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Phan P, Deshwal A, McMahon TA, Slikas M, Andrews E, Becker B, Kumar TKS. A Review of Rattlesnake Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:2. [PMID: 38276526 PMCID: PMC10818703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Venom components are invaluable in biomedical research owing to their specificity and potency. Many of these components exist in two genera of rattlesnakes, Crotalus and Sistrurus, with high toxicity and proteolytic activity variation. This review focuses on venom components within rattlesnakes, and offers a comparison and itemized list of factors dictating venom composition, as well as presenting their known characteristics, activities, and significant applications in biosciences. There are 64 families and subfamilies of proteins present in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Snake venom serine proteases (SVSP), snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are the standard components in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Through this review, we highlight gaps in the knowledge of rattlesnake venom; there needs to be more information on the venom composition of three Crotalus species and one Sistrurus subspecies. We discuss the activity and importance of both major and minor components in biomedical research and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
| | - Anant Deshwal
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Tyler Anthony McMahon
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Matthew Slikas
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Elodie Andrews
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Brian Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
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Xie B, Dashevsky D, Rokyta D, Ghezellou P, Fathinia B, Shi Q, Richardson MK, Fry BG. Dynamic genetic differentiation drives the widespread structural and functional convergent evolution of snake venom proteinaceous toxins. BMC Biol 2022; 20:4. [PMID: 34996434 PMCID: PMC8742412 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01208-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The explosive radiation and diversification of the advanced snakes (superfamily Colubroidea) was associated with changes in all aspects of the shared venom system. Morphological changes included the partitioning of the mixed ancestral glands into two discrete glands devoted for production of venom or mucous respectively, as well as changes in the location, size and structural elements of the venom-delivering teeth. Evidence also exists for homology among venom gland toxins expressed across the advanced snakes. However, despite the evolutionary novelty of snake venoms, in-depth toxin molecular evolutionary history reconstructions have been mostly limited to those types present in only two front-fanged snake families, Elapidae and Viperidae. To have a broader understanding of toxins shared among extant snakes, here we first sequenced the transcriptomes of eight taxonomically diverse rear-fanged species and four key viperid species and analysed major toxin types shared across the advanced snakes. RESULTS Transcriptomes were constructed for the following families and species: Colubridae - Helicops leopardinus, Heterodon nasicus, Rhabdophis subminiatus; Homalopsidae - Homalopsis buccata; Lamprophiidae - Malpolon monspessulanus, Psammophis schokari, Psammophis subtaeniatus, Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus; and Viperidae - Bitis atropos, Pseudocerastes urarachnoides, Tropidolaeumus subannulatus, Vipera transcaucasiana. These sequences were combined with those from available databases of other species in order to facilitate a robust reconstruction of the molecular evolutionary history of the key toxin classes present in the venom of the last common ancestor of the advanced snakes, and thus present across the full diversity of colubroid snake venoms. In addition to differential rates of evolution in toxin classes between the snake lineages, these analyses revealed multiple instances of previously unknown instances of structural and functional convergences. Structural convergences included: the evolution of new cysteines to form heteromeric complexes, such as within kunitz peptides (the beta-bungarotoxin trait evolving on at least two occasions) and within SVMP enzymes (the P-IIId trait evolving on at least three occasions); and the C-terminal tail evolving on two separate occasions within the C-type natriuretic peptides, to create structural and functional analogues of the ANP/BNP tailed condition. Also shown was that the de novo evolution of new post-translationally liberated toxin families within the natriuretic peptide gene propeptide region occurred on at least five occasions, with novel functions ranging from induction of hypotension to post-synaptic neurotoxicity. Functional convergences included the following: multiple occasions of SVMP neofunctionalised in procoagulant venoms into activators of the clotting factors prothrombin and Factor X; multiple instances in procoagulant venoms where kunitz peptides were neofunctionalised into inhibitors of the clot destroying enzyme plasmin, thereby prolonging the half-life of the clots formed by the clotting activating enzymatic toxins; and multiple occasions of kunitz peptides neofunctionalised into neurotoxins acting on presynaptic targets, including twice just within Bungarus venoms. CONCLUSIONS We found novel convergences in both structural and functional evolution of snake toxins. These results provide a detailed roadmap for future work to elucidate predator-prey evolutionary arms races, ascertain differential clinical pathologies, as well as documenting rich biodiscovery resources for lead compounds in the drug design and discovery pipeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Xie
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, 2333BE, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072 Australia
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, ACT, Canberra, 2601 Australia
| | - Darin Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 24105 USA
| | - Parviz Ghezellou
- Medicinal Plants and Drugs Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, 1983969411 Iran
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Behzad Fathinia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Yasouj University, Yasouj, 75914 Iran
| | - Qiong Shi
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Molecular Breeding in Marine Economic Animals, BGI Academy of Marine Sciences, BGI Marine, BGI, Shenzhen, 518083 China
- BGI Education Center, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | | | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072 Australia
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Kini RM. Toxinology provides multidirectional and multidimensional opportunities: A personal perspective. Toxicon X 2020; 6:100039. [PMID: 32550594 PMCID: PMC7285919 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2020.100039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In nature, toxins have evolved as weapons to capture and subdue the prey or to counter predators or competitors. When they are inadvertently injected into humans, they cause symptoms ranging from mild discomfort to debilitation and death. Toxinology is the science of studying venoms and toxins that are produced by a wide variety of organisms. In the past, the structure, function and mechanisms of most abundant and/or most toxic components were characterized to understand and to develop strategies to neutralize their toxicity. With recent technical advances, we are able to evaluate and determine the toxin profiles using transcriptomes of venom glands and proteomes of tiny amounts of venom. Enormous amounts of data from these studies have opened tremendous opportunities in many directions of basic and applied research. The lower costs for profiling venoms will further fuel the expansion of toxin database, which in turn will provide greater exciting and bright opportunities in toxin research.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Manjunatha Kini
- Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Novel long-chain neurotoxins from Bungarus candidus distinguish the two binding sites in muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Biochem J 2019; 476:1285-1302. [PMID: 30944155 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
αδ-Bungarotoxins, a novel group of long-chain α-neurotoxins, manifest different affinity to two agonist/competitive antagonist binding sites of muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), being more active at the interface of α-δ subunits. Three isoforms (αδ-BgTx-1-3) were identified in Malayan Krait (Bungarus candidus) from Thailand by genomic DNA analysis; two of them (αδ-BgTx-1 and 2) were isolated from its venom. The toxins comprise 73 amino acid residues and 5 disulfide bridges, being homologous to α-bungarotoxin (α-BgTx), a classical blocker of muscle-type and neuronal α7, α8, and α9α10 nAChRs. The toxicity of αδ-BgTx-1 (LD50 = 0.17-0.28 µg/g mouse, i.p. injection) is essentially as high as that of α-BgTx. In the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation, αδ-BgTx-1 completely abolished acetylcholine response, but in contrast with the block by α-BgTx, acetylcholine response was fully reversible by washing. αδ-BgTxs, similar to α-BgTx, bind with high affinity to α7 and muscle-type nAChRs. However, the major difference of αδ-BgTxs from α-BgTx and other naturally occurring α-neurotoxins is that αδ-BgTxs discriminate the two binding sites in the Torpedo californica and mouse muscle nAChRs showing up to two orders of magnitude higher affinity for the α-δ site as compared with α-ε or α-γ binding site interfaces. Molecular modeling and analysis of the literature provided possible explanations for these differences in binding mode; one of the probable reasons being the lower content of positively charged residues in αδ-BgTxs. Thus, αδ-BgTxs are new tools for studies on nAChRs.
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Exploring the Diversity and Novelty of Toxin Genes in Naja sumatrana, the Equatorial Spitting Cobra from Malaysia through De Novo Venom-Gland Transcriptomics. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020104. [PMID: 30754700 PMCID: PMC6409529 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The equatorial spitting cobra, Naja sumatrana, is a distinct species of medically important venomous snakes, listed as WHO Category 1 in Southeast Asia. The diversity of its venom genes has not been comprehensively examined, although a few toxin sequences annotated to Naja sputatrix were reported previously through cloning studies. To investigate this species venom genes’ diversity, de novo venom-gland transcriptomics of N. sumatrana from West Malaysia was conducted using next-generation sequencing technology. Genes encoding toxins represented only 60 of the 55,396 transcripts, but were highly expressed, contributing to 79.22% of total gene expression (by total FPKM) in the venom-glands. The toxin transcripts belong to 21 families, and 29 transcripts were further identified as full-length. Three-finger toxins (3FTx) composed of long, short, and non-conventional groups, constituted the majority of toxin transcripts (91.11% of total toxin FPKM), followed by phospholipase A2 (PLA2, 7.42%)—which are putatively pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic. The remaining transcripts in the 19 families were expressed at extremely low levels. Presumably, these toxins were associated with ancillary functions. Our findings unveil the diverse toxin genes unique to N. sumatrana, and provide insights into the pathophysiology of N. sumatrana envenoming.
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Huo H, Li T, Wang S, Lv Y, Zuo Y, Yang L. Prediction of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins by combining various Chou's pseudo components. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5827. [PMID: 28724993 PMCID: PMC5517432 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06195-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins are two groups of neurotoxins. Identification of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins is an important work for numerous newly found toxins. It is both costly and time consuming to determine these two neurotoxins by experimental methods. As a complement, using computational methods for predicting presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins could provide some useful information in a timely manner. In this study, we described four algorithms for predicting presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins from sequence driven features by using Increment of Diversity (ID), Multinomial Naive Bayes Classifier (MNBC), Random Forest (RF), and K-nearest Neighbours Classifier (IBK). Each protein sequence was encoded by pseudo amino acid (PseAA) compositions and three biological motif features, including MEME, Prosite and InterPro motif features. The Maximum Relevance Minimum Redundancy (MRMR) feature selection method was used to rank the PseAA compositions and the 50 top ranked features were selected to improve the prediction accuracy. The PseAA compositions and three kinds of biological motif features were combined and 12 different parameters that defined as P1-P12 were selected as the input parameters of ID, MNBC, RF, and IBK. The prediction results obtained in this study were significantly better than those of previously developed methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Huo
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Hohhot University for Nationalities, Hohhot, 010051, China
| | - Tao Li
- College of Life Science, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Shiyuan Wang
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Yingli Lv
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Yongchun Zuo
- The Key Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Biotechnology of the Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, 010021, China.
| | - Lei Yang
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China.
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Tan NH, Wong KY, Tan CH. Venomics of Naja sputatrix , the Javan spitting cobra: A short neurotoxin-driven venom needing improved antivenom neutralization. J Proteomics 2017; 157:18-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2016] [Revised: 01/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Yap MKK, Fung SY, Tan KY, Tan NH. Proteomic characterization of venom of the medically important Southeast Asian Naja sumatrana (Equatorial spitting cobra). Acta Trop 2014; 133:15-25. [PMID: 24508616 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 01/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The proteome of Naja sumatrana (Equatorial spitting cobra) venom was investigated by shotgun analysis and a combination of ion-exchange chromatography and reverse phase HPLC. Shotgun analysis revealed the presence of 39 proteins in the venom while the chromatographic approach identified 37 venom proteins. The results indicated that, like other Asiatic cobra venoms, N. sumatrana contains large number of three finger toxins and phospholipases A2, which together constitute 92.1% by weight of venom protein. However, only eight of the toxins can be considered as major venom toxins. These include two phospholipases A2, three neurotoxins (two long neurotoxins and a short neurotoxin) and three cardiotoxins. The eight major toxins have relative abundance of 1.6-27.2% venom proteins and together account for 89.8% (by weight) of total venom protein. Other venom proteins identified include Zn-metalloproteinase-disintegrin, Thaicobrin, CRISP, natriuretic peptide, complement depleting factors, cobra venom factors, venom nerve growth factor and cobra serum albumin. The proteome of N. sumatrana venom is similar to proteome of other Asiatic cobra venoms but differs from that of African spitting cobra venom. Our results confirm that the main toxic action of N. sumatrana venom is neurotoxic but the large amount of cardiotoxins and phospholipases A2 are likely to contribute significantly to the overall pathophysiological action of the venom. The differences in toxin distribution between N. sumatrana venom and African spitting cobra venoms suggest possible differences in the pathophysiological actions of N. sumatrana venom and the African spitting cobra venoms, and explain why antivenom raised against Asiatic cobra venom is not effective against African spitting cobra venoms.
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Grape seed extract neutralizes the effects of Cerastes cerastes cerastes post-synaptic neurotoxin in mouse diaphragm. Micron 2013; 44:298-302. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2012.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Abstract
Venoms and toxins are of significant interest due to their ability to cause a wide range of pathophysiological conditions that can potentially result in death. Despite their wide distribution among plants and animals, the biochemical pathways associated with these pathogenic agents remain largely unexplored. Impoverished and underdeveloped regions appear especially susceptible to increased incidence and severity due to poor socioeconomic conditions and lack of appropriate medical treatment infrastructure. To facilitate better management and treatment of envenomation victims, it is essential that the biochemical mechanisms of their action be elucidated. This review aims to characterize downstream envenomation mechanisms by addressing the major neuro-, cardio-, and hemotoxins as well as ion-channel toxins. Because of their use in folk and traditional medicine, the biochemistry behind venom therapy and possible implications on conventional medicine will also be addressed.
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Jeyaseelan K, Armugam A, Donghui M, Tan NH. Structure and phylogeny of the venom group I phospholipase A(2) gene. Mol Biol Evol 2000; 17:1010-21. [PMID: 10889214 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2)s) catalyzing the hydrolysis of phospholipids form a family of proteins with diverse physiological and pharmacological properties. While there have been several reports on the cloning of PLA(2) cDNAs, very few studies have been carried out on the PLA(2) genes and, most importantly, no information has been available on the gene structure and function of group I venom PLA(2). This study, on the PLA(2) gene from a spitting cobra, besides being the very first report on any venom group I PLA(2) gene, constitutes the missing link in the biology and evolution of phospholipases. The 4-kb gene consists of four exons and three introns and resembles the human pancreatic PLA(2) gene. However, the size of intron 3 in particular is much smaller than that in the pancreatic gene. Interestingly, the information for the toxic and most of the pharmacological properties of the venom PLA(2) can be attributed to the end of exon 3 and the whole of exon 4 of the gene. This functional delineation fits in well with the theory of adaptive evolution exhibited by the venom PLA(2)s. We also show that the mammalian pancreatic and elapid PLA(2)s have similar paths of evolution (probably following gene duplication) from a common ancestral gene. Venom group II phospholipases, although evolved from the same ancestor, diverged early in evolution from the group I PLA(2) genes. Intriguingly, CAT reporter gene assays and DNase 1 footprinting studies on the promoter and its deletion constructs using CHO and HepG2 cell lines identified the possible involvement of cis elements such as Sp1, AP2, gamma-IRE, and (TG)(12) repeats in the expression of the gene in a tissue-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Jeyaseelan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Bioscience Center, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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