiotic crossovers, which are exchanges of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, are more evenly and distantly spaced along chromosomes than expected by chance. This is because the occurrence of one crossover reduces the likelihood of nearby crossover events - a conserved and intriguing phenomenon called crossover interference. Although crossover interference was first described over a century ago, the mechanism allowing coordination of the fate of potential crossover sites half a chromosome away remains elusive. In this review, we discuss the recently published evidence supporting a new model for crossover patterning, coined the coarsening model, and point out the missing pieces that are still needed to complete this fascinating puzzle.

Comparison of two multi-trait association testing methods and sequence-based fine mapping of six additive QTL in Swiss Large White pigs

BACKGROUND

Genetic correlations between complex traits suggest that pleiotropic variants contribute to trait variation. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) aim to uncover the genetic underpinnings of traits. Multivariate association testing and the meta-analysis of summary statistics from single-trait GWAS enable detecting variants associated with multiple phenotypes. In this study, we used array-derived genotypes and phenotypes for 24 reproduction, production, and conformation traits to explore differences between the two methods and used imputed sequence variant genotypes to fine-map six quantitative trait loci (QTL).

RESULTS

We considered genotypes at 44,733 SNPs for 5,753 pigs from the Swiss Large White breed that had deregressed breeding values for 24 traits. Single-trait association analyses revealed eleven QTL that affected 15 traits. Multi-trait association testing and the meta-analysis of the single-trait GWAS revealed between 3 and 6 QTL, respectively, in three groups of traits. The multi-trait methods revealed three loci that were not detected in the single-trait GWAS. Four QTL that were identified in the single-trait GWAS, remained undetected in the multi-trait analyses. To pinpoint candidate causal variants for the QTL, we imputed the array-derived genotypes to the sequence level using a sequenced reference panel consisting of 421 pigs. This approach provided genotypes at 16 million imputed sequence variants with a mean accuracy of imputation of 0.94. The fine-mapping of six QTL with imputed sequence variant genotypes revealed four previously proposed causal mutations among the top variants.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings in a medium-size cohort of pigs suggest that multivariate association testing and the meta-analysis of summary statistics from single-trait GWAS provide very similar results. Although multi-trait association methods provide a useful overview of pleiotropic loci segregating in mapping populations, the investigation of single-trait association studies is still advised, as multi-trait methods may miss QTL that are uncovered in single-trait GWAS.

Variation and genetic control of individual recombination rates in Norwegian Red dairy cattle

Meiotic recombination is an important evolutionary mechanism that breaks up linkages between loci and creates novel haplotypes for selection to act upon. Understanding the genetic control of variation in recombination rates is therefore of great interest in both natural and domestic breeding populations. In this study, we used pedigree information and medium-density (∼50K) genotyped data in a large cattle (Bos taurus) breeding population in Norway (Norwegian Red cattle) to investigate recombination rate variation between sexes and individual animals. Sex-specific linkage mapping showed higher rates in males than in females (total genetic length of autosomes = 2,492.9 cM in males and 2,308.9 cM in females). However, distribution of recombination along the genome showed little variation between males and females compared with that in other species. The heritability of autosomal crossover count was low but significant in both sexes (h² = 0.04 and 0.09 in males and females, respectively). We identified 2 loci associated with variation in individual crossover counts in female, one close to the candidate gene CEP55 and one close to both MLH3 and NEK9. All 3 genes have been associated with recombination rates in other cattle breeds. Our study contributes to the understanding of how recombination rates are controlled and how they may vary between closely related breeds as well as between species.

NanoCross: A pipeline that detecting recombinant crossover using ONT sequencing data

Meiotic recombination is crucial for eukaryotes but varies among taxonomic scales (between individuals, groups, species, etc.) and genome resolutions. Studying how and why recombination rates change can help us understand the molecular basis and mechanisms of genetics and evolution. We introduce a genome-wide identification script called NanoCross, which uses ONT sequences to detect pooled gamete DNA cross recombination events. NanoCross first reduced sequencing errors and then constructed individual haplotypes based on homopolymer-filtered ONT sequences. Then, each molecule read is used to estimate cross recombination. In the case of moderate heterozygous variation density and sequencing depth, simulations revealed that our technique offers a good level of sensitivity and specificity. We constructed a high-resolution recombination map of wild boar genomes using NanoCross and compared it to recombination maps of male breeding pig populations. NanoCross provides us with a method and scripts for constructing a high-resolution individual genome recombination map utilizing long-read sequencing, as well as a novel approach for examining the variation in individual recombination rate. The source code and data mechanism are hosted on GitHub (https://github.com/zuoquanchen/NanoCross).

Recombination rates in pigs differ between breeds, sexes and individuals, and are associated with the RNF212, SYCP2, PRDM7, MEI1 and MSH4 loci

Background

Recombination is a fundamental part of mammalian meiosis that leads to the exchange of large segments of DNA between homologous chromosomes and is therefore an important driver of genetic diversity in populations. In breeding populations, understanding recombination is of particular interest because it can break up unfavourable linkage phases between alleles and produce novel combinations of alleles that could be exploited in selection. In this study, we used dense single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotype data and pedigree information to analyse individual and sex-specific variation and genetic architecture of recombination rates within and between five commercially selected pig breeds.

Results

In agreement with previous studies, recombination rates were higher in females than in males for all breeds and for all chromosomes, except 1 and 13, for which male rates were slightly higher. Total recombination rate differed between breeds but the pattern of recombination along the chromosomes was well conserved across breeds for the same sex. The autosomal linkage maps spanned a total length of 1731 to 1887 cM for males and of 2231 to 2515 cM for females. Estimates of heritability for individual autosomal crossover count ranged from 0.04 to 0.07 for males and from 0.08 to 0.11 for females. Fourteen genomic regions were found to be associated with individual autosomal crossover count. Of these, four were close to or within candidate genes that have previously been associated with individual recombination rates in pigs and other mammals, namely RNF212, SYCP2 and MSH4. Two of the identified regions included the PRDM7 and MEI1 genes, which are known to be involved in meiosis but have not been previously associated with variation in individual recombination rates.

Conclusions

This study shows that genetic variation in autosomal recombination rate persists in domesticated species under strong selection, with differences between closely-related breeds and marked differences between the sexes. Our findings support results from other studies, i.e., that individual crossover counts are associated with the RNF212, SYCP2 and MSH4 genes in pig. In addition, we have found two novel candidate genes associated with the trait, namely PRDM7 and MEI1.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12711-022-00723-9.

The genetic history of Mayotte and Madagascar cattle breeds mirrors the complex pattern of human exchanges in Western Indian Ocean

Despite their central economic and cultural role, the origin of cattle populations living in Indian Ocean islands still remains poorly documented. Here, we unravel the demographic and adaptive histories of the extant Zebus from the Mayotte and Madagascar islands using high-density SNP genotyping data. We found that these populations are very closely related and both display a predominant indicine ancestry. They diverged in the 16th century at the arrival of European people who transformed the trade network in the area. Their common ancestral cattle population originates from an admixture between an admixed African zebu population and an Indian zebu that occurred around the 12th century at the time of the earliest contacts between human African populations of the Swahili corridor and Austronesian people from Southeast Asia in Comoros and Madagascar. A steep increase in the estimated population sizes from the beginning of the 16th to the 17th century coincides with the expansion of the cattle trade. By carrying out genome scans for recent selection in the two cattle populations from Mayotte and Madagascar, we identified sets of candidate genes involved in biological functions (cancer, skin structure, and UV-protection, nervous system and behavior, organ development, metabolism, and immune response) broadly representative of the physiological adaptation to tropical conditions. Overall, the origin of the cattle populations from Western Indian Ocean islands mirrors the complex history of human migrations and trade in this area.

Genome-wide recombination map construction from single sperm sequencing in cattle

BACKGROUND

Meiotic recombination is one of the important phenomena contributing to gamete genome diversity. However, except for human and a few model organisms, it is not well studied in livestock, including cattle.

RESULTS

To investigate their distributions in the cattle sperm genome, we sequenced 143 single sperms from two Holstein bulls. We mapped meiotic recombination events at high resolution based on phased heterozygous single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). In the absence of evolutionary selection pressure in fertilization and survival, recombination events in sperm are enriched near distal chromosomal ends, revealing that such a pattern is intrinsic to the molecular mechanism of meiosis. Furthermore, we further validated these findings in single sperms with results derived from sequencing its family trio of diploid genomes and our previous studies of recombination in cattle.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale single sperm whole-genome sequencing effort in livestock, which provided useful information for future studies of recombination, genome instability, and male infertility.

Benchmarking phasing software with a whole-genome sequenced cattle pedigree

Background

Accurate haplotype reconstruction is required in many applications in quantitative and population genomics. Different phasing methods are available but their accuracy must be evaluated for samples with different properties (population structure, marker density, etc.). We herein took advantage of whole-genome sequence data available for a Holstein cattle pedigree containing 264 individuals, including 98 trios, to evaluate several population-based phasing methods. This data represents a typical example of a livestock population, with low effective population size, high levels of relatedness and long-range linkage disequilibrium.

Results

After stringent filtering of our sequence data, we evaluated several population-based phasing programs including one or more versions of AlphaPhase, ShapeIT, Beagle, Eagle and FImpute. To that end we used 98 individuals having both parents sequenced for validation. Their haplotypes reconstructed based on Mendelian segregation rules were considered the gold standard to assess the performance of population-based methods in two scenarios. In the first one, only these 98 individuals were phased, while in the second one, all the 264 sequenced individuals were phased simultaneously, ignoring the pedigree relationships. We assessed phasing accuracy based on switch error counts (SEC) and rates (SER), lengths of correctly phased haplotypes and the probability that there is no phasing error between a pair of SNPs as a function of their distance. For most evaluated metrics or scenarios, the best software was either ShapeIT4.1 or Beagle5.2, both methods resulting in particularly high phasing accuracies. For instance, ShapeIT4.1 achieved a median SEC of 50 per individual and a mean haplotype block length of 24.1 Mb (scenario 2). These statistics are remarkable since the methods were evaluated with a map of 8,400,000 SNPs, and this corresponds to only one switch error every 40,000 phased informative markers. When more relatives were included in the data (scenario 2), FImpute3.0 reconstructed extremely long segments without errors.

Conclusions

We report extremely high phasing accuracies in a typical livestock sample. ShapeIT4.1 and Beagle5.2 proved to be the most accurate, particularly for phasing long segments and in the first scenario. Nevertheless, most tools achieved high accuracy at short distances and would be suitable for applications requiring only local haplotypes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08354-6.

High male specific contribution of the X-chromosome to individual global recombination rate in dairy cattle

Background

Meiotic recombination plays an important role in reproduction and evolution. The individual global recombination rate (GRR), measured as the number of crossovers (CO) per gametes, is a complex trait that has been shown to be heritable. The sex chromosomes play an important role in reproduction and fertility related traits. Therefore, variants present on the X-chromosome might have a high contribution to the genetic variation of GRR that is related to meiosis and to reproduction.

Results

We herein used genotyping data from 58,474 New Zealand dairy cattle to estimate the contribution of the X-chromosome to male and female GRR levels. Based on the pedigree-based relationships, we first estimated that the X-chromosome accounted for 30% of the total additive genetic variance for male GRR. This percentage was equal to 19.9% when the estimation relied on a SNP-BLUP approach assuming each SNP has a small contribution. We then carried out a haplotype-based association study to map X-linked QTL, and subsequently fine-mapped the identified QTL with imputed sequence variants. With this approach we identified three QTL with large effect accounting for 7.7% of the additive genetic variance of male GRR. The associated effects were equal to + 0.79, − 1.16 and + 1.18 CO for the alternate alleles. In females, the estimated contribution of the X-chromosome to GRR was null and no significant association with X-linked loci was found. Interestingly, two of the male GRR QTL were associated with candidate genes preferentially expressed in testis, in agreement with a male-specific effect. Finally, the most significant QTL was associated with PPP4R3C, further supporting the important role of protein phosphatase in double-strand break repair by homologous recombination.

Conclusions

Our study illustrates the important role the X-chromosome can have on traits such as individual recombination rate, associated with testis in males. We also show that contribution of the X-chromosome to such a trait might be sex dependent.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08328-8.

Evolution and Plasticity of Genome-Wide Meiotic Recombination Rates

Sex, as well as meiotic recombination between homologous chromosomes, is nearly ubiquitous among eukaryotes. In those species that use it, recombination is important for chromosome segregation during gamete production, and thus for fertility. Strikingly, although in most species only one crossover event per chromosome is required to ensure proper segregation, recombination rates vary considerably above this minimum and show variation within and among species. However, whether this variation in recombination is adaptive or neutral and what might shape it remain unclear. Empirical studies and theory support the idea that recombination is generally beneficial but can also have costs. Here, we review variation in genome-wide recombination rates, explore what might cause this, and discuss what is known about its mechanistic basis. We end by discussing the environmental sensitivity of meiosis and recombination rates, how these features may relate to adaptation, and their implications for a broader understanding of recombination rate evolution. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Genetics, Volume 55 is November 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

A 12 kb multi-allelic copy number variation encompassing a GC gene enhancer is associated with mastitis resistance in dairy cattle

Clinical mastitis (CM) is an inflammatory disease occurring in the mammary glands of lactating cows. CM is under genetic control, and a prominent CM resistance QTL located on chromosome 6 was reported in various dairy cattle breeds. Nevertheless, the biological mechanism underpinning this QTL has been lacking. Herein, we mapped, fine-mapped, and discovered the putative causal variant underlying this CM resistance QTL in the Dutch dairy cattle population. We identified a ~12 kb multi-allelic copy number variant (CNV), that is in perfect linkage disequilibrium with a lead SNP, as a promising candidate variant. By implementing a fine-mapping and through expression QTL mapping, we showed that the group-specific component gene (GC), a gene encoding a vitamin D binding protein, is an excellent candidate causal gene for the QTL. The multiplicated alleles are associated with increased GC expression and low CM resistance. Ample evidence from functional genomics data supports the presence of an enhancer within this CNV, which would exert cis-regulatory effect on GC. We observed that strong positive selection swept the region near the CNV, and haplotypes associated with the multiplicated allele were strongly selected for. Moreover, the multiplicated allele showed pleiotropic effects for increased milk yield and reduced fertility, hinting that a shared underlying biology for these effects may revolve around the vitamin D pathway. These findings together suggest a putative causal variant of a CM resistance QTL, where a cis-regulatory element located within a CNV can alter gene expression and affect multiple economically important traits.

Genetic variation in recombination rate in the pig

Background

Meiotic recombination results in the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Recombination rate varies between different parts of the genome, between individuals, and is influenced by genetics. In this paper, we assessed the genetic variation in recombination rate along the genome and between individuals in the pig using multilocus iterative peeling on 150,000 individuals across nine genotyped pedigrees. We used these data to estimate the heritability of recombination and perform a genome-wide association study of recombination in the pig.

Results

Our results confirmed known features of the recombination landscape of the pig genome, including differences in genetic length of chromosomes and marked sex differences. The recombination landscape was repeatable between lines, but at the same time, there were differences in average autosome-wide recombination rate between lines. The heritability of autosome-wide recombination rate was low but not zero (on average 0.07 for females and 0.05 for males). We found six genomic regions that are associated with recombination rate, among which five harbour known candidate genes involved in recombination: RNF212, SHOC1, SYCP2, MSH4 and HFM1.

Conclusions

Our results on the variation in recombination rate in the pig genome agree with those reported for other vertebrates, with a low but nonzero heritability, and the identification of a major quantitative trait locus for recombination rate that is homologous to that detected in several other species. This work also highlights the utility of using large-scale livestock data to understand biological processes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12711-021-00643-0.

Genomic Footprints of Recovery in the European Bison

After extinction in the wild in the beginning of the 20th century, the European bison has been successfully recovered in 2 distinct genetic lines from only 12 and 7 captive founders. We here aimed at characterizing the levels of realized inbreeding in these 2 restored lines to provide empirical insights into the genomic footprints left by population recovery from a small number of founders. To that end, we genotyped 183 European bison born over the last 40 years with the Illumina BovineHD beadchip that contained 22 602 informative autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphisms after data filtering. We then identified homozygous-by-descent (HBD) segments and classified them into different age-related classes relying on a model-based approach. As expected, we observed that the strong and recent founder effect experienced by the 2 lines resulted in very high levels of recent inbreeding and in the presence of long HBD tracks (up to 120 Mb). These long HBD tracks were associated with ancestors living approximately from 4 to 32 generations in the past, suggesting that inbreeding accumulated over multiple generations after the bottleneck. The contribution to inbreeding of the most recent groups of ancestors was however found to be decreasing in both lines. In addition, comparison of Lowland individuals born at different time periods showed that the levels of inbreeding tended to stabilize, HBD segments being shorter in animals born more recently which indicates efficient control of inbreeding. Monitoring HBD segment lengths over generations may thus be viewed as a valuable genomic diagnostic tool for populations in conservation or recovery programs.

Enhancing backcross programs through increased recombination

Background

Introgression of a quantitative trait locus (QTL) by successive backcrosses is used to improve elite lines (recurrent parent) by introducing alleles from exotic material (donor parent). In the absence of selection, the proportion of the donor genome decreases by half at each generation. However, since selection is for the donor allele at the QTL, elimination of the donor genome around that QTL will be much slower than in the rest of the genome (i.e. linkage drag). Using markers to monitor the genome around the QTL and in the genetic background can accelerate the return to the recurrent parent genome. Successful introgression of a locus depends partly on the occurrence of crossovers at favorable positions. However, the number of crossovers per generation is limited and their distribution along the genome is heterogeneous. Recently, techniques have been developed to modify these two recombination parameters.

Results

In this paper, we assess, by simulations in the context of Brassicaceae, the effect of increased recombination on the efficiency of introgression programs by studying the decrease in linkage drag and the recovery of the recurrent genome. The simulated selection schemes begin by two generations of foreground selection and continue with one or more generations of background selection. Our results show that, when the QTL is in a region that initially lacked crossovers, an increase in recombination rate can decrease linkage drag by nearly ten-fold after the foreground selection and improves the return to the recurrent parent. However, if the QTL is in a region that is already rich in crossovers, an increase in recombination rate is detrimental.

Conclusions

Depending on the recombination rate in the region targeted for introgression, increasing it can be beneficial or detrimental. Thus, the simulations analysed in this paper help us understand how an increase in recombination rate can be beneficial. They also highlight the best methods that can be used to increase recombination rate, depending on the situation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12711-021-00619-0.

An evaluation of inbreeding measures using a whole-genome sequenced cattle pedigree

The estimation of the inbreeding coefficient (F) is essential for the study of inbreeding depression (ID) or for the management of populations under conservation. Several methods have been proposed to estimate the realized F using genetic markers, but it remains unclear which one should be used. Here we used whole-genome sequence data for 245 individuals from a Holstein cattle pedigree to empirically evaluate which estimators best capture homozygosity at variants causing ID, such as rare deleterious alleles or loci presenting heterozygote advantage and segregating at intermediate frequency. Estimators relying on the correlation between uniting gametes (F_UNI) or on the genomic relationships (F_GRM) presented the highest correlations with these variants. However, homozygosity at rare alleles remained poorly captured. A second group of estimators relying on excess homozygosity (F_HOM), homozygous-by-descent segments (F_HBD), runs-of-homozygosity (F_ROH) or on the known genealogy (F_PED) was better at capturing whole-genome homozygosity, reflecting the consequences of inbreeding on all variants, and for young alleles with low to moderate frequencies (0.10 < . < 0.25). The results indicate that F_UNI and F_GRM might present a stronger association with ID. However, the situation might be different when recessive deleterious alleles reach higher frequencies, such as in populations with a small effective population size. For locus-specific inbreeding measures or at low marker density, the ranking of the methods can also change as F_HBD makes better use of the information from neighboring markers. Finally, we confirmed that genomic measures are in general superior to pedigree-based estimates. In particular, F_PED was uncorrelated with locus-specific homozygosity.

Evidence for recombination variability in purebred swine populations

This study aimed to investigate interpopulation variation due to sex, breed and age, and the intrapopulation variation in the form of genetic variance for recombination in swine. Genome-wide recombination rate and recombination occurrences (RO) were traits studied in Landrace (LR) and Large White (LW) male and female populations. Differences were found for sex, breed, sex-breed interaction, and age effects for genome-wide recombination rate and RO at one or more chromosomes. Dams were found to have a higher genome-wide recombination rate and RO at all chromosomes than sires. LW animals had higher genome-wide recombination rate and RO at seven chromosomes but lower at two chromosomes than LR individuals. The sex-breed interaction effect did not show any pattern not already observable by sex. Recombination increased with increasing parity in females, while in males no effect of age was observed. We estimated heritabilities and repeatabilities for both investigated traits and obtained the genetic correlation between male and female genome-wide recombination rate within each of the two breeds studied. Estimates of heritability and repeatability were low (h²  = 0.01-0.26; r = 0.18-0.42) for both traits in all populations. Genetic correlations were high and positive, with estimates of 0.98 and 0.94 for the LR and LW breeds, respectively. We performed a GWAS for genome-wide recombination rate independently in the four sex/breed populations. The results of the GWAS were inconsistent across the four populations with different significant genomic regions identified. The results of this study provide evidence of variability for recombination in purebred swine populations.

Theoretical and empirical comparisons of expected and realized relationships for the X-chromosome

Background

X-chromosomal loci present different inheritance patterns compared to autosomal loci and must be modeled accordingly. Sexual chromosomes are not systematically considered in whole-genome relationship matrices although rules based on genealogical or marker information have been derived. Loci on the X-chromosome could have a significant contribution to the additive genetic variance, in particular for some traits such as those related to reproduction. Thus, accounting for the X-chromosome relationship matrix might be informative to better understand the architecture of complex traits (e.g., by estimating the variance associated to this chromosome) and to improve their genomic prediction. For such applications, previous studies have shown the benefits of combining information from genotyped and ungenotyped individuals.

Results

In this paper, we start by presenting rules to compute a genomic relationship matrix (GRM) for the X-chromosome (G^X) without making any assumption on dosage compensation, and based on coding of gene content with 0/1 for males and 0/1/2 for females. This coding adjusts naturally to previously derived pedigree-based relationships (S) for the X-chromosome. When needed, we propose to accommodate and estimate dosage compensation and genetic heterogeneity across sexes via multiple trait models. Using a Holstein dairy cattle dataset, including males and females, we then empirically illustrate that realized relationships (G^X) matches expectations (S). However, G^X presents high deviations from S. G^X has also a lower dimensionality compared to the autosomal GRM. In particular, individuals are frequently identical along the entire chromosome. Finally, we confirm that the heritability of gene content for markers on the X-chromosome that are estimated by using S is 1, further demonstrating that S and G^X can be combined. For the pseudo-autosomal region, we demonstrate that the expected relationships vary according to position because of the sex-gradient. We end by presenting the rules to construct the 'H matrix’ by combining both relationship matrices.

Conclusions

This work shows theoretically and empirically that a pedigree-based relationship matrix built with rules specifically developed for the X-chromosome (S) matches the realized GRM for the X-chromosome. Therefore, applications that combine expected relationships and genotypes for markers on the X-chromosome should use S and G^X.

Genetic architecture of individual variation in recombination rate on the X chromosome in cattle

Meiotic recombination is an essential biological process that ensures proper chromosome segregation and creates genetic diversity. Individual variation in global recombination rates has been shown to be heritable in several species, and variants significantly associated with this trait have been identified. Recombination on the sex chromosome has often been ignored in these studies although this trait may be particularly interesting as it may correspond to a biological process distinct from that on autosomes. For instance, recombination in males is restricted to the pseudo-autosomal region (PAR). We herein used a large cattle pedigree with more than 100,000 genotyped animals to improve the genetic map of the X chromosome and to study the genetic architecture of individual variation in recombination rate on the sex chromosome (XRR). The length of the genetic map was 46.4 and 121.2 cM in males and females, respectively, but the recombination rate in the PAR was six times higher in males. The heritability of CO counts on the X chromosome was comparable to that of autosomes in males (0.011) but larger than that of autosomes in females (0.024). XRR was highly correlated (0.76) with global recombination rate (GRR) in females, suggesting that both traits might be governed by shared variants. In agreement, a set of eleven previously identified variants associated with GRR had correlated effects on female XRR (0.86). In males, XRR and GRR appeared to be distinct traits, although more accurate CO counts on the PAR would be valuable to confirm these results.

DNA methylation in bull spermatozoa: evolutionary impacts, interindividual variability, and contribution to the embryo

The DNA methylome of spermatozoa results from a unique epigenetic reprogramming crucial for chromatin compaction and the protection of the paternal genetic heritage. Although bull semen is widely used for artificial insemination (AI), little is known about the sperm epigenome in cattle. The purpose of this review is to synthetize recent work on the bull sperm methylome in light of the knowledge accumulated in humans and model species. We will address sperm-specific DNA methylation features and their potential evolutionary impacts, with particular emphasis on hypomethylated regions and repetitive elements. We will review recent examples of interindividual variability and intra-individual plasticity of the bull sperm methylome as related to fertility and age, respectively. Finally, we will address paternal methylome reprogramming after fertilization, as well as the mechanisms potentially involved in epigenetic inheritance, and provide some examples of disturbances that alter the dynamics of reprogramming in cattle. Because the selection of AI bulls is closely based on their genotypes, we will also discuss the complex interplay between sequence polymorphism and DNA methylation, which represents both a difficulty in addressing the role of DNA methylation in shaping phenotypes and an opportunity to better understand genome plasticity.

Molecular evolution of the meiotic recombination pathway in mammals

Meiotic recombination shapes evolution and helps to ensure proper chromosome segregation in most species that reproduce sexually. Recombination itself evolves, with species showing considerable divergence in the rate of crossing-over. However, the genetic basis of this divergence is poorly understood. Recombination events are produced via a complicated, but increasingly well-described, cellular pathway. We apply a phylogenetic comparative approach to a carefully selected panel of genes involved in the processes leading to crossovers-spanning double-strand break formation, strand invasion, the crossover/non-crossover decision, and resolution-to reconstruct the evolution of the recombination pathway in eutherian mammals and identify components of the pathway likely to contribute to divergence between species. Eleven recombination genes, predominantly involved in the stabilization of homologous pairing and the crossover/non-crossover decision, show evidence of rapid evolution and positive selection across mammals. We highlight TEX11 and associated genes involved in the synaptonemal complex and the early stages of the crossover/non-crossover decision as candidates for the evolution of recombination rate. Evolutionary comparisons to MLH1 count, a surrogate for the number of crossovers, reveal a positive correlation between genome-wide recombination rate and the rate of evolution at TEX11 across the mammalian phylogeny. Our results illustrate the power of viewing the evolution of recombination from a pathway perspective.

Crossover Interference, Crossover Maturation, and Human Aneuploidy

A striking feature of human female sexual reproduction is the high level of gametes that exhibit an aberrant number of chromosomes (aneuploidy). A high baseline observed in women of prime reproductive age is followed by a dramatic increase in older women. Proper chromosome segregation requires one or more DNA crossovers (COs) between homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes, in combination with cohesion between sister chromatid arms. In human females, CO designations occur normally, according to the dictates of CO interference, giving early CO-fated intermediates. However, ≈25% of these intermediates fail to mature to final CO products. This effect explains the high baseline of aneuploidy and is predicted to synergize with age-dependent cohesion loss to explain the maternal age effect. Here, modern advances in the understanding of crossing over and CO interference are reviewed, the implications of human female CO maturation inefficiency are further discussed, and areas of interest for future studies are suggested.

Bos taurus-indicus hybridization correlates with intralocus sexual-conflict effects of PRDM9 on male and female fertility in Holstein cattle

BACKGROUND

Crossover localization during meiotic recombination is mediated by the fast-evolving zinc-finger (ZnF) domain of gene PRDM9. To study its impact on dairy cattle performance, we compared its genetic variation between the relatively small Israeli (IL) Holsteins and the North American (US) Holsteins that count millions.

RESULTS

Initially, we analyzed the major BTA1 haplotypes present in IL Holsteins based on the 10 most telomeric SNPs of the BovineSNP50 BeadChip. Sequencing of representative haplotype carriers indicated that for all frequent haplotypes (> 6%), the variable PRDM9 ZnF array consisted of seven tandem ZnF repeats. Two rare haplotypes (frequency < 4%) carried an indicine PRDM9, whereas all others were variants of the taurine type. These two haplotypes included the minor SNP allele, which was perfectly linked with a previously described PRDM9 allele known to induce unique localization of recombination hotspots. One of them had a significant (p = 0.03) negative effect on IL sire fertility. This haplotype combined the rare minor alleles of the only SNPs with significant (p < 0.05) negative substitution effects on US sire fertility (SCR). Analysis of telomeric SNPs indicated general agreement of allele frequencies (R = 0.95) and of the substitution effects on sire fertility (SCR, R = 0.6) between the US and IL samples. Surprisingly, the alleles that had a negative impact on male fertility had the most positive substitution effects on female fertility traits (DPR, CCR and HCR).

CONCLUSIONS

A negative genetic correlation between male and female fertility is encoded within the BTA1 telomere. Cloning the taurine PRDM9 gene, which is the common form carried by Holsteins, we encountered the infiltration of an indicine PRDM9 variant into this population. During meiosis, in heterozygous males, the indicine PRDM9 variant may induce incompatibility of recombination hotspots and male infertility. However, this variant is associated with favorable female fertility, which would explain its survival and the general negative correlation (R = - 0.3) observed between male and female fertility in US Holsteins. Further research is needed to explain the mechanism underlying this positive effect and to devise a methodology to unlink it from the negative effect on male fertility during breeding.

A first genetic portrait of synaptonemal complex variation

The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a proteinaceous scaffold required for synapsis and recombination between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. Although the SC has been linked to differences in genome-wide crossover rates, the genetic basis of standing variation in SC structure remains unknown. To investigate the possibility that recombination evolves through changes to the SC, we characterized the genetic architecture of SC divergence on two evolutionary timescales. Applying a novel digital image analysis technique to spermatocyte spreads, we measured total SC length in 9,532 spermatocytes from recombinant offspring of wild-derived mouse strains with differences in this fundamental meiotic trait. Using this large dataset, we identified the first known genomic regions involved in the evolution of SC length. Distinct loci affect total SC length divergence between and within subspecies, with the X chromosome contributing to both. Joint genetic analysis of MLH1 foci—immunofluorescent markers of crossovers—from the same spermatocytes revealed that two of the identified loci also confer differences in the genome-wide recombination rate. Causal mediation analysis suggested that one pleiotropic locus acts early in meiosis to designate crossovers prior to SC assembly, whereas a second locus primarily shapes crossover number through its effect on SC length. One genomic interval shapes the relationship between SC length and recombination rate, likely modulating the strength of crossover interference. Our findings pinpoint SC formation as a key step in the evolution of recombination and demonstrate the power of genetic mapping on standing variation in the context of the recombination pathway.

During the first stages of meiosis, the chromosome axes are organized along a protein scaffold in preparation for recombination and their subsequent segregation. This scaffold, known as the synaptonemal complex (SC), is critical for the regular progression of recombination. A complex relationship exists between the organization of the SC, the frequency of recombination, and the likelihood of improper chromosome segregation. In this study, we investigate the genetics of synaptonemal complex variation in the house mouse and connect it with variation in the rate of recombination. We found five loci and several compelling candidate genes responsible for the evolution of synaptonemal complex length within and between mouse subspecies. Several of these loci also affect recombination rate, and our joint analyses of the phenotypes suggest an order by which their effects manifest within the recombination pathway. Our results show that evolution of SC length is crucial to recombination rate divergence. Our work here also demonstrates that genetic analysis of additional meiotic phenotypes can help explain the evolution of recombination, a fundamental evolutionary force.

Substantial Heritable Variation in Recombination Rate on Multiple Scales in Honeybees and Bumblebees

Meiotic recombination shuffles genetic variation and promotes correct segregation of chromosomes. Rates of recombination vary on several scales, both within genomes and between individuals, and this variation is affected by both genetic and environmental factors. Social insects have extremely high rates of recombination, although the evolutionary causes of this are not known. Here, we estimate rates of crossovers and gene conversions in 22 colonies of the honeybee, Apis mellifera, and 9 colonies of the bumblebee, Bombus terrestris, using direct sequencing of 299 haploid drone offspring. We confirm that both species have extremely elevated crossover rates, with higher rates measured in the highly eusocial honeybee than the primitively social bumblebee. There are also significant differences in recombination rate between subspecies of honeybee. There is substantial variation in genome-wide recombination rate between individuals of both A. mellifera and B. terrestris and the distribution of these rates overlap between species. A large proportion of interindividual variation in recombination rate is heritable, which indicates the presence of variation in trans-acting factors that influence recombination genome-wide. We infer that levels of crossover interference are significantly lower in honeybees compared to bumblebees, which may be one mechanism that contributes to higher recombination rates in honeybees. We also find a significant increase in recombination rate with distance from the centromere, mirrored by methylation differences. We detect a strong transmission bias due to GC-biased gene conversion associated with noncrossover gene conversions. Our results shed light on the mechanistic causes of extreme rates of recombination in social insects and the genetic architecture of recombination rate variation.

Identification of recombination hotspots and quantitative trait loci for recombination rate in layer chickens

Background

The frequency of recombination events varies across the genome and between individuals, which may be related to some genomic features. The objective of this study was to assess the frequency of recombination events and to identify QTL (quantitative trait loci) for recombination rate in two purebred layer chicken lines.

Methods

A total of 1200 white-egg layers (WL) were genotyped with 580 K SNPs and 5108 brown-egg layers (BL) were genotyped with 42 K SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms). Recombination events were identified within half-sib families and both the number of recombination events and the recombination rate was calculated within each 0.5 Mb window of the genome. The 10% of windows with the highest recombination rate on each chromosome were considered to be recombination hotspots. A BayesB model was used separately for each line to identify genomic regions associated with the genome-wide number of recombination event per meiosis. Regions that explained more than 0.8% of genetic variance of recombination rate were considered to harbor QTL.

Results

Heritability of recombination rate was estimated at 0.17 in WL and 0.16 in BL. On average, 11.3 and 23.2 recombination events were detected per individual across the genome in 1301 and 9292 meioses in the WL and BL, respectively. The estimated recombination rates differed significantly between the lines, which could be due to differences in inbreeding levels, and haplotype structures. Dams had about 5% to 20% higher recombination rates per meiosis than sires in both lines. Recombination rate per 0.5 Mb window had a strong negative correlation with chromosome size and a strong positive correlation with GC content and with CpG island density across the genome in both lines. Different QTL for recombination rate were identified in the two lines. There were 190 and 199 non-overlapping recombination hotspots detected in WL and BL respectively, 28 of which were common to both lines.

Conclusions

Differences in the recombination rates, hotspot locations, and QTL regions associated with genome-wide recombination were observed between lines, indicating the breed-specific feature of detected recombination events and the control of recombination events is a complex polygenic trait.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40104-019-0332-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Narya, a RING finger domain-containing protein, is required for meiotic DNA double-strand break formation and crossover maturation in Drosophila melanogaster

Meiotic recombination, which is necessary to ensure that homologous chromosomes segregate properly, begins with the induction of meiotic DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and ends with the repair of a subset of those breaks into crossovers. Here we investigate the roles of two paralogous genes, CG12200 and CG31053, which we have named Narya and Nenya, respectively, due to their relationship with a structurally similar protein named Vilya. We find that narya recently evolved from nenya by a gene duplication event, and we show that these two RING finger domain-containing proteins are functionally redundant with respect to a critical role in DSB formation. Narya colocalizes with Vilya foci, which are known to define recombination nodules, or sites of crossover formation. A separation-of-function allele of narya retains the capacity for DSB formation but cannot mature those DSBs into crossovers. We further provide data on the physical interaction of Narya, Nenya and Vilya, as assayed by the yeast two-hybrid system. Together these data support the view that all three RING finger domain-containing proteins function in the formation of meiotic DNA DSBs and in the process of crossing over.

Errors in chromosome segregation during meiosis are the leading cause of miscarriages and can result in genetic abnormalities like Down syndrome or Turner syndrome. For chromosomes to segregate faithfully, they must recombine with their homolog during the early steps of meiosis. An essential component of the process of meiotic recombination is creating the lesions (double-strand breaks, DSBs) that are required to form a crossover with the homologous chromosome. Crossovers are required to ensure chromosomes segregate properly at the first meiotic division. In this study we have identified two genes, narya and nenya, that are essential in DSB formation. We found that narya arose from a duplication of nenya, and these two genes are functionally redundant. In addition to its role in DSB formation, narya also plays a role in processing DSBs into crossovers. Strengthening our knowledge about the mechanism by which Narya both creates DSBs and processes them into crossovers will lead to a better understanding of the process of meiotic chromosome segregation not only in flies but many other organisms, as these genes have homologs in yeast, worms, plants, mice and humans.

A high-density genetic linkage map and QTL mapping for growth and sex of yellow drum (Nibea albiflora)

A high-density genetic linkage map is essential for the studies of comparative genomics and gene mapping, and can facilitate assembly of reference genome. Herein, we constructed a high-density genetic linkage map with 8,094 SNPs selected from 113 sequenced fish of a F1 family. Ultimately, the consensus map spanned 3818.24 cM and covered nearly the whole genome (99.4%) with a resolution of 0.47 cM. 1,457 scaffolds spanning 435.15 Mb were anchored onto 24 linkage groups, accounting for 80.7% of the draft genome assembly of the yellow drum. Comparative genomic analyses with medaka and zebrafish genomes showed superb chromosome-scale synteny between yellow drum and medaka. QTL mapping and association analysis congruously revealed 22 QTLs for growth-related traits and 13 QTLs for sex dimorphism. Some important candidate genes such as PLA2G4A, BRINP3 and P2RY1 were identified from these growth-related QTL regions. A gene family including DMRT1, DMRT2 and DMRT3 was identified from these sex-related QTL regions on the linkage group LG9. We demonstrate that this linkage map can facilitate the ongoing marker-assisted selection and genomic and genetic studies for yellow drum.

Meiotic Recombination Differences in Rams from Three Breeds of Sheep in the US

Meiotic recombination is an important contributor to genetic variation and ensures proper chromosome segregation during gametogenesis. Previous studies suggest that at least 1 crossover (CO) per chromosome arm is important to avoid mis-segregation. While the total number of COs per spermatocyte is known to differ in mice, this is only beginning to be evaluated in sheep. This study used a cytogenetic approach to quantify and compare the number of COs per spermatocyte in rams from 3 breeds of sheep: Suffolk, Icelandic, and Targhee. In total, 2,758 spermatocytes and over 170,000 COs were examined. Suffolk rams exhibited the lowest mean number of COs (61.1 ± 0.15) compared to Icelandic (63.5 ± 0.27) and Targhee (65.9 ± 0.26) rams. Significant differences in the number of COs per spermatocyte were observed between Suffolk, Icelandic, and Targhee breeds as well as within each breed. Additionally, the number and location of COs were characterized for homologous chromosomes in a subset of spermatocytes for each ram. A positive correlation was identified between the number of COs and the length of the homologous chromosome pair. Suffolk and Icelandic rams exhibited up to 7 COs per chromosome, while Targhee rams exhibited up to 9. Further, distinct CO location preferences on homologous chromosome pairs with 1, 2, 3, and 4 COs were observed in all 3 breeds. These data in sheep will aid in elucidating the mechanism of mammalian meiotic recombination, an important contributor to genetic diversity.

Impeding DNA Break Repair Enables Oocyte Quality Control

Oocyte quality control culls eggs with defects in meiosis. In mouse, oocyte death can be triggered by defects in chromosome synapsis and recombination, which involve repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) between homologous chromosomes. We show that RNF212, a SUMO ligase required for crossing over, also mediates oocyte quality control. Both physiological apoptosis and wholesale oocyte elimination in meiotic mutants require RNF212. RNF212 sensitizes oocytes to DSB-induced apoptosis within a narrow window as chromosomes desynapse and cells transition into quiescence. Analysis of DNA damage during this transition implies that RNF212 impedes DSB repair. Consistently, RNF212 is required for HORMAD1, a negative regulator of inter-sister recombination, to associate with desynapsing chromosomes. We infer that oocytes impede repair of residual DSBs to retain a "memory" of meiotic defects that enables quality-control processes. These results define the logic of oocyte quality control and suggest RNF212 variants may influence transmission of defective genomes.

Estimation of Recombination Rate and Maternal Linkage Disequilibrium in Half-Sibs

A livestock population can be characterized by different population genetic parameters, such as linkage disequilibrium and recombination rate between pairs of genetic markers. The population structure, which may be caused by family stratification, has an influence on the estimates of these parameters. An expectation maximization algorithm has been proposed for estimating these parameters in half-sibs without phasing the progeny. It, however, overlooks the fact that the underlying likelihood function may have two maxima. The magnitudes of the maxima depend on the maternal allele frequencies at the investigated marker pair. Which maximum the algorithm converges to depends on the chosen start values. We present a stepwise procedure in which the relationship between the two modes is exploited. The expectation maximization algorithm for the parameter estimation is applied twice using different start values, followed by a decision process to assess the most likely estimate. This approach was validated using simulated genotypes of half-sibs. It was also applied to a dairy cattle dataset consisting of multiple half-sib families and 39,780 marker genotypes, leading to estimates for 12,759,713 intrachromosomal marker pairs. Furthermore, the proper order of markers was verified by studying the mean of estimated recombination rates in a window adjacent to the investigated locus as well as in a window at its most distant chromosome end. Putatively misplaced markers or marker clusters were detected by comparing the results with the revised bovine genome assembly UMD 3.1.1. In total, 40 markers were identified as candidates of misplacement. This outcome may help improving the physical order of markers which is also required for refining the bovine genetic map.

A multi-scale analysis of bull sperm methylome revealed both species peculiarities and conserved tissue-specific features

BACKGROUND

Spermatozoa have a remarkable epigenome in line with their degree of specialization, their unique nature and different requirements for successful fertilization. Accordingly, perturbations in the establishment of DNA methylation patterns during male germ cell differentiation have been associated with infertility in several species. While bull semen is widely used in artificial insemination, the literature describing DNA methylation in bull spermatozoa is still scarce. The purpose of this study was therefore to characterize the bull sperm methylome relative to both bovine somatic cells and the sperm of other mammals through a multiscale analysis.

RESULTS

The quantification of DNA methylation at CCGG sites using luminometric methylation assay (LUMA) highlighted the undermethylation of bull sperm compared to the sperm of rams, stallions, mice, goats and men. Total blood cells displayed a similarly high level of methylation in bulls and rams, suggesting that undermethylation of the bovine genome was specific to sperm. Annotation of CCGG sites in different species revealed no striking bias in the distribution of genome features targeted by LUMA that could explain undermethylation of bull sperm. To map DNA methylation at a genome-wide scale, bull sperm was compared with bovine liver, fibroblasts and monocytes using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) and immunoprecipitation of methylated DNA followed by microarray hybridization (MeDIP-chip). These two methods exhibited differences in terms of genome coverage, and consistently, two independent sets of sequences differentially methylated in sperm and somatic cells were identified for RRBS and MeDIP-chip. Remarkably, in the two sets most of the differentially methylated sequences were hypomethylated in sperm. In agreement with previous studies in other species, the sequences that were specifically hypomethylated in bull sperm targeted processes relevant to the germline differentiation program (piRNA metabolism, meiosis, spermatogenesis) and sperm functions (cell adhesion, fertilization), as well as satellites and rDNA repeats.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the undermethylation of bull spermatozoa when compared with both bovine somatic cells and the sperm of other mammals, and raise questions regarding the dynamics of DNA methylation in bovine male germline. Whether sperm undermethylation has potential interactions with structural variation in the cattle genome may deserve further attention.

Characterization of recombination features and the genetic basis in multiple cattle breeds

BACKGROUND

Crossover generated by meiotic recombination is a fundamental event that facilitates meiosis and sexual reproduction. Comparative studies have shown wide variation in recombination rate among species, but the characterization of recombination features between cattle breeds has not yet been performed. Cattle populations in North America count millions, and the dairy industry has genotyped millions of individuals with pedigree information that provide a unique opportunity to study breed-level variations in recombination.

RESULTS

Based on large pedigrees of Jersey, Ayrshire and Brown Swiss cattle with genotype data, we identified over 3.4 million maternal and paternal crossover events from 161,309 three-generation families. We constructed six breed- and sex-specific genome-wide recombination maps using 58,982 autosomal SNPs for two sexes in the three dairy cattle breeds. A comparative analysis of the six recombination maps revealed similar global recombination patterns between cattle breeds but with significant differences between sexes. We confirmed that male recombination map is 10% longer than the female map in all three cattle breeds, consistent with previously reported results in Holstein cattle. When comparing recombination hotspot regions between cattle breeds, we found that 30% and 10% of the hotspots were shared between breeds in males and females, respectively, with each breed exhibiting some breed-specific hotspots. Finally, our multiple-breed GWAS found that SNPs in eight loci affected recombination rate and that the PRDM9 gene associated with hotspot usage in multiple cattle breeds, indicating a shared genetic basis for recombination across dairy cattle breeds.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our results generated breed- and sex-specific recombination maps for multiple cattle breeds, provided a comprehensive characterization and comparison of recombination patterns between breeds, and expanded our understanding of the breed-level variations in recombination features within an important livestock species.

Copy number variation in livestock: A mini review

Copy number variation (CNV) is a phenomenon in which sections of the genome, ranging from one kilo base pair (Kb) to several million base pairs (Mb), are repeated and the number of repeats vary between the individuals in a population. It is an important source of genetic variation in an individual which is now being utilized rather than single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as it covers the more genomic region. CNVs alter the gene expression and change the phenotype of an individual due to deletion and duplication of genes in the copy number variation regions (CNVRs). Earlier, researchers extensively utilized SNPs as the main source of genetic variation. But now, the focus is on identification of CNVs associated with complex traits. With the recent advances and reduction in the cost of sequencing, arrays are developed for genotyping which cover the maximum number of SNPs at a time that can be used for detection of CNVRs and underlying quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the complex traits to accelerate genetic improvement. CNV studies are also being carried out to understand the evolutionary mechanism in the domestication of livestock and their adaptation to the different environmental conditions. The main aim of the study is to review the available data on CNV and its role in genetic variation among the livestock.

Construction of PRDM9 allele-specific recombination maps in cattle using large-scale pedigree analysis and genome-wide single sperm genomics

PRDM9 contributes to hybrid sterility and species evolution. However, its role is to be confirmed in cattle, a major domesticated livestock species. We previously found an association near PRDM9 with cattle recombination features, but the causative variants are still unknown. Using millions of genotyped cattle with pedigree information, we characterized five PRDM9 alleles and generated allele-specific recombination maps. By examining allele-specific recombination patterns, we observed the impact of PRDM9 on global distribution of recombination, especially in the two ends of chromosomes. We also showed strong associations between recombination hotspot regions and functional mutations within PRDM9 zinc finger domain. More importantly, we found one allele of PRDM9 to be very different from others in both protein composition and recombination landscape, indicating the causative role of this allele on the association between PRDM9 and cattle recombination. When comparing recombination maps from sperm and pedigree data, we observed similar genome-wide recombination patterns, validating the quality of pedigree-based results. Collectively, these evidence supported PRDM9 alleles as causal variants for the reported association with cattle recombination. Our study comprehensively surveyed the bovine PRDM9 alleles, generated allele-specific recombination maps, and expanded our understanding of the role of PRDM9 on genome distribution of recombination.

Age-based partitioning of individual genomic inbreeding levels in Belgian Blue cattle

Background

Inbreeding coefficients can be estimated either from pedigree data or from genomic data, and with genomic data, they are either global or local (when the linkage map is used). Recently, we developed a new hidden Markov model (HMM) that estimates probabilities of homozygosity-by-descent (HBD) at each marker position and automatically partitions autozygosity in multiple age-related classes (based on the length of HBD segments). Our objectives were to: (1) characterize inbreeding with our model in an intensively selected population such as the Belgian Blue Beef (BBB) cattle breed; (2) compare the properties of the model at different marker densities; and (3) compare our model with other methods.

Results

When using 600 K single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the inbreeding coefficient (probability of sampling an HBD locus in an individual) was on average 0.303 (ranging from 0.258 to 0.375). HBD-classes associated to historical ancestors (with small segments ≤ 200 kb) accounted for 21.6% of the genome length (71.4% of the total length of the genome in HBD segments), whereas classes associated to more recent ancestors accounted for only 22.6% of the total length of the genome in HBD segments. However, these recent classes presented more individual variation than more ancient classes. Although inbreeding coefficients obtained with low SNP densities (7 and 32 K) were much lower (0.060 and 0.093), they were highly correlated with those obtained at higher density (r = 0.934 and 0.975, respectively), indicating that they captured most of the individual variation. At higher SNP density, smaller HBD segments are identified and, thus, more past generations can be explored. We observed very high correlations between our estimates and those based on homozygosity (r = 0.95) or on runs-of-homozygosity (r = 0.95). As expected, pedigree-based estimates were mainly correlated with recent HBD-classes (r = 0.56).

Conclusions

Although we observed high levels of autozygosity associated with small HBD segments in BBB cattle, recent inbreeding accounted for most of the individual variation. Recent autozygosity can be captured efficiently with low-density SNP arrays and relatively simple models (e.g., two HBD classes). The HMM framework provides local HBD probabilities that are still useful at lower SNP densities.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12711-017-0370-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Modification of meiotic recombination by natural variation in plants

Meiosis is a specialized cell division that produces haploid gametes required for sexual reproduction. During the first meiotic division, homologous chromosomes pair and undergo reciprocal crossing over, which recombines linked sequence variation. Meiotic recombination frequency varies extensively both within and between species. In this review, we will examine the molecular basis of meiotic recombination rate variation, with an emphasis on plant genomes. We first consider cis modification caused by polymorphisms at the site of recombination, or elsewhere on the same chromosome. We review cis effects caused by mismatches within recombining joint molecules, the effect of structural hemizygosity, and the role of specific DNA sequence motifs. In contrast, trans modification of recombination is exerted by polymorphic loci encoding diffusible molecules, which are able to modulate recombination on the same and/or other chromosomes. We consider trans modifiers that act to change total recombination levels, hotspot locations, or interactions between homologous and homeologous chromosomes in polyploid species. Finally, we consider the significance of genetic variation that modifies meiotic recombination for adaptation and evolution of plant species.

Variation in Recombination Rate and Its Genetic Determinism in Sheep Populations

Recombination is a complex biological process that results from a cascade of multiple events during meiosis. Understanding the genetic determinism of recombination can help to understand if and how these events are interacting. To tackle this question, we studied the patterns of recombination in sheep, using multiple approaches and data sets. We constructed male recombination maps in a dairy breed from the south of France (the Lacaune breed) at a fine scale by combining meiotic recombination rates from a large pedigree genotyped with a 50K SNP array and historical recombination rates from a sample of unrelated individuals genotyped with a 600K SNP array. This analysis revealed recombination patterns in sheep similar to other mammals but also genome regions that have likely been affected by directional and diversifying selection. We estimated the average recombination rate of Lacaune sheep at 1.5 cM/Mb, identified ∼50,000 crossover hotspots on the genome, and found a high correlation between historical and meiotic recombination rate estimates. A genome-wide association study revealed two major loci affecting interindividual variation in recombination rate in Lacaune, including the RNF212 and HEI10 genes and possibly two other loci of smaller effects including the KCNJ15 and FSHR genes. The comparison of these new results to those obtained previously in a distantly related population of domestic sheep (the Soay) revealed that Soay and Lacaune males have a very similar distribution of recombination along the genome. The two data sets were thus combined to create more precise male meiotic recombination maps in Sheep. However, despite their similar recombination maps, Soay and Lacaune males were found to exhibit different heritabilities and QTL effects for interindividual variation in genome-wide recombination rates. This highlights the robustness of recombination patterns to underlying variation in their genetic determinism.