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Zhou H, Hua J, Li H, Song X, Luo S. Structurally diverse specialized metabolites of maize and their extensive biological functions. J Cell Physiol 2023. [PMID: 36745523 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Maize originated in southern Mexico and various hybrid varieties have been bred during domestication. All maize tissues are rich in specialized plant metabolites (SPMs), which allow the plants to resist the stresses of herbivores and pathogens or environmental factors. To date, a total of 95 terpenoids, 91 phenolics, 31 alkaloids, and 6 other types of compounds have been identified from maize. Certain volatile sesquiterpenes released by maize plants attract the natural enemies of maize herbivores and provide an indirect defensive function. Kauralexins and dolabralexins are the most abundant diterpenoids in maize and are known to regulate and stabilize the maize rhizosphere microbial community. Benzoxazinoids and benzoxazolinones are the main alkaloids in maize and are found in maize plants at the highest concentrations at the seedling stage. These two kinds of alkaloids directly resist herbivory and pathogenic infection. Phenolics enhance the cross-links between maize cell walls. Meanwhile, SPMs also regulate plant-plant relationships. In conclusion, SPMs in maize show a large diversity of chemical structures and broad-spectrum biological activities. We use these to provide ideas and information to enable the improvement of maize resistances through breeding and to promote the rapid development of the maize industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiwen Zhou
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Juan Hua
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Hongdi Li
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Xinyu Song
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Shihong Luo
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
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2
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Li J, Chen M, Fan T, Mu X, Gao J, Wang Y, Jing T, Shi C, Niu H, Zhen S, Fu J, Zheng J, Wang G, Tang J, Gou M. Underlying mechanism of accelerated cell death and multiple disease resistance in a maize lethal leaf spot 1 allele. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:3991-4007. [PMID: 35303096 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erac116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Multiple disease resistance (MDR) in maize has attracted increasing attention. However, the interplay between cell death and metabolite changes and their contributions to MDR remains elusive in maize. In this study, we identified a mutant named as lesion mimic 30 (les30) that showed 'suicidal' lesion formation in the absence of disease and had enhanced resistance to the fungal pathogen Curvularia lunata. Using map-based cloning, we identified the causal gene encoding pheophorbide a oxidase (PAO), which is known to be involved in chlorophyll degradation and MDR, and is encoded by LETHAL LEAF SPOT1 (LLS1). LLS1 was found to be induced by both biotic and abiotic stresses. Transcriptomics analysis showed that genes involved in defense responses and secondary metabolite biosynthesis were mildly activated in leaves of the les30 mutant without lesions, whilst they were strongly activated in leaves with lesions. In addition, in les30 leaves with lesions, there was overaccumulation of defense-associated phytohormones including jasmonic acid and salicylic acid, and of phytoalexins including phenylpropanoids, lignin, and flavonoids, suggesting that their biosynthesis was activated in a lesion-dependent manner. Taken together, our study implies the existence of an interactive amplification loop of interrupted chlorophyll degradation, cell death, expression of defense-related genes, and metabolite changes that results in suicidal lesion formation and MDR, and this has the potential to be exploited by genetic manipulation to improve maize disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiankun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Mengyao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Tianyuan Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Xiaohuan Mu
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Jie Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Teng Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Cuilan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Hongbin Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Sihan Zhen
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Junjie Fu
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jun Zheng
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Guoying Wang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jihua Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China
| | - Mingyue Gou
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Grain Crops, Center for Crop Genome Engineering, College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
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3
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Dissection of the Complex Transcription and Metabolism Regulation Networks Associated with Maize Resistance to Ustilago maydis. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12111789. [PMID: 34828395 PMCID: PMC8619255 DOI: 10.3390/genes12111789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The biotrophic fungal pathogen Ustilago maydis causes common smut in maize, forming tumors on all aerial organs, especially on reproductive organs, leading to significant reduction in yield and quality defects. Resistance to U. maydis is thought to be a quantitative trait, likely controlled by many minor gene effects. However, the genes and the underlying complex mechanisms for maize resistance to U. maydis remain largely uncharacterized. Here, we conducted comparative transcriptome and metabolome study using a pair of maize lines with contrast resistance to U. maydis post-infection. WGCNA of transcriptome profiling reveals that defense response, photosynthesis, and cell cycle are critical processes in maize response to U. maydis, and metabolism regulation of glycolysis, amino acids, phenylpropanoid, and reactive oxygen species are closely correlated with defense response. Metabolomic analysis supported that phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis was induced upon U. maydis infection, and an obviously higher content of shikimic acid, a key compound in glycolysis and aromatic amino acids biosynthesis pathways, was detected in resistant samples. Thus, we propose that complex gene co-expression and metabolism networks related to amino acids and ROS metabolism might contribute to the resistance to corn smut.
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Medeiros DB, Brotman Y, Fernie AR. The utility of metabolomics as a tool to inform maize biology. PLANT COMMUNICATIONS 2021; 2:100187. [PMID: 34327322 PMCID: PMC8299083 DOI: 10.1016/j.xplc.2021.100187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
With the rise of high-throughput omics tools and the importance of maize and its products as food and bioethanol, maize metabolism has been extensively explored. Modern maize is still rich in genetic and phenotypic variation, yielding a wide range of structurally and functionally diverse metabolites. The maize metabolome is also incredibly dynamic in terms of topology and subcellular compartmentalization. In this review, we examine a broad range of studies that cover recent developments in maize metabolism. Particular attention is given to current methodologies and to the use of metabolomics as a tool to define biosynthetic pathways and address biological questions. We also touch upon the use of metabolomics to understand maize natural variation and evolution, with a special focus on research that has used metabolite-based genome-wide association studies (mGWASs).
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Affiliation(s)
- David B. Medeiros
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Yariv Brotman
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheva, Israel
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5
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Westrick NM, Smith DL, Kabbage M. Disarming the Host: Detoxification of Plant Defense Compounds During Fungal Necrotrophy. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:651716. [PMID: 33995447 PMCID: PMC8120277 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.651716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
While fungal biotrophs are dependent on successfully suppressing/subverting host defenses during their interaction with live cells, necrotrophs, due to their lifestyle are often confronted with a suite of toxic metabolites. These include an assortment of plant defense compounds (PDCs) which can demonstrate broad antifungal activity. These PDCs can be either constitutively present in plant tissue or induced in response to infection, but are nevertheless an important obstacle which needs to be overcome for successful pathogenesis. Fungal necrotrophs have developed a number of strategies to achieve this goal, from the direct detoxification of these compounds through enzymatic catalysis and modification, to the active transport of various PDCs to achieve toxin sequestration and efflux. Studies have shown across multiple pathogens that the efficient detoxification of host PDCs is both critical for successful infection and often a determinant factor in pathogen host range. Here, we provide a broad and comparative overview of the various mechanisms for PDC detoxification which have been identified in both fungal necrotrophs and fungal pathogens which depend on detoxification during a necrotrophic phase of infection. Furthermore, the effect that these mechanisms have on fungal host range, metabolism, and disease control will be discussed.
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6
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Ding Y, Weckwerth PR, Poretsky E, Murphy KM, Sims J, Saldivar E, Christensen SA, Char SN, Yang B, Tong AD, Shen Z, Kremling KA, Buckler ES, Kono T, Nelson DR, Bohlmann J, Bakker MG, Vaughan MM, Khalil AS, Betsiashvili M, Dressano K, Köllner TG, Briggs SP, Zerbe P, Schmelz EA, Huffaker A. Genetic elucidation of interconnected antibiotic pathways mediating maize innate immunity. NATURE PLANTS 2020; 6:1375-1388. [PMID: 33106639 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-020-00787-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Specialized metabolites constitute key layers of immunity that underlie disease resistance in crops; however, challenges in resolving pathways limit our understanding of the functions and applications of these metabolites. In maize (Zea mays), the inducible accumulation of acidic terpenoids is increasingly considered to be a defence mechanism that contributes to disease resistance. Here, to understand maize antibiotic biosynthesis, we integrated association mapping, pan-genome multi-omic correlations, enzyme structure-function studies and targeted mutagenesis. We define ten genes in three zealexin (Zx) gene clusters that encode four sesquiterpene synthases and six cytochrome P450 proteins that collectively drive the production of diverse antibiotic cocktails. Quadruple mutants in which the ability to produce zealexins (ZXs) is blocked exhibit a broad-spectrum loss of disease resistance. Genetic redundancies ensuring pathway resiliency to single null mutations are combined with enzyme substrate promiscuity, creating a biosynthetic hourglass pathway that uses diverse substrates and in vivo combinatorial chemistry to yield complex antibiotic blends. The elucidated genetic basis of biochemical phenotypes that underlie disease resistance demonstrates a predominant maize defence pathway and informs innovative strategies for transferring chemical immunity between crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yezhang Ding
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Philipp R Weckwerth
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Elly Poretsky
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Katherine M Murphy
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - James Sims
- ETH Zurich, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Evan Saldivar
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Shawn A Christensen
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Si Nian Char
- Division of Plant Sciences, Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Bing Yang
- Division of Plant Sciences, Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Anh-Dao Tong
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Zhouxin Shen
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Karl A Kremling
- Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Edward S Buckler
- Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Ithaca, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tom Kono
- Minnesota Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - David R Nelson
- University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Jörg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Matthew G Bakker
- National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Peoria, IL, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Martha M Vaughan
- National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Ahmed S Khalil
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Mariam Betsiashvili
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Keini Dressano
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | - Steven P Briggs
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Philipp Zerbe
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Eric A Schmelz
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Alisa Huffaker
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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7
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Tammineni R, Gulati P, Kumar S, Mohanty A. An overview of acyclotides: Past, present and future. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2020; 170:112215. [PMID: 31812106 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2019.112215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Acyclotides are plant-based, acyclic miniproteins with cystine knot motif formed by three conserved disulfide linkages and lack head to tail ligation. Acyclotides may not necessarily be less stable, even though they lack cyclic backbone, as the conserved cystine knot feature provides the required stability. Violacin A was the first acyclotide, isolated from Viola odorata in 2006. Until now, acyclotides have been reported from five dicot families (Violaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, Fabaceae) and one monocot family (Poaceae). In Poaceae, only acyclotides have been found whereas in dicot families both cyclotides and acyclotides have been isolated. In last 15 years, several acyclotides with antimicrobial, cytotoxic and hemolytic bioactivities have been discovered. Thus, although many naturally expressed acyclotides do exhibit bioactivities, the linearization of the cyclic peptides may result in loss of bioactivities. Although, bioactivities of acyclotides are comparable to their cyclic counterparts, the numbers of isolated acyclotides are still few. Further, those discovered, have the scope to be screened for agriculturally important activities (insecticidal, anti-helminthic, molluscicidal) and pharmaceutical properties (anticancer, anti-HIV, immuno-stimulant). The feasibility of application of acyclotides is because of their relatively less complex biological synthesis compared to cyclotides, as the cyclization step is not needed. This attribute facilitates the production of transgenic crops and/or its expression in heterologous organisms, lacking cyclization machinery. Keeping in view the bioactivities and the wide array of emerging potential applications of acyclotides, the present review discusses their distribution in plants, gene and protein structure, biosynthesis, bioactivities and mechanism of action. Further, their potential applications and future perspectives to exploit them in agriculture and pharmaceutical industries have been highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramya Tammineni
- Bioinformatics Infrastructure Facility, Gargi College, University of Delhi, India
| | - Pooja Gulati
- Department of Microbiology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India
| | - Sanjay Kumar
- Department of Microbiology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India
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Abstract
This Review explores the class of plant-derived macrocyclic peptides called cyclotides. We include an account of their discovery, characterization, and distribution in the plant kingdom as well as a detailed analysis of their sequences and structures, biosynthesis and chemical synthesis, biological functions, and applications. These macrocyclic peptides are around 30 amino acids in size and are characterized by their head-to-tail cyclic backbone and cystine knot motif, which render them to be exceptionally stable, with resistance to thermal or enzymatic degradation. Routes to their chemical synthesis have been developed over the past two decades, and this capability has facilitated a wide range of mutagenesis and structure-activity relationship studies. In turn, these studies have both led to an increased understanding of their mechanisms of action as well as facilitated a range of applications in agriculture and medicine, as ecofriendly crop protection agents, and as drug leads or scaffolds for pharmaceutical design. Our overall objective in this Review is to provide readers with a comprehensive overview of cyclotides that we hope will stimulate further work on this fascinating family of peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J de Veer
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - Meng-Wei Kan
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Queensland 4072 , Australia
| | - David J Craik
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Queensland 4072 , Australia
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9
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Villajuana-Bonequi M, Matei A, Ernst C, Hallab A, Usadel B, Doehlemann G. Cell type specific transcriptional reprogramming of maize leaves during Ustilago maydis induced tumor formation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10227. [PMID: 31308451 PMCID: PMC6629649 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46734-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ustilago maydis is a biotrophic pathogen and well-established genetic model to understand the molecular basis of biotrophic interactions. U. maydis suppresses plant defense and induces tumors on all aerial parts of its host plant maize. In a previous study we found that U. maydis induced leaf tumor formation builds on two major processes: the induction of hypertrophy in the mesophyll and the induction of cell division (hyperplasia) in the bundle sheath. In this study we analyzed the cell-type specific transcriptome of maize leaves 4 days post infection. This analysis allowed identification of key features underlying the hypertrophic and hyperplasic cell identities derived from mesophyll and bundle sheath cells, respectively. We examined the differentially expressed (DE) genes with particular focus on maize cell cycle genes and found that three A-type cyclins, one B-, D- and T-type are upregulated in the hyperplasic tumorous cells, in which the U. maydis effector protein See1 promotes cell division. Additionally, most of the proteins involved in the formation of the pre-replication complex (pre-RC, that assure that each daughter cell receives identic DNA copies), the transcription factors E2F and DPa as well as several D-type cyclins are deregulated in the hypertrophic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitzi Villajuana-Bonequi
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), BioCenter, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47a, Cologne, 50674, Germany
| | - Alexandra Matei
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), BioCenter, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47a, Cologne, 50674, Germany
| | - Corinna Ernst
- Center for Familial Breast and Ovarian Cancer, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, 50931, Germany
| | - Asis Hallab
- BioSC, IBG-2, Institute of Botany, RWTH Aachen, Worringer Weg 3, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Björn Usadel
- BioSC, IBG-2, Institute of Botany, RWTH Aachen, Worringer Weg 3, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Gunther Doehlemann
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), BioCenter, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47a, Cologne, 50674, Germany.
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Baldwin T, Baldwin S, Klos K, Bregitzer P, Marshall J. Deletion of the benzoxazinoid detoxification gene NAT1 in Fusarium graminearum reduces deoxynivalenol in spring wheat. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214230. [PMID: 31299046 PMCID: PMC6625701 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzoxazinoid (Bx) metabolites produced by wheat and other members of the Poaceae have activity against Fusarium sp. that cause cereal diseases including Fusarium head blight (FHB) on wheat and barley. Certain Bx metabolites can be detoxified by Fusarium sp. with the arylamine N-acetyltransferase NAT1. Investigation of this pathway may reveal strategies for increasing FHB resistance, such as selection for higher levels of Bx metabolites within existing germplasm and/or engineering fungal susceptibility via host induced silencing of NAT1. We assessed the reactions of fifteen wheat cultivars or breeding lines adapted to the Northwestern United States to infection with F. graminearum Δnat1 mutants that should be sensitive to Bx metabolites. Significant differences were noted in disease severity and deoxynivalenol (DON) among the cultivars 21 d after inoculation with either mutant or wildtype (PH1) strains. Mutant vs. wildtype strains did not result in significant variation for infection severity (as measured by % infected florets), but inoculation with Δnat1 mutants vs. wildtype resulted in significantly lower DON concentrations in mature kernels (p < 0.0001). Of the cultivars tested, HRS3419 was the most resistant cultivar to PH1 (severity = 62%, DON = 45 ppm) and Δnat1 mutants (severity = 61%, DON = 30 ppm). The cultivar most susceptible to infection was Kelse with PH1 (severity = 100%, DON = 292 ppm) and Δnat1 mutants (severity = 100%, DON = 158 ppm). We hypothesized that sub-lethal Bx metabolite levels may suppress DON production in F. graminearum Δnat1 mutants. In vitro assays of Bx metabolites BOA, MBOA, and DIMBOA at 30 μM did not affect growth, but did reduce DON production by Δnat1 and PH1. Although the levels of Bx metabolites are likely too low in the wheat cultivars we tested to suppress FHB, higher levels of Bx metabolites may contribute towards reductions in DON and FHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Baldwin
- National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, USDA-ARS, Aberdeen, Idaho, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TB); (JM)
| | - Suzette Baldwin
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Entomological Sciences University of Idaho Research and Extension, Idaho Falls, ID, United States of America
| | - Kathy Klos
- National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, USDA-ARS, Aberdeen, Idaho, United States of America
| | - Phil Bregitzer
- National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, USDA-ARS, Aberdeen, Idaho, United States of America
| | - Juliet Marshall
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Entomological Sciences University of Idaho Research and Extension, Idaho Falls, ID, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TB); (JM)
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11
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Christensen SA, Huffaker A, Sims J, Hunter CT, Block A, Vaughan MM, Willett D, Romero M, Mylroie JE, Williams WP, Schmelz EA. Fungal and herbivore elicitation of the novel maize sesquiterpenoid, zealexin A4, is attenuated by elevated CO 2. PLANTA 2018; 247:863-873. [PMID: 29260396 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2830-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Chemical isolation and NMR-based structure elucidation revealed a novel keto-acidic sesquiterpenoid, termed zealexin A4 (ZA4). ZA4 is elicited by pathogens and herbivory, but attenuated by heightened levels of CO 2 . The identification of the labdane-related diterpenoids, termed kauralexins and acidic sesquiterpenoids, termed zealexins, demonstrated the existence of at least ten novel stress-inducible maize metabolites with diverse antimicrobial activity. Despite these advances, the identity of co-occurring and predictably related analytes remains largely unexplored. In the current effort, we identify and characterize the first sesquiterpene keto acid derivative of β-macrocarpene, named zealexin A4 (ZA4). Evaluation of diverse maize inbreds revealed that ZA4 is commonly produced in maize scutella during the first 14 days of seedling development; however, ZA4 production in the scutella was markedly reduced in seedlings grown in sterile soil. Elevated ZA4 production was observed in response to inoculation with adventitious fungal pathogens, such as Aspergillus flavus and Rhizopus microsporus, and a positive relationship between ZA4 production and expression of the predicted zealexin biosynthetic genes, terpene synthases 6 and 11 (Tps6 and Tps11), was observed. ZA4 exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against the mycotoxigenic pathogen A. flavus; however, ZA4 activity against R. microsporus was minimal, suggesting the potential of some fungi to detoxify ZA4. Significant induction of ZA4 production was also observed in response to infestation with the stem tunneling herbivore Ostrinia nubilalis. Examination of the interactive effects of elevated CO2 (E-CO2) on both fungal and herbivore-elicited ZA4 production revealed significantly reduced levels of inducible ZA4 accumulation, consistent with a negative role for E-CO2 on ZA4 production. Collectively, these results describe a novel β-macrocarpene-derived antifungal defense in maize and expand the established diversity of zealexins that are differentially regulated in response to biotic/abiotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn A Christensen
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA.
| | - Alisa Huffaker
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0380, USA
| | - James Sims
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Charles T Hunter
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Anna Block
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Martha M Vaughan
- Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL, 61604, USA
| | - Denis Willett
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Maritza Romero
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - J Erik Mylroie
- Bennett Aerospace, Engineer and Research Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, 39180, USA
| | - W Paul Williams
- Crop Science Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Dorman Hall, Stone Blvd., Starkville, MS, 39762, USA
| | - Eric A Schmelz
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0380, USA.
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12
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Christensen SA, Sims J, Vaughan MM, Hunter C, Block A, Willett D, Alborn HT, Huffaker A, Schmelz EA. Commercial hybrids and mutant genotypes reveal complex protective roles for inducible terpenoid defenses in maize. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:1693-1705. [PMID: 29361044 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant defense research is facilitated by the use of genome-sequenced inbred lines; however, a foundational knowledge of interactions in commercial hybrids remains relevant to understanding mechanisms present in crops. Using an array of commercial maize hybrids, we quantified the accumulation patterns of defense-related metabolites and phytohormones in tissues challenged with diverse fungal pathogens. Across hybrids, Southern leaf blight (Cochliobolus heterostrophus) strongly elicited specific sesqui- and diterpenoid defenses, namely zealexin A4 (ZA4) and kauralexin diacids, compared with the stalk-rotting agents Fusarium graminearum and Colletotrichum graminicola. With respect to biological activity, ZA4 and kauralexin diacids demonstrated potent antimicrobial action against F. graminearum. Unexpectedly, ZA4 displayed an opposite effect on C. graminicola by promoting growth. Overall, a negative correlation was observed between total analyzed terpenoids and fungal growth. Statistical analyses highlighted kauralexin A3 and abscisic acid as metabolites most associated with fungal suppression. As an empirical test, mutants of the ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase Anther ear 2 (An2) lacking kauralexin biosynthetic capacity displayed increased susceptibility to C. heterostrophus and Fusarium verticillioides. Our results highlight a widely occurring defensive function of acidic terpenoids in commercial hybrids and the complex nature of elicited pathway products that display selective activities on fungal pathogen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn A Christensen
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - James Sims
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerl
| | - Martha M Vaughan
- Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, N. University St. Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Charles Hunter
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Anna Block
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Denis Willett
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Hans T Alborn
- Chemistry Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Alisa Huffaker
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Eric A Schmelz
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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13
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Kretschmer M, Croll D, Kronstad JW. Maize susceptibility to Ustilago maydis is influenced by genetic and chemical perturbation of carbohydrate allocation. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2017; 18:1222-1237. [PMID: 27564861 PMCID: PMC6638311 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability of biotrophic fungi to metabolically adapt to the host environment is a critical factor in fungal diseases of crop plants. In this study, we analysed the transcriptome of maize tumours induced by Ustilago maydis to identify key features underlying metabolic shifts during disease. Among other metabolic changes, this analysis highlighted modifications during infection in the transcriptional regulation of carbohydrate allocation and starch metabolism. We confirmed the relevance of these changes by establishing that symptom development was altered in an id1 (indeterminate1) mutant that showed increased accumulation of sucrose as well as being defective in the vegetative to reproductive transition. We further established the relevance of specific metabolic functions related to carbohydrate allocation by assaying disease in su1 (sugary1) mutant plants with altered starch metabolism and in plants treated with glucose, sucrose and silver nitrate during infection. We propose that specific regulatory and metabolic changes influence the balance between susceptibility and resistance by altering carbon allocation to promote fungal growth or to influence plant defence. Taken together, these studies reveal key aspects of metabolism that are critical for biotrophic adaptation during the maize-U. maydis interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Kretschmer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Daniel Croll
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
- Present address:
Institute of Integrative BiologyETH Zürich8092 ZürichSwitzerland
| | - James W. Kronstad
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
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14
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Zambanini T, Hartmann SK, Schmitz LM, Büttner L, Hosseinpour Tehrani H, Geiser E, Beudels M, Venc D, Wandrey G, Büchs J, Schwarzländer M, Blank LM, Wierckx N. Promoters from the itaconate cluster of Ustilago maydis are induced by nitrogen depletion. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 2017; 4:11. [PMID: 29209508 PMCID: PMC5706154 DOI: 10.1186/s40694-017-0040-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ustilago maydis is known for its natural potential to produce a broad range of valuable chemicals, such as itaconate, from both industrial carbon waste streams and renewable biomass. Production of itaconate, and many other secondary metabolites, is induced by nitrogen limitation in U. maydis. The clustered genes responsible for itaconate production have recently been identified, enabling the development of new expression tools that are compatible with biotechnological processes. Results Here we report on the investigation of two of the native promoters, Ptad1 and Pmtt1, from the itaconate cluster of U. maydis MB215. For both promoters the specific activation upon nitrogen limitation, which is known to be the trigger for itaconate production in Ustilago, could be demonstrated by gfp expression. The promoters cover a broad range of expression levels, especially when combined with the possibility to create single- and multicopy construct integration events. In addition, these reporter constructs enable a functional characterization of gene induction patterns associated with itaconate production. Conclusions The promoters are well suited to induce gene expression in response to nitrogen limitation, coupled to the itaconate production phase, which contributes towards the further improvement of organic acid production with Ustilago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiemo Zambanini
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Sandra K Hartmann
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany.,BioSC, c/o Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Lisa M Schmitz
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Linda Büttner
- Department of Biology, Philipps-University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Straße 8, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Hamed Hosseinpour Tehrani
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Elena Geiser
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Melanie Beudels
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Dominik Venc
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Georg Wandrey
- AVT-Aachener Verfahrenstechnik, Biochemical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 51, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Jochen Büchs
- AVT-Aachener Verfahrenstechnik, Biochemical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 51, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Markus Schwarzländer
- BioSC, c/o Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation (INRES), Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, 53113 Bonn, Germany.,Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (IBBP), Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48143 Münster, Germany
| | - Lars M Blank
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
| | - Nick Wierckx
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen, 52074 Germany
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15
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Meyer J, Berger DK, Christensen SA, Murray SL. RNA-Seq analysis of resistant and susceptible sub-tropical maize lines reveals a role for kauralexins in resistance to grey leaf spot disease, caused by Cercospora zeina. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 17:197. [PMID: 29132306 PMCID: PMC5683525 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-017-1137-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cercospora zeina is a foliar pathogen responsible for maize grey leaf spot in southern Africa that negatively impacts maize production. Plants use a variety of chemical and structural mechanisms to defend themselves against invading pathogens such as C. zeina, including the production of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial properties. In maize, a variety of biotic and abiotic stressors induce the accumulation of the terpenoid phytoalexins, zealexins and kauralexins. RESULTS C. zeina-susceptible line displayed pervasive rectangular grey leaf spot lesions, running parallel with the leaf veins in contrast to C. zeina-resistant line that had restricted disease symptoms. Analysis of the transcriptome of both lines indicated that genes involved in primary and secondary metabolism were up-regualted, and although different pathways were prioritized in each line, production of terpenoid compounds were common to both. Targeted phytoalexin analysis revealed that C. zeina-inoculated leaves accumulated zealexins and kauralexins. The resistant line shows a propensity toward accumulation of the kauralexin B series metabolites in response to infection, which contrasts with the susceptible line that preferentially accumulates the kauralexin A series. Kauralexin accumulation was correlated to expression of the kauralexin biosynthetic gene, ZmAn2 and a candidate biosynthetic gene, ZmKSL2. We report the expression of a putative copalyl diphosphate synthase gene that is induced by C. zeina in the resistant line exclusively. DISCUSSION This study shows that zealexins and kauralexins, and expression of their biosynthetic genes, are induced by C. zeina in both resistant and susceptible germplasm adapted to the southern African climate. The data presented here indicates that different forms of kauralexins accumulate in the resistant and susceptible maize lines in response to C. zeina, with the accumulation of kauralexin B compounds in a resistant maize line and kauralexin A compounds accumulating in the susceptible line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Meyer
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, P/Bag X20, Hatfield, Gauteng, 0028, South Africa
- Centre for Proteomic and Genomic Research, Upper Level, St Peter's Mall, Cnr Anzio and Main Road, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
| | - Dave K Berger
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, P/Bag X20, Hatfield, Gauteng, 0028, South Africa
| | - Shawn A Christensen
- Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Chemistry Research Unit, Gainesville, Florida, 32608, USA
| | - Shane L Murray
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa.
- Centre for Proteomic and Genomic Research, Upper Level, St Peter's Mall, Cnr Anzio and Main Road, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa.
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16
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Porto W, Pires A, Franco O. Computational tools for exploring sequence databases as a resource for antimicrobial peptides. Biotechnol Adv 2017; 35:337-349. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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17
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Ridenour JB, Bluhm BH. The novel fungal-specific gene FUG1 has a role in pathogenicity and fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium verticillioides. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2017; 18:513-528. [PMID: 27071505 PMCID: PMC6638258 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2016] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium verticillioides is a globally important pathogen of maize, capable of causing severe yield reductions and economic losses. In addition, F. verticillioides produces toxic secondary metabolites during kernel colonization that pose significant threats to human and animal health. Fusarium verticillioides and other plant-pathogenic fungi possess a large number of genes with no known or predicted function, some of which could encode novel virulence factors or antifungal targets. In this study, we identified and characterized the novel gene FUG1 (Fungal Unknown Gene 1) in F. verticillioides through functional genetics. Deletion of FUG1 impaired maize kernel colonization and fumonisin biosynthesis. In addition, deletion of FUG1 increased sensitivity to the antimicrobial compound 2-benzoxazolinone and to hydrogen peroxide, which indicates that FUG1 may play a role in mitigating stresses associated with host defence. Transcriptional profiling via RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) identified numerous fungal genes that were differentially expressed in the kernel environment following the deletion of FUG1, including genes involved in secondary metabolism and mycelial development. Sequence analysis of the Fug1 protein provided evidence for nuclear localization, DNA binding and a domain of unknown function associated with previously characterized transcriptional regulators. This information, combined with the observed transcriptional reprogramming in the deletion mutant, suggests that FUG1 represents a novel class of fungal transcription factors or genes otherwise involved in signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- John B. Ridenour
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of Arkansas Division of AgricultureFayettevilleAR 72701USA
| | - Burton H. Bluhm
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of Arkansas Division of AgricultureFayettevilleAR 72701USA
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18
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Porto WF, Miranda VJ, Pinto MFS, Dohms SM, Franco OL. High-performance computational analysis and peptide screening from databases of cyclotides from poaceae. Biopolymers 2017; 106:109-18. [PMID: 26572696 DOI: 10.1002/bip.22771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cyclotides are a family of head-to-tail cyclized peptides containing three conserved disulfide bonds, in a structural scaffold also known as a cyclic cysteine knot. Due to the high degree of cysteine conservation, novel members from this peptide family can be identified in protein databases through a search through regular expression (REGEX). In this work, six novel cyclotide-like precursors from the Poaceae were identified from NCBI's non-redundant protein database by the use of REGEX. Two out of six sequences (named Zea mays L and M) showed an Asp residue in the C-terminal, which indicated that they could be cyclic. Gene expression in maize tissues was investigated, showing that the previously described cyclotide-like Z. mays J is expressed in the roots. According to molecular dynamics, the structure of Z. mays J seems to be stable, despite the putative absence of cyclization. As regards cyclotide evolution, it was hypothesized that this is an outcome from convergent evolution and/or horizontal gene transfer. The results showed that peptide screening from databases should be performed periodically in order to include novel sequences, which are deposited as the databases grow. Indeed, the advances in computational and experimental methods will together help to answer key questions and reach new horizons in defense-related peptide identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- William F Porto
- Centro De Análises Proteômicas E Bioquímicas, Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas E Biotecnologia Universidade Católica De Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Vivian J Miranda
- Centro De Análises Proteômicas E Bioquímicas, Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas E Biotecnologia Universidade Católica De Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Michelle F S Pinto
- Centro De Análises Proteômicas E Bioquímicas, Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas E Biotecnologia Universidade Católica De Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Stephan M Dohms
- Centro De Análises Proteômicas E Bioquímicas, Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas E Biotecnologia Universidade Católica De Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil
| | - Octavio L Franco
- Centro De Análises Proteômicas E Bioquímicas, Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas E Biotecnologia Universidade Católica De Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil.,S-Inova Biotech, Pos Graduação em Biotecnologia, Universidade Catolica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande MS, Brazil
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19
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Weidmann J, Craik DJ. Discovery, structure, function, and applications of cyclotides: circular proteins from plants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:4801-12. [PMID: 27222514 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Cyclotides are plant-derived cyclic peptides that have a head-to-tail cyclic backbone and three conserved disulphide bonds that form a cyclic cystine knot motif. They occur in plants from the Violaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae families, typically with 10-100 cyclotides in a given plant species, in a wide range of tissues, including flowers, leaves, stems, and roots. Some cyclotides are expressed in large amounts (up to 1g kg(-1) wet plant weight) and their natural function appears to be to protect plants from pests or pathogens. This article provides a brief overview of their discovery, distribution in plants, and applications. In particular, their exceptional stability has led to their use as peptide-based scaffolds in drug design applications. They also have potential as natural 'ecofriendly' insecticides, and as protein engineering frameworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Weidmann
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - David J Craik
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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20
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Weihmann F, Eisermann I, Becher R, Krijger JJ, Hübner K, Deising HB, Wirsel SGR. Correspondence between symptom development of Colletotrichum graminicola and fungal biomass, quantified by a newly developed qPCR assay, depends on the maize variety. BMC Microbiol 2016; 16:94. [PMID: 27215339 PMCID: PMC4877754 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-016-0709-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Penetration attempts of the hemibiotroph Colletotrichum graminicola may activate PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) on different cultivars of Zea mays to different extent. However, in most events, this does not prevent the establishment of a compatible pathogenic interaction. In this study, we investigate the extent to which the host variety influences PTI. Furthermore, we assess whether visual disease symptoms occurring on different maize varieties reliably reflect fungal biomass development in planta as determined by qPCR and GFP tracing. RESULTS Employing a set of four maize varieties, which were selected from a panel of 27 varieties, for in-depth assessment of pathogenesis of the wild type strain of C. graminicola, revealed considerable differences in susceptibility as evidenced by symptom severity that decreased from variety Golden Jubilee to Mikado to Farmtop to B73. However, a newly developed qPCR assay and microscopical observation of a GFP-labelled strain showed that disease symptoms are in some instances inconsistent when compared with other indicators of susceptibility. Of the four varieties assessed, either Golden Jubilee, Mikado and B73, or Golden Jubilee, Farmtop and B73 showed a direct correlation between symptom and fungal biomass development. In a pairwise comparison, however, Mikado and Farmtop showed an inverse correlation for these features. CONCLUSIONS The genotype of maize contributes to the severity of symptoms resulting from an infection with C. graminicola. Partially, this may be attributed to the extent of PTI activated in different varieties, as reflected by papilla formation. Furthermore, when evaluating the susceptibility of a variety, it should be considered that symptom severity must not have to reflect the extent of fungal growth in the infected tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Weihmann
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Iris Eisermann
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Rayko Becher
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Jorrit-Jan Krijger
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Konstantin Hübner
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany.,Interdisziplinäres Zentrum für Nutzpflanzenforschung (IZN), Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Holger B Deising
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany.,Interdisziplinäres Zentrum für Nutzpflanzenforschung (IZN), Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Stefan G R Wirsel
- Institut für Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaften, Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät III, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany. .,Interdisziplinäres Zentrum für Nutzpflanzenforschung (IZN), Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Str. 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany.
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21
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Ravipati AS, Henriques ST, Poth AG, Kaas Q, Wang CK, Colgrave ML, Craik DJ. Lysine-rich Cyclotides: A New Subclass of Circular Knotted Proteins from Violaceae. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:2491-500. [PMID: 26322745 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cyclotides are macrocyclic proteins produced by plants for host defense. Although they occur sparsely in other plant families, cyclotides have been detected in every Violaceae plant species so far screened. Many of the Violaceae species examined until now have been from closely related geographical regions or habitats. To test the hypothesis that cyclotides are ubiquitous in this family, two geographically isolated (and critically endangered) species of Australasian Violaceae, namely Melicytus chathamicus and M. latifolius, were examined. Surprisingly, we discovered a suite of cyclotides possessing novel sequence features, including a lysine-rich nature, distinguishing them from "conventional" cyclotides and suggesting that they might have different physiological activities in plants to those reported to date. The newly discovered cyclotides were found to bind to lipid membranes and were cytotoxic against cancer cell lines but had low toxicity against red blood cells, which is advantageous for potential therapeutic applications. This suite of novel Lys-rich cyclotides emphasizes the broad diversity of cyclotides in Violaceae species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjaneya S. Ravipati
- Institute
for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Sónia Troeira Henriques
- Institute
for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Aaron G. Poth
- Institute
for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Quentin Kaas
- Institute
for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Conan K. Wang
- Institute
for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Michelle L. Colgrave
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Agriculture Flagship, St. Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia
| | - David J. Craik
- Institute
for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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22
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Burman R, Yeshak MY, Larsson S, Craik DJ, Rosengren KJ, Göransson U. Distribution of circular proteins in plants: large-scale mapping of cyclotides in the Violaceae. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:855. [PMID: 26579135 PMCID: PMC4621522 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
During the last decade there has been increasing interest in small circular proteins found in plants of the violet family (Violaceae). These so-called cyclotides consist of a circular chain of approximately 30 amino acids, including six cysteines forming three disulfide bonds, arranged in a cyclic cystine knot (CCK) motif. In this study we map the occurrence and distribution of cyclotides throughout the Violaceae. Plant material was obtained from herbarium sheets containing samples up to 200 years of age. Even the oldest specimens contained cyclotides in the preserved leaves, with no degradation products observable, confirming their place as one of the most stable proteins in nature. Over 200 samples covering 17 of the 23-31 genera in Violaceae were analyzed, and cyclotides were positively identified in 150 species. Each species contained a unique set of between one and 25 cyclotides, with many exclusive to individual plant species. We estimate the number of different cyclotides in the Violaceae to be 5000-25,000, and propose that cyclotides are ubiquitous among all Violaceae species. Twelve new cyclotides from six phylogenetically dispersed genera were sequenced. Furthermore, the first glycosylated derivatives of cyclotides were identified and characterized, further increasing the diversity and complexity of this unique protein family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Burman
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden
| | - Mariamawit Y. Yeshak
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Addis Ababa UniversityAddis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Sonny Larsson
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden
| | - David J. Craik
- Craik Lab, Chemistry and Structural Biology Division, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of QueenslandBrisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - K. Johan Rosengren
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden
- Laboratory for Peptide Structural Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of QueenslandBrisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Ulf Göransson
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Ulf Göransson
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Schmelz EA, Huffaker A, Sims JW, Christensen SA, Lu X, Okada K, Peters RJ. Biosynthesis, elicitation and roles of monocot terpenoid phytoalexins. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 79:659-78. [PMID: 24450747 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2013] [Revised: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
A long-standing goal in plant research is to optimize the protective function of biochemical agents that impede pest and pathogen attack. Nearly 40 years ago, pathogen-inducible diterpenoid production was described in rice, and these compounds were shown to function as antimicrobial phytoalexins. Using rice and maize as examples, we discuss recent advances in the discovery, biosynthesis, elicitation and functional characterization of monocot terpenoid phytoalexins. The recent expansion of known terpenoid phytoalexins now includes not only the labdane-related diterpenoid superfamily but also casbane-type diterpenoids and β-macrocarpene-derived sequiterpenoids. Biochemical approaches have been used to pair pathway precursors and end products with cognate biosynthetic genes. The number of predicted terpenoid phytoalexins is expanding through advances in cereal genome annotation and terpene synthase characterization that likewise enable discoveries outside the Poaceae. At the cellular level, conclusive evidence now exists for multiple plant receptors of fungal-derived chitin elicitors, phosphorylation of membrane-associated signaling complexes, activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase, involvement of phytohormone signals, and the existence of transcription factors that mediate the expression of phytoalexin biosynthetic genes and subsequent accumulation of pathway end products. Elicited production of terpenoid phytoalexins exhibit additional biological functions, including root exudate-mediated allelopathy and insect antifeedant activity. Such findings have encouraged consideration of additional interactions that blur traditionally discrete phytoalexin classifications. The establishment of mutant collections and increasing ease of genetic transformation assists critical examination of further biological roles. Future research directions include examination of terpenoid phytoalexin precursors and end products as potential signals mediating plant physiological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Schmelz
- Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Chemistry Research Unit, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
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Poloni A, Schirawski J. Red card for pathogens: phytoalexins in sorghum and maize. Molecules 2014; 19:9114-33. [PMID: 24983861 PMCID: PMC6271655 DOI: 10.3390/molecules19079114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cereal crop plants such as maize and sorghum are constantly being attacked by a great variety of pathogens that cause large economic losses. Plants protect themselves against pathogens by synthesizing antimicrobial compounds, which include phytoalexins. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on phytoalexins produced by sorghum (luteolinidin, apigeninidin) and maize (zealexin, kauralexin, DIMBOA and HDMBOA). For these molecules, we highlight biosynthetic pathways, known intermediates, proposed enzymes, and mechanisms of elicitation. Finally, we discuss the involvement of phytoalexins in plant resistance and their possible application in technology, medicine and agriculture. For those whose world is round we tried to set the scene in the context of a hypothetical football game in which pathogens fight with phytoalexins on the different playing fields provided by maize and sorghum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alana Poloni
- Department of Microbial Genetics, Institute of Applied Microbiology, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen 52074, Germany.
| | - Jan Schirawski
- Department of Microbial Genetics, Institute of Applied Microbiology, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Aachen 52074, Germany.
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25
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Meng F, Liu X, Wang Q. Identification of Wood Decay Related Genes fromPiptoporus Betulinus(Bull. Fr.) Karsten Using Differential Display Reverse Transcription PCR (DDRT-PCR). BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2014. [DOI: 10.5504/bbeq.2012.0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Burman R, Gunasekera S, Strömstedt AA, Göransson U. Chemistry and biology of cyclotides: circular plant peptides outside the box. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:724-36. [PMID: 24527877 DOI: 10.1021/np401055j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cyclotides stand out as the largest family of circular proteins of plant origin hitherto known, with more than 280 sequences isolated at peptide level and many more predicted from gene sequences. Their unusual stability resulting from the signature cyclic cystine knot (CCK) motif has triggered a broad interest in these molecules for potential therapeutic and agricultural applications. Since the time of the first cyclotide discovery, our laboratory in Uppsala has been engaged in cyclotide discovery as well as the development of protocols to isolate and characterize these seamless peptides. We have also developed methods to chemically synthesize cyclotides by Fmoc-SPPS, which are useful in protein grafting applications. In this review, experience in cyclotide research over two decades and the recent literature related to their structures, synthesis, and folding as well the recent proof-of-concept findings on their use as "epitope" stabilizing scaffolds are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Burman
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University , Biomedical Centre, Box 574, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Tanaka S, Brefort T, Neidig N, Djamei A, Kahnt J, Vermerris W, Koenig S, Feussner K, Feussner I, Kahmann R. A secreted Ustilago maydis effector promotes virulence by targeting anthocyanin biosynthesis in maize. eLife 2014; 3:e01355. [PMID: 24473076 PMCID: PMC3904489 DOI: 10.7554/elife.01355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The biotrophic fungus Ustilago maydis causes smut disease in maize with characteristic tumor formation and anthocyanin induction. Here, we show that anthocyanin biosynthesis is induced by the virulence promoting secreted effector protein Tin2. Tin2 protein functions inside plant cells where it interacts with maize protein kinase ZmTTK1. Tin2 masks a ubiquitin-proteasome degradation motif in ZmTTK1, thus stabilizing the active kinase. Active ZmTTK1 controls activation of genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Without Tin2, enhanced lignin biosynthesis is observed in infected tissue and vascular bundles show strong lignification. This is presumably limiting access of fungal hyphae to nutrients needed for massive proliferation. Consistent with this assertion, we observe that maize brown midrib mutants affected in lignin biosynthesis are hypersensitive to U. maydis infection. We speculate that Tin2 rewires metabolites into the anthocyanin pathway to lower their availability for other defense responses. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01355.001.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeyuki Tanaka
- Department of Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Brefort
- Department of Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Nina Neidig
- Department of Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Armin Djamei
- Department of Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Kahnt
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Wilfred Vermerris
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, United States
- Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, United States
| | - Stefanie Koenig
- Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kirstin Feussner
- Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ivo Feussner
- Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Regine Kahmann
- Department of Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
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Tanaka S, Brefort T, Neidig N, Djamei A, Kahnt J, Vermerris W, Koenig S, Feussner K, Feussner I, Kahmann R. A secreted Ustilago maydis effector promotes virulence by targeting anthocyanin biosynthesis in maize. eLife 2014. [PMID: 24473076 DOI: 10.7554/elife.01355.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The biotrophic fungus Ustilago maydis causes smut disease in maize with characteristic tumor formation and anthocyanin induction. Here, we show that anthocyanin biosynthesis is induced by the virulence promoting secreted effector protein Tin2. Tin2 protein functions inside plant cells where it interacts with maize protein kinase ZmTTK1. Tin2 masks a ubiquitin-proteasome degradation motif in ZmTTK1, thus stabilizing the active kinase. Active ZmTTK1 controls activation of genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Without Tin2, enhanced lignin biosynthesis is observed in infected tissue and vascular bundles show strong lignification. This is presumably limiting access of fungal hyphae to nutrients needed for massive proliferation. Consistent with this assertion, we observe that maize brown midrib mutants affected in lignin biosynthesis are hypersensitive to U. maydis infection. We speculate that Tin2 rewires metabolites into the anthocyanin pathway to lower their availability for other defense responses. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01355.001.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeyuki Tanaka
- Department of Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
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Agapito-Tenfen SZ, Guerra MP, Wikmark OG, Nodari RO. Comparative proteomic analysis of genetically modified maize grown under different agroecosystems conditions in Brazil. Proteome Sci 2013; 11:46. [PMID: 24304660 PMCID: PMC4176129 DOI: 10.1186/1477-5956-11-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Profiling technologies allow the simultaneous measurement and comparison of thousands of cell components without prior knowledge of their identity. In the present study, we used two-dimensional gel electrophoresis combined with mass spectrometry to evaluate protein expression of Brazilian genetically modified maize hybrid grown under different agroecosystems conditions. To this effect, leaf samples were subjected to comparative analysis using the near-isogenic non-GM hybrid as the comparator. RESULTS In the first stage of the analysis, the main sources of variation in the dataset were identified by using Principal Components Analysis which correlated most of the variation to the different agroecosystems conditions. Comparative analysis within each field revealed a total of thirty two differentially expressed proteins between GM and non-GM samples that were identified and their molecular functions were mainly assigned to carbohydrate and energy metabolism, genetic information processing and stress response. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge this study represents the first evidence of protein identities with differentially expressed isoforms in Brazilian MON810 genetic background hybrid grown under field conditions. As global databases on outputs from "omics" analysis become available, these could provide a highly desirable benchmark for safety assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Zanon Agapito-Tenfen
- CropScience Department, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Road Admar Gonzaga 1346, Florianópolis 88034-000 Brazil
- Genøk, Center for Biosafety, The Science Park, P.O. Box 6418 Tromsø 9294, Norway
| | - Miguel Pedro Guerra
- CropScience Department, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Road Admar Gonzaga 1346, Florianópolis 88034-000 Brazil
| | - Odd-Gunnar Wikmark
- Genøk, Center for Biosafety, The Science Park, P.O. Box 6418 Tromsø 9294, Norway
| | - Rubens Onofre Nodari
- CropScience Department, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Road Admar Gonzaga 1346, Florianópolis 88034-000 Brazil
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Donaldson ME, Meng S, Gagarinova A, Babu M, Lambie SC, Swiadek AA, Saville BJ. Investigating the Ustilago maydis/Zea mays pathosystem: transcriptional responses and novel functional aspects of a fungal calcineurin regulatory B subunit. Fungal Genet Biol 2013; 58-59:91-104. [PMID: 23973481 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The sustainable control of basidiomycete biotrophic plant pathogenesis requires an understanding of host responses to infection, as well as the identification and functional analysis of fungal genes involved in disease development. The creation and analysis of a suppressive subtractive hybridization (SSH) cDNA library from Ustilago maydis-infected Zea mays seedlings enabled the identification of fungal and plant genes expressed during disease development, and uncovered new insights into the interactions of this model system. Candidate U. maydis pathogenesis genes were identified by using the current SSH cDNA library analysis, and by knowledge generated from previous cDNA microarray and comparative genomic analyses. These identifications were supported by the independent determination of transcript level changes in different cell-types and during pathogenic development. The basidiomycete specific um01632, the highly in planta expressed um03046 (zig1), and the calcineurin regulatory B subunit (um10226, cnb1), were chosen for deletion experiments. um01632 and zig1 mutants showed no difference in morphology and did not have a statistically significant impact on pathogenesis. cnb1 mutants had a distinct cell division phenotype and reduced virulence in seedling assays. Infections with reciprocal wild-type×Δcnb1 haploid strain crosses revealed that the wild-type allele was unable to fully compensate for the lack of a second cnb1 allele. This haploinsufficiency was undetected in other fungal cnb1 mutational analyses. The reported data improves U. maydis genome annotation and expands on the current understanding of pathogenesis genes in this model basidiomycete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E Donaldson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Djamei
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Regine Kahmann
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Rodriguez Estrada AE, Jonkers W, Kistler HC, May G. Interactions between Fusarium verticillioides, Ustilago maydis, and Zea mays: an endophyte, a pathogen, and their shared plant host. Fungal Genet Biol 2012; 49:578-87. [PMID: 22587948 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2012.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2012] [Revised: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Highly diverse communities of microbial symbionts occupy eukaryotic organisms, including plants. While many well-studied symbionts may be characterized as either parasites or as mutualists, the prevalent but cryptic endophytic fungi are less easily qualified because they do not cause observable symptoms of their presence within their host. Here, we investigate the interactions of an endophytic fungus, Fusarium verticillioides with a pathogen, Ustilago maydis, as they occur within maize (Zea mays). We used experimental inoculations to evaluate metabolic mechanisms by which these three organisms might interact. We assessed the impacts of fungal-fungal interactions on endophyte and pathogen growth within the plant, and on plant growth. We find that F. verticillioides modulates the growth of U. maydis and thus decreases the pathogen's aggressiveness toward the plant. With co-inoculation of the endophyte with the pathogen, plant growth is similar to that which would be gained without the pathogen present. However, the endophyte may also break down plant compounds that limit U. maydis growth, and obtains a growth benefit from the presence of the pathogen. Thus, an endophyte such as F. verticillioides may function as both a defensive mutualist and a parasite, and express nutritional modes that depend on ecological context.
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van der Linde K, Hemetsberger C, Kastner C, Kaschani F, van der Hoorn RA, Kumlehn J, Doehlemann G. A maize cystatin suppresses host immunity by inhibiting apoplastic cysteine proteases. THE PLANT CELL 2012; 24:1285-300. [PMID: 22454455 PMCID: PMC3336116 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.111.093732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Ustilago maydis is a biotrophic pathogen causing maize (Zea mays) smut disease. Transcriptome profiling of infected maize plants indicated that a gene encoding a putative cystatin (CC9) is induced upon penetration by U. maydis wild type. By contrast, cc9 is not induced after infection with the U. maydis effector mutant Δpep1, which elicits massive plant defenses. Silencing of cc9 resulted in a strongly induced maize defense gene expression and a hypersensitive response to U. maydis wild-type infection. Consequently, fungal colonization was strongly reduced in cc9-silenced plants, while recombinant CC9 prevented salicylic acid (SA)-induced defenses. Protease activity profiling revealed a strong induction of maize Cys proteases in SA-treated leaves, which could be inhibited by addition of CC9. Transgenic maize plants overexpressing cc9-mCherry showed an apoplastic localization of CC9. The transgenic plants showed a block in Cys protease activity and SA-dependent gene expression. Moreover, activated apoplastic Cys proteases induced SA-associated defense gene expression in naïve plants, which could be suppressed by CC9. We show that apoplastic Cys proteases play a pivotal role in maize defense signaling. Moreover, we identified cystatin CC9 as a novel compatibility factor that suppresses Cys protease activity to allow biotrophic interaction of maize with the fungal pathogen U. maydis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christine Kastner
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research Gatersleben, Plant Reproductive Biology, D-06466 Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Farnusch Kaschani
- Plant Chemetics Lab, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, D-50829 Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Jochen Kumlehn
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research Gatersleben, Plant Reproductive Biology, D-06466 Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Gunther Doehlemann
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
- Address correspondence to
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Pinto MFS, Almeida RG, Porto WF, Fensterseifer ICM, Lima LA, Dias SC, Franco OL. Cyclotides. J Evid Based Complementary Altern Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1177/2156587211428077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, a number of peptides containing a cyclic structural fold have been described. Among them, the cyclotides family was widely reported in different plant tissues, being composed of small cyclic peptides containing 6 conserved cysteine residues connected by disulfide bonds and forming a cysteine-binding cyclic structure known as a cyclic cysteine knot. This structural scaffold is responsible for an enhanced structural stability against chemical, thermal, and proteolytic degradation. Because of the observed stability and multifunctionality, including insecticidal, antimicrobial, and anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) action, much effort has gone into trying to elucidate the structural-function relations of cyclotide compounds. This review focuses on the novelties involving gene structure, precursor formation and processing, and protein folding of the cyclotide family, shedding some light on molecular mechanisms of cyclotide production. Because cyclotides are clear targets for drug development and also biotechnology applications, their chemical synthesis, heterologous systems production, and protein grafting are also addressed.
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Huffaker A, Kaplan F, Vaughan MM, Dafoe NJ, Ni X, Rocca JR, Alborn HT, Teal PEA, Schmelz EA. Novel acidic sesquiterpenoids constitute a dominant class of pathogen-induced phytoalexins in maize. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 156:2082-97. [PMID: 21690302 PMCID: PMC3149930 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.179457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Nonvolatile terpenoid phytoalexins occur throughout the plant kingdom, but until recently were not known constituents of chemical defense in maize (Zea mays). We describe a novel family of ubiquitous maize sesquiterpenoid phytoalexins, termed zealexins, which were discovered through characterization of Fusarium graminearum-induced responses. Zealexins accumulate to levels greater than 800 μg g⁻¹ fresh weight in F. graminearum-infected tissue. Their production is also elicited by a wide variety of fungi, Ostrinia nubilalis herbivory, and the synergistic action of jasmonic acid and ethylene. Zealexins exhibit antifungal activity against numerous phytopathogenic fungi at physiologically relevant concentrations. Structural elucidation of four members of this complex family revealed that all are acidic sesquiterpenoids containing a hydrocarbon skeleton that resembles β-macrocarpene. Induced zealexin accumulation is preceded by increased expression of the genes encoding TERPENE SYNTHASE6 (TPS6) and TPS11, which catalyze β-macrocarpene production. Furthermore, zealexin accumulation displays direct positive relationships with the transcript levels of both genes. Microarray analysis of F. graminearum-infected tissue revealed that Tps6/Tps11 were among the most highly up-regulated genes, as was An2, an ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase associated with production of kauralexins. Transcript profiling suggests that zealexins cooccur with a number of antimicrobial proteins, including chitinases and pathogenesis-related proteins. In addition to zealexins, kauralexins and the benzoxazinoid 2-hydroxy-4,7-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one-glucose (HDMBOA-glucose) were produced in fungal-infected tissue. HDMBOA-glucose accumulation occurred in both wild-type and benzoxazine-deficient1 (bx1) mutant lines, indicating that Bx1 gene activity is not required for HDMBOA biosynthesis. Together these results indicate an important cooperative role of terpenoid phytoalexins in maize biochemical defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisa Huffaker
- Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Chemistry Research Unit, Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA.
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Heller J, Tudzynski P. Reactive oxygen species in phytopathogenic fungi: signaling, development, and disease. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2011; 49:369-90. [PMID: 21568704 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a major role in pathogen-plant interactions: recognition of a pathogen by the plant rapidly triggers the oxidative burst, which is necessary for further defense reactions. The specific role of ROS in pathogen defense is still unclear. Studies on the pathogen so far have focused on the importance of the oxidative stress response (OSR) systems to overcome the oxidative burst or of its avoidance by effectors. This review focuses on the role of ROS for fungal virulence and development. In the recent years, it has become obvious that (a) fungal OSR systems might not have the predicted crucial role in pathogenicity, (b) fungal pathogens, especially necrotrophs, can actively contribute to the ROS level in planta and even take advantage of the host's response, (c) fungi possess superoxide-generating NADPH oxidases similar to mammalian Nox complexes that are important for pathogenicity; however, recent data indicate that they are not directly involved in pathogen-host communication but in fungal differentiation processes that are necessary for virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Heller
- Molecular Biology and Biotechnology of Fungi, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology of Plants, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany.
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40
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van der Linde K, Kastner C, Kumlehn J, Kahmann R, Doehlemann G. Systemic virus-induced gene silencing allows functional characterization of maize genes during biotrophic interaction with Ustilago maydis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2011; 189:471-83. [PMID: 21039559 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03474.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Infection of maize (Zea mays) plants with the corn smut fungus Ustilago maydis leads to the formation of large tumors on the stem, leaves and inflorescences. In this biotrophic interaction, plant defense responses are actively suppressed by the pathogen, and previous transcriptome analyses of infected maize plants showed massive and stage-specific changes in host gene expression during disease progression. To identify maize genes that are functionally involved in the interaction with U. maydis, we adapted a virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) system based on the brome mosaic virus (BMV) for maize. Conditions were established that allowed successful U. maydis infection of BMV-preinfected maize plants. This set-up enabled quantification of VIGS and its impact on U. maydis infection using a quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR)-based readout. In proof-of-principle experiments, an U. maydis-induced terpene synthase was shown to negatively regulate disease development while a protein involved in cell death inhibition was required for full virulence of U. maydis. The results suggest that this system is a versatile tool for the rapid identification of maize genes that determine compatibility with U. maydis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina van der Linde
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Karl von Frisch Str., D-35043 Marburg, Germany
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41
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Discovery and applications of the plant cyclotides. Toxicon 2010; 56:1092-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2010] [Revised: 02/02/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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42
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Abstract
In plants, as in animals, most cells that constitute the organism limit their reproductive potential in order to provide collective support for the immortal germ line. And, as in animals, the mechanisms that restrict the proliferation of somatic cells in plants can fail, leading to tumours. There are intriguing similarities in tumorigenesis between plants and animals, including the involvement of the retinoblastoma pathway as well as overlap with mechanisms that are used for stem cell maintenance. However, plant tumours are less frequent and are not as lethal as those in animals. We argue that fundamental differences between plant and animal development make it much more difficult for individual plant cells to escape communal controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Doonan
- John Innes Centre, Conley Lane, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK.
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43
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Leal GA, Gomes LH, Albuquerque PSB, Tavares FCA, Figueira A. Searching for Moniliophthora perniciosa pathogenicity genes. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:842-54. [PMID: 20943194 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2010] [Revised: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 07/30/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa is the causal agent of witches' broom disease of Theobroma cacao (cacao). Pathogenesis mechanisms of this hemibiotrophic fungus are largely unknown. An approach to identify putative pathogenicity genes is searching for sequences induced in mycelia grown under in vitro conditions. Using this approach, genes from M. perniciosa induced under limiting nitrogen and light were identified from a cDNA library enriched by suppression subtractive hybridization as potential putative pathogenicity genes. From the 159 identified unique sequences, 59 were annotated and classified by gene ontology. Two sequences were categorized as "Defence genes, Virulence, and Cell response" presumably coding for allergenic proteins, whose homologues from other fungi are inducers of animal or plant defences. Differential gene expression was evaluated by quantitative amplification of reversed transcripts (RT-qPCR) of the putative identified genes coding for the two allergenic proteins (Aspf13 and 88KD), and for the enzymes Arylsulfatase (AS); Aryl-Alcohol Oxidase; Aldo-Keto Reductase (AK); Cytochrome P450 (P450); Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase; and Peroxidase from mycelia grown under contrasting N concentrations. All genes were validated for differential expression, except for the putative Peroxidase. The same eight genes were analysed for expression in susceptible plants inoculated with M. perniciosa, and six were induced during the early asymptomatic stage of the disease. In infected host tissues, transcripts of 88KD and AS were found more abundant at the biotrophic phase, while those from Aspf13, AK, PAL, and P450 accumulated at the necrotrophic phase, enabling to suggest that mycelia transition from biotrophic to necrotrophic might occur earlier than currently considered. These sequences appeared to be virulence life-style genes, which encode factors or enzymes that enable invasion, colonization or intracellular survival, or manipulate host factors to benefit the pathogen's own survival in the hostile environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gildemberg A Leal
- Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura, Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
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44
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Mylne JS, Wang CK, van der Weerden NL, Craik DJ. Cyclotides are a component of the innate defense of Oldenlandia affinis. Biopolymers 2010; 94:635-46. [DOI: 10.1002/bip.21419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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45
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Craik DJ, Mylne JS, Daly NL. Cyclotides: macrocyclic peptides with applications in drug design and agriculture. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:9-16. [PMID: 19795188 PMCID: PMC11115554 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-009-0159-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Revised: 08/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cyclotides are disulfide-rich peptides from plants that are exceptionally stable as a result of their unique cyclic cystine knot structural motif. Their natural role is thought to be as plant defence agents, most notably against insect pests, but they also have potential applications in drug design and agriculture. This article identifies gaps in current knowledge on cyclotides and suggests future directions for research into this fascinating family of ultra-stable mini-proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Craik
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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46
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Craik DJ. Circling the enemy: cyclic proteins in plant defence. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2009; 14:328-335. [PMID: 19423383 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2009.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2009] [Revised: 03/06/2009] [Accepted: 03/10/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cyclotides are ultra-stable plant proteins that have a circular peptide backbone crosslinked by a cystine knot of disulfide bonds. They are produced in large quantities by plants of the Violaceae and Rubiaceae families and have a role in plant defence against insect predation. As I discuss here, recent studies have begun to reveal how their unique circular topology evolved. Cyclization is achieved by hijacking existing plant proteolytic enzymes and operating them in 'reverse' to form a peptide bond between the N- and C-termini of a linear precursor. Such studies suggest that circular proteins are more common in the plant kingdom than was previously thought, and their exceptional stability has led to their application as protein-engineering templates in drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Craik
- The University of Queensland, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
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47
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Niemeyer HM. Hydroxamic acids derived from 2-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3(4H)-one: key defense chemicals of cereals. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:1677-96. [PMID: 19199602 DOI: 10.1021/jf8034034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Many cereals accumulate hydroxamic acids derived from 2-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3(4H)-one. These benzoxazinoid hydroxamic acids are involved in defense of maize against various lepidopteran pests, most notably the European corn borer, in defense of cereals against various aphid species, and in allelopathy affecting the growth of weeds associated with rye and wheat crops. The role of benzoxazinoid hydroxamic acids in defense against fungal infection is less clear and seems to depend on the nature of the interactions at the plant-fungus interface. Efficient use of benzoxazinoid hydroxamic acids as resistance factors has been limited by the inability to selectively increase their levels at the plant growth stage and the plant tissues where they are mostly needed for a given pest. Although the biosynthesis of benzoxazinoid hydroxamic acids has been elucidated, the genes and mechanisms controlling their differential expression in different plant tissues and along plant ontogeny remain to be unraveled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann M Niemeyer
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecologicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 653, Santiago, Chile.
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48
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Fedler M, Luh KS, Stelter K, Nieto-Jacobo F, Basse CW. The a2 mating-type locus genes lga2 and rga2 direct uniparental mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inheritance and constrain mtDNA recombination during sexual development of Ustilago maydis. Genetics 2009; 181:847-60. [PMID: 19104076 PMCID: PMC2651059 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.108.096859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2008] [Accepted: 12/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Uniparental inheritance of mitochondria dominates among sexual eukaryotes. However, little is known about the mechanisms and genetic determinants. We have investigated the role of the plant pathogen Ustilago maydis genes lga2 and rga2 in uniparental mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inheritance during sexual development. The lga2 and rga2 genes are specific to the a2 mating-type locus and encode small mitochondrial proteins. On the basis of identified sequence polymorphisms due to variable intron numbers in mitochondrial genotypes, we could demonstrate that lga2 and rga2 decisively influence mtDNA inheritance in matings between a1 and a2 strains. Deletion of lga2 favored biparental inheritance and generation of recombinant mtDNA molecules in combinations in which inheritance of mtDNA of the a2 partner dominated. Conversely, deletion of rga2 resulted in predominant loss of a2-specific mtDNA and favored inheritance of the a1 mtDNA. Furthermore, expression of rga2 in the a1 partner protected the associated mtDNA from elimination. Our results indicate that Lga2 in conjunction with Rga2 directs uniparental mtDNA inheritance by mediating loss of the a1-associated mtDNA. This study shows for the first time an interplay of mitochondrial proteins in regulating uniparental mtDNA inheritance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Fedler
- Max-Planck-Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Department of Organismic Interactions, Marburg, Germany
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49
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Brefort T, Doehlemann G, Mendoza-Mendoza A, Reissmann S, Djamei A, Kahmann R. Ustilago maydis as a Pathogen. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2009; 47:423-45. [PMID: 19400641 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-080508-081923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The Ustilago maydis-maize pathosystem has emerged as the current model for plant pathogenic basidiomycetes and as one of the few models for a true biotrophic interaction that persists throughout fungal development inside the host plant. This is based on the highly advanced genetic system for both the pathogen and its host, the ability to propagate U. maydis in axenic culture, and its unique capacity to induce prominent disease symptoms (tumors) on all aerial parts of maize within less than a week. The corn smut pathogen, though economically not threatening, will continue to serve as a model for related obligate biotrophic fungi such as the rusts, but also for closely related smut species that induce symptoms only in the flower organs of their hosts. In this review we describe the most prominent features of the U. maydis-maize pathosystem as well as genes and pathways most relevant to disease. We highlight recent developments that place this system at the forefront of understanding the function of secreted effectors in eukaryotic pathogens and describe the expected spin-offs for closely related species exploiting comparative genomics approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Brefort
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Department of Organismic Interactions, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
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50
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Kavitha PG, Thomas G. Expression analysis of defense-related genes in Zingiber (Zingiberaceae) species with different levels of compatibility to the soft rot pathogen Pythium aphanidermatum. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2008; 27:1767-1776. [PMID: 18704430 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-008-0594-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2008] [Revised: 07/24/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) cultivars are susceptible to soft rot disease caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. We analyzed changes in transcript levels of 41 genes in the highly susceptible ginger cultivar varada, a less susceptible wild accession (wild ginger), and a Pythium aphanidermatum-resistant relative, Z. zerumbet, following treatment with Pythium aphanidermatum or one of three signaling molecules: salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), or ethylene (ET). The 41 studied genes were chosen because they are known to be involved in the hypersensitive response (HR), cell signaling, or host defense. Expression of most genes peaked within 24 h of Pythium aphanidermatum infection. Interestingly, the level of induction was typically manyfold higher in Z. zerumbet than in wild ginger. However, several HR genes that were significantly induced in wild ginger were not induced in Z. zerumbet. Most of the genes, including those involved in signaling, did not respond to any of the three signaling molecules in Z. zerumbet while several genes responded to all the three signaling molecules in varada. In wild ginger, a large proportion of the genes responded to ET, but not to SA or JA. These results suggest that different mechanisms govern the three pathosystems. Resistance in Z. zerumbet seems to be independent of HR and the tested signaling molecules, whereas both mechanisms appear to be activated in the tolerance reaction of wild ginger. This work revealed potential defense components of this understudied tropical taxa, and will contribute to the design of strategies for transgenic improvement of ginger.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Kavitha
- Plant Molecular Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
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