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Sun C, Cui K, Chao S, Wei Y, Yuan J, Cao J, Shu H, Huang X. Efficiently loading 40Ca +- 27Al + ion crystal using sympathetic cooling and pulsed laser ablation. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2022; 93:113201. [PMID: 36461443 DOI: 10.1063/5.0109260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a method to efficiently load a pair of 40Ca+-27Al+ ion crystals with sympathetic cooling and pulsed laser ablation, serving as a starting step for the 27Al+ clock. We achieved a technique to rapidly detect the loading of hot ions by monitoring the 2S1/2 → 2D5/2 narrow transition of 40Ca+ that couples to the shared motional modes between the two ions. The sympathetic cooling time of the 40Ca+-27Al+ ion pair is measured. Two traps are employed to compare the loading time from two directions and it was found that the loading from the axial direction takes much shorter time than loading from the radial direction of the trap. With the help of adaptively controlled trap potential, our method reduced the average loading time of a 40Ca+-27Al+ pair from 26 to 1 min. This research is an important step for increasing the uptime ratio of the 27Al+ optical clock and is useful for other mixed-species ion crystals based on sympathetic cooling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenglong Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Kaifeng Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Sijia Chao
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Yuanfei Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Jinbo Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Jian Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Hualin Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Xueren Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
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Singh S, Bandyopadhyay P, Kumar K, Sen A. Square Lattice Formation in a Monodisperse Complex Plasma. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 129:115003. [PMID: 36154432 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.129.115003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We present the first observations of a square lattice formation in a monodisperse complex plasma system, a configurational transition phenomenon that has long been an experimental challenge in the field. The experiments are conducted in a tabletop L-shaped dusty plasma experimental device in a dc glow discharge Argon plasma environment. By a careful control of the vertical potential confining the charged particles as well as the strength of the ion wake charge interactions with the dust particles, we are able to steer the system toward a crystalline phase that exhibits a square lattice configuration. The transition occurs when the vertical confinement strength is slightly reduced below a critical value leading to a buckling of the monodisperse hexagonal 2D dust crystal to form a narrowly separated bilayer state (a quasi-2D state). Some theoretical insights into the transition process are provided through molecular dynamics simulations carried out for the parameters relevant to our experiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarnima Singh
- Institute for Plasma Research, A CI of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Bhat, Gandhinagar-382428, India
| | - P Bandyopadhyay
- Institute for Plasma Research, A CI of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Bhat, Gandhinagar-382428, India
| | - Krishan Kumar
- Institute for Plasma Research, A CI of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Bhat, Gandhinagar-382428, India
| | - A Sen
- Institute for Plasma Research, A CI of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Bhat, Gandhinagar-382428, India
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3
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Two-dimensional supersolidity in a dipolar quantum gas. Nature 2021; 596:357-361. [PMID: 34408330 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03725-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Supersolid states simultaneously feature properties typically associated with a solid and with a superfluid. Like a solid, they possess crystalline order, manifesting as a periodic modulation of the particle density; but unlike a typical solid, they also have superfluid properties, resulting from coherent particle delocalization across the system. Such states were initially envisioned in the context of bulk solid helium, as a possible answer to the question of whether a solid could have superfluid properties1-5. Although supersolidity has not been observed in solid helium (despite much effort)6, ultracold atomic gases provide an alternative approach, recently enabling the observation and study of supersolids with dipolar atoms7-16. However, unlike the proposed phenomena in helium, these gaseous systems have so far only shown supersolidity along a single direction. Here we demonstrate the extension of supersolid properties into two dimensions by preparing a supersolid quantum gas of dysprosium atoms on both sides of a structural phase transition similar to those occurring in ionic chains17-20, quantum wires21,22 and theoretically in chains of individual dipolar particles23,24. This opens the possibility of studying rich excitation properties25-28, including vortex formation29-31, and ground-state phases with varied geometrical structure7,32 in a highly flexible and controllable system.
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Arkhipov YV, Ashikbayeva A, Askaruly A, Davletov AE, Dubovtsev DY, Santybayev KS, Syzganbayeva SA, Conde L, Tkachenko IM. Dynamic characteristics of three-dimensional strongly coupled plasmas. Phys Rev E 2020; 102:053215. [PMID: 33327172 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.102.053215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The dynamic structure factor and other dynamic characteristics of strongly coupled one-component plasmas have been studied [Yu. V. Arkhipov et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, 045001 (2017)PRLTAO0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.119.045001] using the self-consistent version of the method of moments. Within any version of the latter, the system dielectric function satisfies all involved sum rules and other exact relations automatically, and the advantage of this version is that, in addition, the dynamic characteristics (the dynamic structure factor, the dispersion, and decay parameters of the collective modes) are all expressed in terms of the static ones (the static structure factor) without any adjustment to the simulation data. The approach outlined in the aforementioned Letter is justified in detail and applied mainly to the classical Coulomb systems achieving satisfactory agreement with new numerical simulation data. It is shown how the realm of applicability of the method can be extended to partly degenerate and multicomponent systems, even to simple liquids. Some additional theoretical results are presented in the Supplemental Material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu V Arkhipov
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - A Ashikbayeva
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - A Askaruly
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - A E Davletov
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - D Yu Dubovtsev
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Kh S Santybayev
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - S A Syzganbayeva
- Department of Physics and Technology, IETP, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - L Conde
- Departamento de Física Aplicada a la Ingeniería Aeronáutica, ETSIAE, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Plaza del Cardenal Cisneros 3, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - I M Tkachenko
- Departament de Matemàtica Aplicada, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
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Gambetta FM, Zhang C, Hennrich M, Lesanovsky I, Li W. Long-Range Multibody Interactions and Three-Body Antiblockade in a Trapped Rydberg Ion Chain. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 125:133602. [PMID: 33034467 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.125.133602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Trapped Rydberg ions represent a flexible platform for quantum simulation and information processing that combines a high degree of control over electronic and vibrational degrees of freedom. The possibility to individually excite ions to high-lying Rydberg levels provides a system where strong interactions between pairs of excited ions can be engineered and tuned via external laser fields. We show that the coupling between Rydberg pair interactions and collective motional modes gives rise to effective long-range and multibody interactions consisting of two, three, and four-body terms. Their shape, strength, and range can be controlled via the ion trap parameters and strongly depends on both the equilibrium configuration and vibrational modes of the ion crystal. By focusing on an experimentally feasible quasi one-dimensional setup of ^{88}Sr^{+} Rydberg ions, we demonstrate that multibody interactions are enhanced by the emergence of soft modes associated with, e.g., a structural phase transition. This has a striking impact on many-body electronic states and results-for example-in a three-body antiblockade effect that can be employed as a sensitive probe to detect structural phase transitions in Rydberg ion chains. Our study unveils the possibilities offered by trapped Rydberg ions for studying exotic phases of matter and quantum dynamics driven by enhanced multibody interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo M Gambetta
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
- Centre for the Mathematics and Theoretical Physics of Quantum Non-equilibrium Systems, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Chi Zhang
- Department of Physics, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Markus Hennrich
- Department of Physics, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Igor Lesanovsky
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
- Centre for the Mathematics and Theoretical Physics of Quantum Non-equilibrium Systems, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Weibin Li
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
- Centre for the Mathematics and Theoretical Physics of Quantum Non-equilibrium Systems, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
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6
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Estimation of the ion-trap assisted electrical loads and resulting BBR shift. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16884. [PMID: 30443030 PMCID: PMC6237823 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35234-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Capacitive, inductive and resistive loads of an ion-trap system, which can be modelled as LCR circuits, are important to know for building a high accuracy experiment. Accurate estimation of these loads is necessary for delivering the desired radio frequency (RF) signal to an ion trap via an RF resonator. Of particular relevance to the trapped ion optical atomic clock, determination of these loads lead to accurate evaluation of the Black-Body Radiation (BBR) shift resulting from the inaccurate machining of the ion-trap itself. We have identified different sources of these loads and estimated their values using analytical and finite element analysis methods, which are found to be well in agreement with the experimentally measured values. For our trap geometry, we obtained values of the effective inductive, capacitive and resistive loads as: 3.1 μH, 3.71 (1) μH, 3.68 (6) μH; 50.4 pF, 51.4 (7) pF, 40.7 (2) pF; and 1.373 Ω, 1.273 (3) Ω, 1.183 (9) Ω by using analytical, numerical and experimental methods, respectively. The BBR shift induced by the excess capacitive load arising due to machining inaccuracy in the RF carrying parts has been accurately estimated, which results to a fractional frequency shift of 6.6 × 10−17 for an RF of 1 kV at 2π × 15 MHz and with ±10 μm machining inaccuracy. This needs to be incorporated into the total systematic uncertainty budget of a frequency standard as it is about one order of magnitude higher than the present precision of the trapped ion optical clocks.
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7
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Taberlet N, Ferrand J, Plihon N. Stability Analysis of an Array of Magnets: When Will It Jump? PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2018; 120:264301. [PMID: 30004779 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.120.264301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A bidimensional array of magnets whose magnetic moments share the same vertical orientation, and lying on a planar surface, can be gradually compacted. As the density reaches a threshold, the assembly becomes unstable, and the magnets violently pop out of plane. In this Letter, we investigate experimentally and theoretically the maximum packing fraction (or density) of a bidimensional planar assembly of identical cylindrical magnets. We show that the instability can be attributed to local fluctuations of the altitude of the magnets on the planar surface. The maximum density is theoretically predicted assuming dipolar interactions between the magnets and is in excellent agreement with experimental results using a variety of cylindrical magnets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Taberlet
- Univ Lyon, Ens de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique, F-69342 Lyon, France
| | - Jérémy Ferrand
- Univ Lyon, Ens de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique, F-69342 Lyon, France
| | - Nicolas Plihon
- Univ Lyon, Ens de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique, F-69342 Lyon, France
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8
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Roos CF, Alberti A, Meschede D, Hauke P, Häffner H. Revealing Quantum Statistics with a Pair of Distant Atoms. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 119:160401. [PMID: 29099213 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.119.160401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Quantum statistics have a profound impact on the properties of systems composed of identical particles. At the most elementary level, Bose and Fermi quantum statistics differ in the exchange phase, either 0 or π, which the wave function acquires when two identical particles are exchanged. In this Letter, we demonstrate that the exchange phase can be directly probed with a pair of massive particles by physically exchanging their positions. We present two protocols where the particles always remain spatially well separated, thus ensuring that the exchange contribution to their interaction energy is negligible and that the detected signal can only be attributed to the exchange symmetry of the wave function. We discuss possible implementations with a pair of trapped atoms or ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C F Roos
- Institut für Quantenoptik und Quanteninformation der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Otto-Hittmair-Platz 1, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - A Alberti
- Institut für Angewandte Physik der Universität Bonn, Wegelerstraße 8, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - D Meschede
- Institut für Angewandte Physik der Universität Bonn, Wegelerstraße 8, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - P Hauke
- Institut für Quantenoptik und Quanteninformation der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Otto-Hittmair-Platz 1, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 21a, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Kirchhoff-Institut für Physik, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 227, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - H Häffner
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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9
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Arkhipov YV, Askaruly A, Davletov AE, Dubovtsev DY, Donkó Z, Hartmann P, Korolov I, Conde L, Tkachenko IM. Direct Determination of Dynamic Properties of Coulomb and Yukawa Classical One-Component Plasmas. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 119:045001. [PMID: 29341739 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.119.045001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic characteristics of strongly coupled classical one-component Coulomb and Yukawa plasmas are obtained within the nonperturbative model-free moment approach without any data input from simulations so that the dynamic structure factor (DSF) satisfies the first three nonvanishing sum rules automatically. The DSF, dispersion, decay, sound speed, and other characteristics of the collective modes are determined using exclusively the static structure factor calculated from various theoretical approaches including the hypernetted chain approximation. A good quantitative agreement with molecular dynamics simulation data is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu V Arkhipov
- Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, IETP, Faculty of Physics and Technology, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - A Askaruly
- Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, IETP, Faculty of Physics and Technology, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - A E Davletov
- Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, IETP, Faculty of Physics and Technology, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - D Yu Dubovtsev
- Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, IETP, Faculty of Physics and Technology, al-Farabi 71, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Z Donkó
- Institute of Solid State Physics and Optics, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 49, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - P Hartmann
- Institute of Solid State Physics and Optics, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 49, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - I Korolov
- Institute of Solid State Physics and Optics, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 49, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - L Conde
- Departamento de Física Aplicada a la Ingeniería Aeronáutica, ETSIA, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Pl. Cardenal Cisneros 3, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - I M Tkachenko
- Departamento de Matemática Aplicada, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
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10
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Mehrem A, Jiménez N, Salmerón-Contreras LJ, García-Andrés X, García-Raffi LM, Picó R, Sánchez-Morcillo VJ. Nonlinear dispersive waves in repulsive lattices. Phys Rev E 2017; 96:012208. [PMID: 29347213 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.96.012208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The propagation of nonlinear waves in a lattice of repelling particles is studied theoretically and experimentally. A simple experimental setup is proposed, consisting of an array of coupled magnetic dipoles. By driving harmonically the lattice at one boundary, we excite propagating waves and demonstrate different regimes of mode conversion into higher harmonics, strongly influenced by dispersion and discreteness. The phenomenon of acoustic dilatation of the chain is also predicted and discussed. The results are compared with the theoretical predictions of the α-Fermi-Pasta-Ulam equation, describing a chain of masses connected by nonlinear quadratic springs and numerical simulations. The results can be extrapolated to other systems described by this equation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Mehrem
- Instituto de Investigación para la Gestión, Integrada de las Zonas Costeras, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Paranimf 1, 46730 Grao de Gandia, Spain
| | - N Jiménez
- LUNAM Université, Université du Maine, CNRS, LAUM UMR 6613, Avenue O. Messiaen, 72085 Le Mans, France
| | - L J Salmerón-Contreras
- Instituto Universitario de Matemática Pura y Aplicada, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - X García-Andrés
- Departamento de Ingenieria Mecanica y Materiales, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - L M García-Raffi
- Instituto Universitario de Matemática Pura y Aplicada, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - R Picó
- Instituto de Investigación para la Gestión, Integrada de las Zonas Costeras, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Paranimf 1, 46730 Grao de Gandia, Spain
| | - V J Sánchez-Morcillo
- Instituto de Investigación para la Gestión, Integrada de las Zonas Costeras, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Paranimf 1, 46730 Grao de Gandia, Spain
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11
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Lin Y, Gaebler JP, Reiter F, Tan TR, Bowler R, Wan Y, Keith A, Knill E, Glancy S, Coakley K, Sørensen AS, Leibfried D, Wineland DJ. Preparation of Entangled States through Hilbert Space Engineering. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2016; 117:140502. [PMID: 27740826 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.117.140502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We apply laser fields to trapped atomic ions to constrain the quantum dynamics from a simultaneously applied global microwave field to an initial product state and a target entangled state. This approach comes under what has become known in the literature as "quantum Zeno dynamics" and we use it to prepare entangled states of two and three ions. With two trapped ^{9}Be^{+} ions, we obtain Bell state fidelities up to 0.990_{-5}^{+2}; with three ions, a W-state fidelity of 0.910_{-7}^{+4} is obtained. Compared to other methods of producing entanglement in trapped ions, this procedure can be relatively insensitive to certain imperfections such as fluctuations in laser intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Lin
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - J P Gaebler
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - F Reiter
- The Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - T R Tan
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - R Bowler
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - Y Wan
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - A Keith
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - E Knill
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - S Glancy
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - K Coakley
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - A S Sørensen
- The Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - D Leibfried
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - D J Wineland
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
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12
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Possa GC, Roncaratti LF. Stability Diagrams for Paul Ion Traps Driven by Two-Frequencies. J Phys Chem A 2016; 120:4915-22. [PMID: 26881458 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b12543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present and discuss stability diagrams for Paul traps driven by two ac voltages. In contrast to a typical Paul trap, here we suggest a secondary ac voltage whose frequency is twice the frequency of the primary one. The ratio between their amplitudes can be used to expand the region of stability and to access different states of motion of trapped ions. This provides a further mechanism to trap, cool, and manipulate single ions and also to improve the experimental framework where ion clouds and crystals can be prepared and controlled. Such approach opens the possibility of designing more sophisticated trapping architectures, leading to a wide variety of applications on ion trap research and mass analysis techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela C Possa
- Instituto de Física, Universidade de Brasília , 70910 Brasília, Brazil.,Faculdade Gama, Universidade de Brasília , 72444, Gama, Brazil
| | - Luiz F Roncaratti
- Instituto de Física, Universidade de Brasília , 70910 Brasília, Brazil
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13
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Johnson KG, Wong-Campos JD, Restelli A, Landsman KA, Neyenhuis B, Mizrahi J, Monroe C. Active stabilization of ion trap radiofrequency potentials. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2016; 87:053110. [PMID: 27250395 DOI: 10.1063/1.4948734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We actively stabilize the harmonic oscillation frequency of a laser-cooled atomic ion confined in a radiofrequency (rf) Paul trap by sampling and rectifying the high voltage rf applied to the trap electrodes. We are able to stabilize the 1 MHz atomic oscillation frequency to be better than 10 Hz or 10 ppm. This represents a suppression of ambient noise on the rf circuit by 34 dB. This technique could impact the sensitivity of ion trap mass spectrometry and the fidelity of quantum operations in ion trap quantum information applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- K G Johnson
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - J D Wong-Campos
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - A Restelli
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - K A Landsman
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - B Neyenhuis
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - J Mizrahi
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - C Monroe
- Joint Quantum Institute and University of Maryland Department of Physics, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
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14
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Hashemloo A, Dion CM. Rotational dynamics of a diatomic molecular ion in a Paul trap. J Chem Phys 2015; 143:204308. [PMID: 26627960 DOI: 10.1063/1.4936425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We present models for a heteronuclear diatomic molecular ion in a linear Paul trap in a rigid-rotor approximation, one purely classical and the other where the center-of-mass motion is treated classically, while rotational motion is quantized. We study the rotational dynamics and their influence on the motion of the center-of-mass, in the presence of the coupling between the permanent dipole moment of the ion and the trapping electric field. We show that the presence of the permanent dipole moment affects the trajectory of the ion and that it departs from the Mathieu equation solution found for atomic ions. For the case of quantum rotations, we also evidence the effect of the above-mentioned coupling on the rotational states of the ion.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hashemloo
- Department of Physics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - C M Dion
- Department of Physics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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15
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Panja S, De S, Yadav S, Sen Gupta A. Note: Measuring capacitance and inductance of a helical resonator and improving its quality factor by mutual inductance alteration. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2015; 86:056104. [PMID: 26026565 DOI: 10.1063/1.4919910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Narrow bandwidth and high voltage radio frequency (RF) is an essential requirement for stable confinement of ions within a RF trap and helical resonators are commonly used for that purpose. Effective capacitance and inductance of a helical resonator are estimated by measuring resonant frequencies for different external loads. Load capacitance of an ion trap can be estimated from this method and a resonator can be constructed for desired resonant frequency. We demonstrate a very simple method to achieve higher Q-factor of a resonator by optimizing mutual separation between the primary antenna and helical coil. We also formulate a set of analytical equations for calculating overall inductance, resistance, and Q-factor of a loaded helical resonator.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Panja
- Time and Frequency Division, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - S De
- Time and Frequency Division, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - S Yadav
- Time and Frequency Division, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - A Sen Gupta
- Time and Frequency Division, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi 110012, India
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16
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Cho DI“D, Hong S, Lee M, Kim T. A review of silicon microfabricated ion traps for quantum information processing. MICRO AND NANO SYSTEMS LETTERS 2015. [DOI: 10.1186/s40486-015-0013-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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17
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Kuhlicke A, Rylke A, Benson O. On-demand electrostatic coupling of individual precharacterized nano- and microparticles in a segmented Paul trap. NANO LETTERS 2015; 15:1993-2000. [PMID: 25688754 DOI: 10.1021/nl504856w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel versatile method for one-by-one coupling of single nano- and microparticles. The particles are levitated in a segmented linear Paul trap, which is ideal for fast particle characterization and assembly of two or more preselected particles by electrostatic attraction. The final compound particles remain in the trap or can be deposited on other structures. We present the assembly protocol with a theoretical background of particle stability. Results for different particle combinations showing electromagnetic coupling are presented as well as a method for the deposition on optical fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kuhlicke
- AG Nanooptik, Institut für Physik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin , Newtonstr. 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
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18
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Quantum computation under micromotion in a planar ion crystal. Sci Rep 2015; 5:8555. [PMID: 25711774 PMCID: PMC4339801 DOI: 10.1038/srep08555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a scheme to realize scalable quantum computation in a planar ion crystal confined by a Paul trap. We show that the inevitable in-plane micromotion affects the gate design via three separate effects: renormalization of the equilibrium positions, coupling to the transverse motional modes, and amplitude modulation in the addressing beam. We demonstrate that all of these effects can be taken into account and high-fidelity gates are possible in the presence of micromotion. This proposal opens the prospect to realize large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computation within a single Paul trap.
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19
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Coste C, Delfau JB, Saint Jean M. Longitudinal and Transverse Single File Diffusion in Quasi-1D Systems. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1142/s1793048014400025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We review our recent results on Single File Diffusion (SFD) of a chain of particles that cannot cross each other, in a thermal bath, with long ranged interactions, and arbitrary damping. We exhibit new behaviors specifically associated to small systems and to small damping. The fluctuation dynamics is explained by the decomposition of the particles' motion in the normal modes of the chain. For longitudinal fluctuations, we emphasize the relevance of the soft mode linked to the translational invariance of the system to the long time SFD behavior. We show that close to the zigzag threshold, the transverse fluctuations also exhibit the SFD behavior, characterized by a mean square displacement that increases as the square root of time. This cannot be explained by the single file ordering, and the SFD behavior results from the strong correlation of the transverse displacements of neighbouring particles near the bifurcation. Extending our analytical modelization, we demonstrate the existence of this subdiffusive regime near the zigzag transition, in the thermodynamic limit. The zigzag transition is a supercritical pitchfork bifurcation, and we show that the transverse SFD behavior is closely linked to the vanishing of the frequency of the zigzag transverse mode at the bifurcation threshold. [Formula: see text] Special Issue Comments: This article presents mathematical results on the dynamics in files with longitudinal movements. This article is connected to the Special Issue articles about advanced statistical properties in single file dynamics,28 expanding files,63 and files with force and advanced formulations.29
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Coste
- Laboratoire "Matière et Systèmes Complexes" (MSC), UMR 7057 CNRS, Université Paris 7 Diderot, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste Delfau
- Laboratoire "Matière et Systèmes Complexes" (MSC), UMR 7057 CNRS, Université Paris 7 Diderot, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Michel Saint Jean
- Laboratoire "Matière et Systèmes Complexes" (MSC), UMR 7057 CNRS, Université Paris 7 Diderot, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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20
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Rajesh A, Bandyopadhyay M. Control of quantum thermodynamic behavior of a charged magneto-oscillator with momentum dissipation. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2014; 89:062116. [PMID: 25019734 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.89.062116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this work we expose the role of environment, confinement, and external magnetic field B in determining the low-temperature thermodynamic behavior in the context of cyclotron motion of a charged oscillator with anomalous dissipative coupling involving momentum instead of the much studied coordinate coupling. Explicit expressions for different quantum thermodynamic functions (QTFs) are obtained at low temperatures for different quantum heat baths characterized by the spectral density function μ(ω). The power-law fall of different QTFs is in conformity with the third law of thermodynamics; however, the sensitivity of decay, i.e., the power of the power-law decay, explicitly depends on μ(ω). We also discuss separately the influence of confinement and magnetic field on the low-temperature behavior of different QTFs. In this process we demonstrate how to control the low-temperature behavior of anomalous dissipative quantum systems by varying the confining length a, B, and the temperature T. Momentum dissipation reduces the effective mass of the system and we also discuss its effect on different QTFs at low temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asam Rajesh
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar, India 751007
| | - Malay Bandyopadhyay
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar, India 751007
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21
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Sivarajah I, Goodman DS, Wells JE, Narducci FA, Smith WW. Off-resonance energy absorption in a linear Paul trap due to mass selective resonant quenching. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2013; 84:113101. [PMID: 24289382 DOI: 10.1063/1.4825352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Linear Paul traps (LPT) are used in many experimental studies such as mass spectrometry, atom-ion collisions, and ion-molecule reactions. Mass selective resonant quenching (MSRQ) is implemented in LPT either to identify a charged particle's mass or to remove unwanted ions from a controlled experimental environment. In the latter case, MSRQ can introduce undesired heating to co-trapped ions of different mass, whose secular motion is off resonance with the quenching ac field, which we call off-resonance energy absorption (OREA). We present simulations and experimental evidence that show that the OREA increases exponentially with the number of ions loaded into the trap and with the amplitude of the off-resonance external ac field.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Sivarajah
- Department of Physics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, USA
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22
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Delfau JB, Coste C, Saint Jean M. Noisy zigzag transition, fluctuations, and thermal bifurcation threshold. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2013; 87:062135. [PMID: 23848655 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.87.062135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We study the zigzag transition in a system of particles with screened electrostatic interaction, submitted to a thermal noise. At finite temperature, this configurational phase transition is an example of noisy supercritical pitchfork bifurcation. The measurements of transverse fluctuations allow a complete description of the bifurcation region, which takes place between the deterministic threshold and a thermal threshold beyond which thermal fluctuations do not allow the system to flip between the symmetric zigzag configurations. We show that a divergence of the saturation time for the transverse fluctuations allows a precise and unambiguous definition of this thermal threshold. Its evolution with the temperature is shown to be in good agreement with theoretical predictions from noisy bifurcation theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Baptiste Delfau
- Laboratoire Matière et Systèmes Complexes (MSC), UMR 7057 CNRS, Université Paris 7 Diderot, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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23
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Batista AA. Heating and thermal squeezing in parametrically driven oscillators with added noise. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2012; 86:051107. [PMID: 23214738 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.86.051107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we report a theoretical model based on Green's functions, Floquet theory, and averaging techniques up to second order that describes the dynamics of parametrically driven oscillators with added thermal noise. Quantitative estimates for heating and quadrature thermal noise squeezing near and below the transition line of the first parametric instability zone of the oscillator are given. Furthermore, we give an intuitive explanation as to why heating and thermal squeezing occur. For small amplitudes of the parametric pump the Floquet multipliers are complex conjugate of each other with a constant magnitude. As the pump amplitude is increased past a threshold value in the stable zone near the first parametric instability, the two Floquet multipliers become real and have different magnitudes. This creates two different effective dissipation rates (one smaller and the other larger than the real dissipation rate) along the stable manifolds of the first-return Poincaré map. We also show that the statistical average of the input power due to thermal noise is constant and independent of the pump amplitude and frequency. The combination of these effects causes most of heating and thermal squeezing. Very good agreement between analytical and numerical estimates of the thermal fluctuations is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano A Batista
- Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Campina Grande PB CEP 58109-970, Brazil
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24
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25
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Schwarz M, Versolato OO, Windberger A, Brunner FR, Ballance T, Eberle SN, Ullrich J, Schmidt PO, Hansen AK, Gingell AD, Drewsen M, López-Urrutia JRC. Cryogenic linear Paul trap for cold highly charged ion experiments. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2012; 83:083115. [PMID: 22938282 DOI: 10.1063/1.4742770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Storage and cooling of highly charged ions require ultra-high vacuum levels obtainable by means of cryogenic methods. We have developed a linear Paul trap operating at 4 K capable of very long ion storage times of about 30 h. A conservative upper bound of the H(2) partial pressure of about 10(-15) mbar (at 4 K) is obtained from this. External ion injection is possible and optimized optical access for lasers is provided, while exposure to black body radiation is minimized. First results of its operation with atomic and molecular ions are presented. An all-solid state laser system at 313 nm has been set up to provide cold Be(+) ions for sympathetic cooling of highly charged ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Schwarz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik, Saupfercheckweg 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
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26
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Schmid S, Härter A, Frisch A, Hoinka S, Denschlag JH. An apparatus for immersing trapped ions into an ultracold gas of neutral atoms. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2012; 83:053108. [PMID: 22667603 DOI: 10.1063/1.4718356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We describe a hybrid vacuum system in which a single ion or a well-defined small number of trapped ions (in our case Ba(+) or Rb(+)) can be immersed into a cloud of ultracold neutral atoms (in our case Rb). This apparatus allows for the study of collisions and interactions between atoms and ions in the ultracold regime. Our setup is a combination of a Bose-Einstein condensation apparatus and a linear Paul trap. The main design feature of the apparatus is to first separate the production locations for the ion and the ultracold atoms and then to bring the two species together. This scheme has advantages in terms of stability and available access to the region where the atom-ion collision experiments are carried out. The ion and the atoms are brought together using a moving one-dimensional optical lattice transport which vertically lifts the atomic sample over a distance of 30 cm from its production chamber into the center of the Paul trap in another chamber. We present techniques to detect and control the relative position between the ion and the atom cloud.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Schmid
- Institut für Quantenmaterie und Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology IQST, Universität Ulm, 89069 Ulm, Germany
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27
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Delfau JB, Coste C, Saint Jean M. Enhanced fluctuations of interacting particles confined in a box. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2012; 85:041137. [PMID: 22680448 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.85.041137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We study the position fluctuations of interacting particles aligned in a finite cell that avoid any crossing in equilibrium with a thermal bath. The focus is put on the influence of the confining force directed along the cell length. We show that the system may be modeled as a 1D chain of particles with identical masses, linked with linear springs of varying spring constants. The confining force may be accounted for by linear springs linked to the walls. When the confining force range is increased toward the inside of the chain, a paradoxical behavior is exhibited. The outermost particles fluctuations are enhanced, whereas those of the inner particles are reduced. A minimum of fluctuations is observed at a distance of the cell extremities that scales linearly with the confining force range. Those features are in very good agreement with the model. Moreover, the simulations exhibit an asymmetry in their fluctuations which is an anharmonic effect. It is characterized by the measurement of the skewness, which is found to be strictly positive for the outer particles when the confining force is short ranged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Baptiste Delfau
- Laboratoire MSC. UMR CNRS 7057, Université Paris Diderot, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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28
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Li W, Lesanovsky I. Electronically excited cold ion crystals. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2012; 108:023003. [PMID: 22324678 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.108.023003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The laser excitation of an ion crystal to high-lying and long-lived electronic states is a genuine many-body process even if in fact only a single ion is excited. This is a direct manifestation of the strong coupling between internal and external dynamics and becomes most apparent in the vicinity of a structural phase transition. Here we show that utilizing highly excited states offers a new approach to the coherent manipulation of ion crystals. This opens up a new route towards the creation of nonclassical motional states in a Paul trap and permits the study of quantum phenomena that rely on a strong coupling between electronic and vibrational dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weibin Li
- Midlands Ultracold Atom Research Centre (MUARC), School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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29
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Douglas DJ, Konenkov NV. Ion cloud model for a linear quadrupole ion trap. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2012; 18:419-429. [PMID: 23221117 DOI: 10.1255/ejms.1200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
If large numbers of ions are stored in a linear quadrupole ion trap, space charge causes the oscillation frequencies of ions to decrease. Ions then appear at higher apparent masses when resonantly ejected for mass analysis. In principle, to calculate mass shifts requires calculating the positions of all ions, interacting with each other, at all times, with a self-consistent space charge field. Here, we propose a simpler model for the ion cloud in the case where mass shifts and frequency shifts are relatively small (ca 0.2% and 0.4%, respectively), the trapping field is much stronger (ca × 10(2)) than the space charge field and space charge only causes small perturbations to the ion motion. The self-consistent field problem need not be considered. As test ions move with times long compared to a cycle of the trapping field, the motion of individual ions can be ignored. Static positions of the ions in the cloud are used. To generate an ion cloud, trajectories of N (ca 10,000) ions are calculated for random times between 10 and 100 cycles of the trapping radio frequency field. The ions are then distributed axially randomly in a trap four times the field radius, r(0) in length. The potential and electric field from the ion cloud are calculated from the ion positions. Near the trap center (distances r< 1r(0)), the potential and electric fields from space charge are not cylindrically symmetric, but are quite symmetric for greater values of r. Trajectories of test ions, oscillation frequencies and mass shifts can then be calculated in the trapping field, including the space charge field. Mass shifts are in good agreement with experiments for reasonable values of the initial positions and speeds of the ions. Agreement with earlier analytical models for the ion cloud, based on a uniform occupation of phase space, or a thermal (Boltzmann) distribution of ions trapped in the effective potential [D. Douglas and N.V. Konenkov, Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 26, 2105 (2012)] is quite good. All three models give similar electric fields to match experimental mass shifts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Don J Douglas
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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30
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Batista AA, Moreira RSN. Signal-to-noise ratio in parametrically driven oscillators. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2011; 84:061121. [PMID: 22304054 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.84.061121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We report a theoretical model based on Green's functions and averaging techniques that gives analytical estimates to the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) near the first parametric instability zone in parametrically driven oscillators in the presence of added ac drive and added thermal noise. The signal term is given by the response of the parametrically driven oscillator to the added ac drive, while the noise term has two different measures: one is dc and the other is ac. The dc measure of noise is given by a time average of the statistically averaged fluctuations of the displacement from equilibrium in the parametric oscillator due to thermal noise. The ac measure of noise is given by the amplitude of the statistically averaged fluctuations at the frequency of the parametric pump. We observe a strong dependence of the SNR on the phase between the external drive and the parametric pump. For some range of the phase there is a high SNR, while for other values of phase the SNR remains flat or decreases with increasing pump amplitude. Very good agreement between analytical estimates and numerical results is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano A Batista
- Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Campina Grande-PB, CEP 58109-970, Brazil
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31
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Benassi A, Vanossi A, Tosatti E. Nanofriction in cold ion traps. Nat Commun 2011; 2:236. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
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32
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Shimshoni E, Morigi G, Fishman S. Quantum zigzag transition in ion chains. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2011; 106:010401. [PMID: 21231721 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.106.010401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Revised: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A string of trapped ions at zero temperature exhibits a structural phase transition to a zigzag structure, tuned by reducing the transverse trap potential or the interparticle distance. The transition is driven by transverse, short wavelength vibrational modes. We argue that this is a quantum phase transition, which can be experimentally realized and probed. Indeed, by means of a mapping to the Ising model in a transverse field, we estimate the quantum critical point in terms of the system parameters, and find a finite, measurable deviation from the critical point predicted by the classical theory. A measurement procedure is suggested which can probe the effects of quantum fluctuations at criticality. These results can be extended to describe the transverse instability of ultracold polar molecules in a one-dimensional optical lattice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efrat Shimshoni
- Department of Physics, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel
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33
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Arkhipov YV, Askaruly A, Ballester D, Davletov AE, Tkachenko IM, Zwicknagel G. Dynamic properties of one-component strongly coupled plasmas: the sum-rule approach. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2010; 81:026402. [PMID: 20365660 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.81.026402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2009] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The dynamic characteristics of strongly coupled one-component plasmas are studied within the moment approach. Our results on the dynamic structure factor and the dynamic local-field correction satisfy the sum rules and other exact relations automatically. A quantitative agreement is obtained with numerous simulation data on the plasma dynamic properties, including the dispersion and decay of collective modes. Our approach allows us to correct and complement the results previously found with other treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu V Arkhipov
- Department of Optics and Plasma Physics, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Tole Bi 96, Almaty 050012, Kazakhstan
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Antonopoulos C, Basios V, Bountis T. Weak chaos and the "melting transition" in a confined microplasma system. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2010; 81:016211. [PMID: 20365450 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.81.016211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We present results demonstrating the occurrence of changes in the collective dynamics of a Hamiltonian system which describes a confined microplasma characterized by long-range Coulomb interactions. In its lower energy regime, we first detect macroscopically the transition from a "crystallinelike" to a "liquidlike" behavior, which we call the "melting transition." We then proceed to study this transition using a microscopic chaos indicator called the smaller alignment index (SALI), which utilizes two deviation vectors in the tangent dynamics of the flow and is nearly constant for ordered (quasiperiodic) orbits, while it decays exponentially to zero for chaotic orbits as exp[-(lambda(1)-lambda(2))t], where lambda(1)>lambda(2)>0 are the two largest Lyapunov exponents. During the melting phase, SALI exhibits a peculiar stairlike decay to zero, reminiscent of "sticky" orbits of Hamiltonian systems near the boundaries of resonance islands. This alerts us to the importance of the Deltalambda=lambda(1)-lambda(2) variations in that regime and helps us identify the energy range over which "melting" occurs as a multistage diffusion process through weakly chaotic layers in the phase space of the microplasma. Additional evidence supporting further the above findings is given by examining the GALI(k) indices, which generalize SALI (=GALI(2)) to the case of k>2 deviation vectors and depend on the complete spectrum of Lyapunov exponents of the tangent flow about the reference orbit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Antonopoulos
- Interdisciplinary Center for Nonlinear Phenomena and Complex Systems (CeNoLi), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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35
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Gregor M, Kuhlicke A, Benson O. Soft-landing and optical characterization of a preselected single fluorescent particle on a tapered optical fiber. OPTICS EXPRESS 2009; 17:24234-24243. [PMID: 20052134 DOI: 10.1364/oe.17.024234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Tapered optical fibers offer easy access to the evanescent field of their guided modes which is ideal for sensing applications. We introduce a soft-landing technique utilizing a linear Paul trap to select and place a single microparticle on the surface of a tapered optical fiber. This approach allows on-demand functionalization of fragile nanophotonic components with arbitrary particles, e.g., for advanced nanosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Gregor
- Nano-Optik, Institut für Physik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Hausvogteiplatz 5-7, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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36
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Ostendorf A, Zhang CB, Wilson MA, Offenberg D, Roth B, Schiller S. Sympathetic cooling of complex molecular ions to millikelvin temperatures. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2006; 97:243005. [PMID: 17280279 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.97.243005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Gas-phase singly protonated organic molecules of mass 410 Da (Alexa Fluor 350) have been cooled from ambient temperature to the hundred millikelvin range by Coulomb interaction with laser-cooled barium ions. The molecules were generated by an electrospray ionization source, transferred to and stored in a radio-frequency trap together with the atomic ions. Observations are well described by molecular dynamics simulations, which are used to determine the spatial distribution and thermal energy of the molecules. In one example, an ensemble of 830 laser-cooled 138Ba+ ions cooled 200 molecular ions to less than 115 mK. The demonstrated technique should allow a large variety of protonated molecules to be sympathetically cooled, including molecules of much higher mass, such as proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ostendorf
- Institut für Experimentalphysik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Roth B, Fröhlich U, Schiller S. Sympathetic cooling of 4He+ ions in a radio-frequency trap. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2005; 94:053001. [PMID: 15783633 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.94.053001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
We have generated Coulomb crystals of ultracold 4He+ ions in a linear radio-frequency trap, by sympathetic cooling via laser-cooled 9Be+. Stable crystals containing up to 150 localized He+ ions at approximately 20 mK were obtained. Ensembles or single ultracold He+ ions open up interesting perspectives for performing precision tests of QED and measurements of nuclear radii. This Letter also indicates the feasibility of cooling and crystallizing highly charged atomic ions using 9Be+ as coolant.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Roth
- Institut für Experimentalphysik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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38
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Morigi G, Fishman S. Dynamics of an ion chain in a harmonic potential. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2004; 70:066141. [PMID: 15697468 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.70.066141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2004] [Revised: 10/26/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Cold ions in anisotropic harmonic potentials can form ion chains of various sizes. Here, the density of ions is not uniform, and thus the eigenmodes are not phononic-like waves. We study chains of N>>1 ions and evaluate analytically the long-wavelength modes and the density of states in the short-wavelength limit. These results reproduce with good approximation the dynamics of chains consisting of dozens of ions. Moreover, they allow one to determine the critical transverse frequency required for the stability of the linear structure, which is found to be in agreement with results obtained by different theoretical methods [Phys. Rev. Lett. 71, 2753 (1993)]] and by numerical simulations [Phys. Rev. Lett. 70, 818 (1993)]]. We introduce and explore the thermodynamic limit for the ion chain. The thermodynamic functions are found to exhibit deviations from extensivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Morigi
- Department of Quantum Physics, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, D-89069 Ulm, Germany
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39
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Morigi G, Fishman S. Eigenmodes and thermodynamics of a Coulomb chain in a harmonic potential. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2004; 93:170602. [PMID: 15525060 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.93.170602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The density of ions trapped in a harmonic potential in one dimension is not uniform. Consequently the eigenmodes are not phononlike waves. We calculate the long-wavelength modes in the continuum limit, and evaluate the density of states in the short-wavelength limit for chains of N>>1 ions. Remarkably, the results that are found analytically in the thermodynamic limit provide a good estimate of the spectrum of excitations of small chains down to few tens of ions. The spectra are used to compute the thermodynamic functions of the chain. Deviations from the extensivity of the thermodynamic quantities are found. An analytic expression for the critical transverse frequency determining the stability of a linear chain is derived.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Morigi
- Department of Quantum Physics, University of Ulm, D-89069 Ulm, Germany
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40
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Course 5 Quantum information processing in ion traps I. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s0924-8099(03)80029-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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41
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Course 6 Quantum information processing in ion traps II. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s0924-8099(03)80030-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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42
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Gaspard P. Lyapunov exponent of ion motion in microplasmas. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2003; 68:056209. [PMID: 14682873 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.68.056209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2003] [Revised: 09/23/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Dynamical chaos is studied in the Hamiltonian motion of ions confined in a Penning trap and forming so-called microplasmas. The dynamical chaos of the ion motion is characterized by the maximum Lyapunov exponent. Results are reported on the dependence of this exponent on the energy of the system, on the number of ions, as well as on the geometry of the trap. Different dynamical regimes are characterized from the crystalline state to a strongly chaotic regime, and to quasiharmonic motion in the external potential of the trap. Across these regimes, the Lyapunov exponent increases, reaches a maximum value, and decreases as a function of energy. Besides, the maximum value of the Lyapunov exponent increases as a function of the number of ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Gaspard
- Center for Nonlinear Phenomena and Complex Systems, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Code Postal 231, Campus Plaine, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
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43
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Messina R, Löwen H. Reentrant transitions in colloidal or dusty plasma bilayers. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2003; 91:146101. [PMID: 14611538 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.91.146101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The phase diagram of crystalline bilayers of particles interacting via a Yukawa potential is calculated for arbitrary screening lengths and particle densities. Staggered rectangular, square, rhombic, and triangular structures are found to be stable including a first-order transition between two different rhombic structures. For varied screening length at fixed density, one of these rhombic phases exhibits both a single and even a double reentrant transition. Our predictions can be verified experimentally in strongly confined charged colloidal suspensions or dusty plasma bilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Messina
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstrasse 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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44
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Porto JV, Rolston S, Laburthe Tolra B, Williams CJ, Phillips WD. Quantum information with neutral atoms as qubits. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2003; 361:1417-1427. [PMID: 12869318 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2003.1211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
One of the essential features of a quantum computer is a quantum 'register' of well-characterized qubits. Neutral atoms in optical lattices are a natural candidate for such a register. We have demonstrated a patterned-loading technique that can be used to load atoms into large arrays of tightly confined but optically resolvable lattice sites. We have also seen preliminary indications of the Mott-insulator transition, which provides a route for single-atom initialization of the individual sites. Combining the two experiments should allow for large arrays of individually addressable single atoms, a system which provides a starting point for further quantum computation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Porto
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8424, USA
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45
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Golden KI, Kalman GJ, Kyrkos S. Charged particle layers in the Debye limit. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2002; 66:031107. [PMID: 12366099 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.66.031107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2002] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We develop an equivalent of the Debye-Hückel weakly coupled equilibrium theory for layered classical charged particle systems composed of one single charged species. We consider the two most important configurations, the charged particle bilayer and the infinite superlattice. The approach is based on the link provided by the classical fluctuation-dissipation theorem between the random-phase approximation response functions and the Debye equilibrium pair correlation function. Layer-layer pair correlation functions, screened and polarization potentials, static structure functions, and static response functions are calculated. The importance of the perfect screening and compressibility sum rules in determining the overall behavior of the system, especially in the r--> infinity limit, is emphasized. The similarities and differences between the quasi-two-dimensional bilayer and the quasi-three-dimensional superlattice are highlighted. An unexpected behavior that emerges from the analysis is that the screened potential, the correlations, and the screening charges carried by the individual layers exhibit a marked nonmonotonic dependence on the layer separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth I Golden
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05401-1455, USA.
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Abstract
By freezing out the motion between particles in a high-energy storage ring, it should be possible to create threads of ions, offering research opportunities beyond the realm of standard accelerator physics. The usual heating due to intra-beam collisions should completely vanish, giving rise to a state of unprecedented brilliance. Despite a continuous improvement of beam cooling techniques, such as electron cooling and laser cooling, the ultimate goal of beam crystallization has not yet been reached in high-energy storage rings. Electron-cooled dilute beams of highly charged ions show liquid-like order with unique applications. An experiment using laser cooling suggested a reduction of intra-beam heating, although the results were ambiguous. Here we demonstrate the crystallization of laser-cooled Mg+ beams circulating in the radiofrequency quadrupole storage ring PALLAS at a velocity of 2,800 m s-1, which corresponds to a beam energy of 1 eV. A sudden collapse of the transverse beam size and the low longitudinal velocity spread clearly indicate the phase transition. The continuous ring-shaped crystalline beam shows exceptional stability, surviving for more than 3,000 revolutions without cooling.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Schätz
- Sektion Physik, LMU München, Garching, Germany
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47
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Schiffer JP, Drewsen M, Hangst JS, Hornekar L. From the cover: temperature, ordering, and equilibrium with time-dependent confining forces. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:10697-700. [PMID: 10995471 PMCID: PMC27085 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.190320397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The concepts of temperature and equilibrium are not well defined in systems of particles with time-varying external forces. An example is a radio frequency ion trap, with the ions laser cooled into an ordered solid, characteristic of sub-mK temperatures, whereas the kinetic energies associated with the fast coherent motion in the trap are up to 7 orders of magnitude higher. Simulations with 1,000 ions reach equilibrium between the degrees of freedom when only aperiodic displacements (secular motion) are considered. The coupling of the periodic driven motion associated with the confinement to the nonperiodic random motion of the ions is very small at low temperatures and increases quadratically with temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Schiffer
- Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
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48
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Abstract
The theory of quantum mechanics applies to closed systems. In such ideal situations, a single atom can, for example, exist simultaneously in a superposition of two different spatial locations. In contrast, real systems always interact with their environment, with the consequence that macroscopic quantum superpositions (as illustrated by the 'Schrodinger's cat' thought-experiment) are not observed. Moreover, macroscopic superpositions decay so quickly that even the dynamics of decoherence cannot be observed. However, mesoscopic systems offer the possibility of observing the decoherence of such quantum superpositions. Here we present measurements of the decoherence of superposed motional states of a single trapped atom. Decoherence is induced by coupling the atom to engineered reservoirs, in which the coupling and state of the environment are controllable. We perform three experiments, finding that the decoherence rate scales with the square of a quantity describing the amplitude of the superposition state.
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49
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Wineland DJ, Monroe C, Meekhof DM, King BE, Leibfried D, Itano WM, Bergquist JC, Berkeland D, Bollinger JJ, Miller J. Quantum state manipulation of trapped atomic ions. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 1998. [DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1998.0168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- D. J. Wineland
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - C. Monroe
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - D. M. Meekhof
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - B. E. King
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - D. Leibfried
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - W. M. Itano
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - J. C. Bergquist
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - D. Berkeland
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - J. J. Bollinger
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - J. Miller
- Ion Storage Group, Time and Frequency Division, NIST, Div. 847, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
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