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Herold L, Choi S, He SY, Zipfel C. The conserved AvrE family of bacterial effectors: functions and targets during pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol 2024:S0966-842X(24)00222-1. [PMID: 39278787 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2024.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2024] [Revised: 08/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/18/2024]
Abstract
The AvrE family of type III secreted effectors are highly conserved among many agriculturally important phytopathogenic bacteria. Despite their critical roles in the pathogenesis of phytopathogenic bacteria, the molecular functions and virulence mechanisms of these effectors have been largely unknown. However, recent studies have identified host-interacting proteins and demonstrated that AvrE family effectors can form water-permeable channels in the plant plasma membrane (PM) to create a hydrated and nutrient-rich extracellular space (apoplast) required for disease establishment. Here, we summarize these recent discoveries and highlight open questions related to AvrE-targeted host proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Herold
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sera Choi
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sheng Yang He
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Cyril Zipfel
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK.
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2
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Funnell-Harris DL, Sattler SE, Dill-Macky R, Wegulo SN, Duray ZT, O'Neill PM, Gries T, Masterson SD, Graybosch RA, Mitchell RB. Responses of Wheat ( Triticum aestivum) Constitutively Expressing Four Different Monolignol Biosynthetic Genes to Fusarium Head Blight Caused by Fusarium graminearum. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2024; 114:2096-2112. [PMID: 38875177 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-01-24-0005-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
The Fusarium head blight (FHB) pathogen Fusarium graminearum produces the trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and reduces wheat yield and grain quality. Spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) genotype CB037 was transformed with constitutive expression (CE) constructs containing sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) genes encoding monolignol biosynthetic enzymes caffeoyl coenzyme A (CoA) 3-O-methyltransferase (SbCCoAOMT), 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (Sb4CL), or coumaroyl shikimate 3-hydroxylase (SbC3'H) or monolignol pathway transcriptional activator SbMyb60. Spring wheats were screened for type I (resistance to initial infection, using spray inoculations) and type II (resistance to spread within the spike, using single-floret inoculations) resistances in the field (spray) and greenhouse (spray and single floret). Following field inoculations, disease index, percentage of Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK), and deoxynivalenol measurements of CE plants were similar to or greater than those of CB037. For greenhouse inoculations, the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) and FDK were determined. Following screens, focus was placed on two each of SbC3'H and SbCCoAOMT CE lines because of trends toward a decreased AUDPC and FDK observed following single-floret inoculations. These four lines were as susceptible as CB037 following spray inoculations. However, single-floret inoculations showed that these CE lines had a significantly reduced AUDPC (P < 0.01) and FDK (P ≤ 0.02) compared with CB037, indicating improved type II resistance. None of these CE lines had increased acid detergent lignin compared with CB037, indicating that lignin concentration may not be a major factor in FHB resistance. The SbC3'H and SbCCoAOMT CE lines are valuable for investigating phenylpropanoid-based resistance to FHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna L Funnell-Harris
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Scott E Sattler
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Ruth Dill-Macky
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Stephen N Wegulo
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Zachary T Duray
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Patrick M O'Neill
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Tammy Gries
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Steven D Masterson
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Robert A Graybosch
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Robert B Mitchell
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
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3
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Roussin-Léveillée C, Mackey D, Ekanayake G, Gohmann R, Moffett P. Extracellular niche establishment by plant pathogens. Nat Rev Microbiol 2024; 22:360-372. [PMID: 38191847 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-023-00999-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
The plant extracellular space, referred to as the apoplast, is inhabited by a variety of microorganisms. Reflecting the crucial nature of this compartment, both plants and microorganisms seek to control, exploit and respond to its composition. Upon sensing the apoplastic environment, pathogens activate virulence programmes, including the delivery of effectors with well-established roles in suppressing plant immunity. We posit that another key and foundational role of effectors is niche establishment - specifically, the manipulation of plant physiological processes to enrich the apoplast in water and nutritive metabolites. Facets of plant immunity counteract niche establishment by restricting water, nutrients and signals for virulence activation. The complex competition to control and, in the case of pathogens, exploit the apoplast provides remarkable insights into the nature of virulence, host susceptibility, host defence and, ultimately, the origin of phytopathogenesis. This novel framework focuses on the ecology of a microbial niche and highlights areas of future research on plant-microorganism interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Mackey
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
- Center for Applied Plant Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
| | - Gayani Ekanayake
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Reid Gohmann
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Peter Moffett
- Centre SÈVE, Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada.
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4
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Pretorius CJ, Dubery IA. Integration of targeted metabolome and transcript profiling of Pseudomonas syringae-triggered changes in defence-related phytochemicals in oat plants. PLANTA 2024; 260:8. [PMID: 38789631 PMCID: PMC11126498 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-024-04435-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
MAIN CONCLUSION A gene-to-metabolite approach afforded new insights regarding defence mechanisms in oat plants that can be incorporated into plant breeding programmes for the selection of markers and genes related to disease resistance. Monitoring metabolite levels and changes therein can complement and corroborate transcriptome (mRNA) data on plant-pathogen interactions, thus revealing mechanisms involved in pathogen attack and host defence. A multi-omics approach thus adds new layers of information such as identifying metabolites with antimicrobial properties, elucidating metabolomic profiles of infected and non-infected plants, and reveals pathogenic requirements for infection and colonisation. In this study, two oat cultivars (Dunnart and SWK001) were inoculated with Pseudomonas syringae pathovars, pathogenic and non-pathogenic on oat. Following inoculation, metabolites were extracted with methanol from leaf tissues at 2, 4 and 6 days post-infection and analysed by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer system. Relatedly, mRNA was isolated at the same time points, and the cDNA analysed by quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) for expression levels of selected gene transcripts associated with avenanthramide (Avn) biosynthesis. The targeted amino acids, hydroxycinnamic acids and Avns were successfully quantified. Distinct cultivar-specific differences in the metabolite responses were observed in response to pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains. Trends in aromatic amino acids and hydroxycinnamic acids seem to indicate stronger activation and flux through these pathways in Dunnart as compared to SWK001. A positive correlation between hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA:hydroxyanthranilate N-hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HHT) gene expression and the abundance of Avn A in both cultivars was documented. However, transcript profiling of selected genes involved in Avn synthesis did not reveal a clear pattern to distinguish between the tolerant and susceptible cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanel J Pretorius
- Research Centre for Plant Metabolomics, Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, 2006, South Africa
| | - Ian A Dubery
- Research Centre for Plant Metabolomics, Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, 2006, South Africa.
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De Ryck J, Van Damme P, Goormachtig S. From prediction to function: Current practices and challenges towards the functional characterization of type III effectors. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1113442. [PMID: 36846751 PMCID: PMC9945535 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1113442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The type III secretion system (T3SS) is a well-studied pathogenicity determinant of many bacteria through which effectors (T3Es) are translocated into the host cell, where they exercise a wide range of functions to deceive the host cell's immunity and to establish a niche. Here we look at the different approaches that are used to functionally characterize a T3E. Such approaches include host localization studies, virulence screenings, biochemical activity assays, and large-scale omics, such as transcriptomics, interactomics, and metabolomics, among others. By means of the phytopathogenic Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC) as a case study, the current advances of these methods will be explored, alongside the progress made in understanding effector biology. Data obtained by such complementary methods provide crucial information to comprehend the entire function of the effectome and will eventually lead to a better understanding of the phytopathogen, opening opportunities to tackle it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joren De Ryck
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- iRIP Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Petra Van Damme
- iRIP Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sofie Goormachtig
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
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6
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Jabran M, Chen D, Muhae-Ud-Din G, Liu T, Chen W, Liu C, Gao L. Metabolomic Analysis of Wheat Grains after Tilletia laevis Kühn Infection by Using Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Q-Exactive Mass Spectrometry. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12090805. [PMID: 36144210 PMCID: PMC9502932 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12090805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tilletia laevis causes common bunt disease in wheat, with severe losses of production yield and seed quality. Metabolomics studies provide detailed information about the biochemical changes at the cell and tissue level of the plants. Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography–Q-exactive mass spectrometry (UPLC-QE-MS) was used to examine the changes in wheat grains after T. laevis infection. PCA analysis suggested that T. laevis-infected and non-infected samples were scattered separately during the interaction. In total, 224 organic acids and their derivatives, 170 organoheterocyclic compounds, 128 lipids and lipid-like molecules, 85 organic nitrogen compounds, 64 benzenoids, 31 phenylpropanoids and polyketides, 21 nucleosides, nucleotides, their analogues, and 10 alkaloids and derivatives were altered in hyphal-infected grains. According to The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and genomes analysis, the protein digestion and absorption, biosynthesis of amino acids, arginine and proline metabolism, vitamin digestion and absorption, and glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism pathways were activated in wheat crops after T. laevis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Jabran
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Delai Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Longdong University, Qingyang 745000, China
- College of Plant Protection, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Ghulam Muhae-Ud-Din
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Taiguo Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wanquan Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Changzhong Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Li Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
- Correspondence:
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7
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Dynamic nutrient acquisition from a hydrated apoplast supports biotrophic proliferation of a bacterial pathogen of maize. Cell Host Microbe 2022; 30:502-517.e4. [PMID: 35421350 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Plant pathogens perturb their hosts to create environments suitable for their proliferation, including the suppression of immunity and promotion of water and nutrient availability. Although necrotrophs obtain water and nutrients by disrupting host-cell integrity, it is unknown whether hemibiotrophs, such as the bacterial pathogen Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii (Pnss), actively liberate water and nutrients during the early, biotrophic phase of infection. Here, we show that water and metabolite accumulation in the apoplast of Pnss-infected maize leaves precedes the disruption of host-cell integrity. Nutrient acquisition during this biotrophic phase is a dynamic process; the partitioning of metabolites into the apoplast rate limiting for their assimilation by proliferating Pnss cells. The formation of a hydrated and nutritive apoplast is driven by an AvrE-family type III effector, WtsE. Given the broad distribution of AvrE-family effectors, this work highlights the importance of actively acquiring water and nutrients for the proliferation of phytopathogenic bacteria during biotrophy.
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Bartholomew HP, Reynoso G, Thomas BJ, Mullins CM, Smith C, Gentzel IN, Giese LA, Mackey D, Stevens AM. The Transcription Factor Lrp of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii Controls Capsule Production, Motility, and Virulence Important for in planta Growth. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:806504. [PMID: 35237242 PMCID: PMC8882988 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.806504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial phytopathogen Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii causes leaf blight and Stewart's wilt disease in susceptible corn varieties. A previous RNA-Seq study examined P. stewartii gene expression patterns during late-stage infection in the xylem, and a Tn-Seq study using a P. stewartii mutant library revealed genes essential for colonization of the xylem. Based on these findings, strains with in-frame chromosomal deletions in the genes encoding seven transcription factors (NsrR, IscR, Nac, Lrp, DSJ_00125, DSJ_03645, and DSJ_18135) and one hypothetical protein (DSJ_21690) were constructed to further evaluate the role of the encoded gene products during in vitro and in planta growth. Assays for capsule production and motility indicate that Lrp plays a role in regulating these two key physiological outputs in vitro. Single infections of each deletion strain into the xylem of corn seedlings determined that Lrp plays a significant role in P. stewartii virulence. In planta xylem competition assays between co-inoculated deletion and the corresponding complementation or wild-type strains as well as in vitro growth curves determined that Lrp controls functions important for P. stewartii colonization and growth in corn plants, whereas IscR may have a more generalized impact on growth. Defining the role of essential transcription factors, such as Lrp, during in planta growth will enable modeling of key components of the P. stewartii regulatory network utilized during growth in corn plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guadalupe Reynoso
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Brandi J. Thomas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Chase M. Mullins
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Chastyn Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Irene N. Gentzel
- Department of Horticulture & Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Laura A. Giese
- Department of Horticulture & Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - David Mackey
- Department of Horticulture & Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Center for Applied Plant Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Ann M. Stevens
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Center for Emerging, Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
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9
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Back to the wild: mining maize (Zea mays L.) disease resistance using advanced breeding tools. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49:5787-5803. [PMID: 35064401 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06815-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Cultivated modern maize (Zea mays L.) originated through the continuous process of domestication from its wild progenitors. Today, maize is considered as the most important cereal crop which is extensively cultivated in all parts of the world. Maize shows remarkable genotypic and phenotypic diversity which makes it an ideal model species for crop genetic research. However, intensive breeding and artificial selection of desired agronomic traits greatly narrow down the genetic bases of maize. This reduction in genetic diversity among cultivated maize led to increase the chance of more attack of biotic stress as climate changes hampering the maize grain production globally. Maize germplasm requires to integrate both durable multiple-diseases and multiple insect-pathogen resistance through tapping the unexplored resources of maize landraces. Revisiting the landraces seed banks will provide effective opportunities to transfer the resistant genes into the modern cultivars. Here, we describe the maize domestication process and discuss the unique genes from wild progenitors which potentially can be utilized for disease resistant in maize. We also focus on the genetics and disease resistance mechanism of various genes against maize biotic stresses and then considered the different molecular breeding tools for gene transfer and advanced high resolution mapping for gene pyramiding in maize lines. At last, we provide an insight for targeting identified key genes through CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing system to enhance the maize resilience towards biotic stress.
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10
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Eastman S, Smith T, Zaydman MA, Kim P, Martinez S, Damaraju N, DiAntonio A, Milbrandt J, Clemente TE, Alfano JR, Guo M. A phytobacterial TIR domain effector manipulates NAD + to promote virulence. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 233:890-904. [PMID: 34657283 PMCID: PMC9298051 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 type III effector HopAM1 suppresses plant immunity and contains a Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain homologous to immunity-related TIR domains of plant nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors that hydrolyze nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ ) and activate immunity. In vitro and in vivo assays were conducted to determine if HopAM1 hydrolyzes NAD+ and if the activity is essential for HopAM1's suppression of plant immunity and contribution to virulence. HPLC and LC-MS were utilized to analyze metabolites produced from NAD+ by HopAM1 in vitro and in both yeast and plants. Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression and in planta inoculation assays were performed to determine HopAM1's intrinsic enzymatic activity and virulence contribution. HopAM1 is catalytically active and hydrolyzes NAD+ to produce nicotinamide and a novel cADPR variant (v2-cADPR). Expression of HopAM1 triggers cell death in yeast and plants dependent on the putative catalytic residue glutamic acid 191 (E191) within the TIR domain. Furthermore, HopAM1's E191 residue is required to suppress both pattern-triggered immunity and effector-triggered immunity and promote P. syringae virulence. HopAM1 manipulates endogenous NAD+ to produce v2-cADPR and promote pathogenesis. This work suggests that HopAM1's TIR domain possesses different catalytic specificity than other TIR domain-containing NAD+ hydrolases and that pathogens exploit this activity to sabotage NAD+ metabolism for immune suppression and virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Eastman
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68583USA
| | - Thomas Smith
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68583USA
| | - Mark A. Zaydman
- Department of Pathology and ImmunologyWashington University School of MedicineSt LouisMO63110USA
| | - Panya Kim
- The Center for Plant Science InnovationUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68588USA
| | - Samuel Martinez
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68583USA
| | - Neha Damaraju
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringWashington University in St LouisSt LouisMO63130USA
| | - Aaron DiAntonio
- Department of Developmental BiologyWashington University School of MedicineSt LouisMO63110USA
| | - Jeffrey Milbrandt
- Department of GeneticsWashington University School of MedicineSt LouisMO63110USA
| | - Thomas E. Clemente
- Department of Agriculture and HorticultureUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68583USA
| | - James R. Alfano
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68583USA
- The Center for Plant Science InnovationUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68588USA
| | - Ming Guo
- Department of Agriculture and HorticultureUniversity of Nebraska‐LincolnLincolnNE68583USA
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11
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Bauters L, Stojilković B, Gheysen G. Pathogens pulling the strings: Effectors manipulating salicylic acid and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in plants. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2021; 22:1436-1448. [PMID: 34414650 PMCID: PMC8518561 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
During evolution, plants have developed sophisticated ways to cope with different biotic and abiotic stresses. Phytohormones and secondary metabolites are known to play pivotal roles in defence responses against invading pathogens. One of the key hormones involved in plant immunity is salicylic acid (SA), of which the role in plant defence is well established and documented. Plants produce an array of secondary metabolites categorized in different classes, with the phenylpropanoids as major players in plant immunity. Both SA and phenylpropanoids are needed for an effective immune response by the plant. To successfully infect the host, pathogens secrete proteins, called effectors, into the plant tissue to lower defence. Secreted effectors can interfere with several metabolic or signalling pathways in the host to facilitate infection. In this review, we will focus on the different strategies pathogens have developed to affect the levels of SA and phenylpropanoids to increase plant susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lander Bauters
- Department of BiotechnologyFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Boris Stojilković
- Department of BiotechnologyFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Godelieve Gheysen
- Department of BiotechnologyFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
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12
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Ge C, Wang YG, Lu S, Zhao XY, Hou BK, Balint-Kurti PJ, Wang GF. Multi-Omics Analyses Reveal the Regulatory Network and the Function of ZmUGTs in Maize Defense Response. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:738261. [PMID: 34630489 PMCID: PMC8497902 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.738261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Maize is one of the major crops in the world; however, diseases caused by various pathogens seriously affect its yield and quality. The maize Rp1-D21 mutant (mt) caused by the intragenic recombination between two nucleotide-binding, leucine-rich repeat (NLR) proteins, exhibits autoactive hypersensitive response (HR). In this study, we integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) in Rp1-D21 mt compared to the wild type (WT). Genes involved in pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI) were enriched among the DEGs. The salicylic acid (SA) pathway and the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway were induced at both the transcriptional and metabolic levels. The DAMs identified included lipids, flavones, and phenolic acids, including 2,5-DHBA O-hexoside, the production of which is catalyzed by uridinediphosphate (UDP)-dependent glycosyltransferase (UGT). Four maize UGTs (ZmUGTs) homologous genes were among the DEGs. Functional analysis by transient co-expression in Nicotiana benthamiana showed that ZmUGT9250 and ZmUGT5174, but not ZmUGT9256 and ZmUGT8707, partially suppressed the HR triggered by Rp1-D21 or its N-terminal coiled-coil signaling domain (CCD21). None of the four ZmUGTs interacted physically with CCD21 in yeast two-hybrid or co-immunoprecipitation assays. We discuss the possibility that ZmUGTs might be involved in defense response by regulating SA homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxia Ge
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- School of Public Health and Management, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, China
| | - Yi-Ge Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Shouping Lu
- Maize Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Xiang Yu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Bing-Kai Hou
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Peter J. Balint-Kurti
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Guan-Feng Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
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13
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Nakamura M, Kondo M, Suzuki A, Hirai H, Che FS. Novel Effector RHIFs Identified From Acidovorax avenae Strains N1141 and K1 Play Different Roles in Host and Non-host Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:716738. [PMID: 34421970 PMCID: PMC8377416 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.716738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Plant pathogenic bacteria inject effectors into plant cells using type III secretion systems (T3SS) to evade plant immune systems and facilitate infection. In contrast, plants have evolved defense systems called effector-triggered immunity (ETI) that can detect such effectors during co-evolution with pathogens. The rice-avirulent strain N1141 of the bacterial pathogen Acidovorax avenae causes rice ETI, including hypersensitive response (HR) cell death in a T3SS-dependent manner, suggesting that strain N1141 expresses an ETI-inducing effector. By screening 6,200 transposon-tagged N1141 mutants based on their ability to induce HR cell death, we identified 17 mutants lacking this ability. Sequence analysis and T3SS-mediated intracellular transport showed that a protein called rice HR cell death inducing factor (RHIF) is a candidate effector protein that causes HR cell death in rice. RHIF-disrupted N1141 lacks the ability to induce HR cell death, whereas RHIF expression in this mutant complemented this ability. In contrast, RHIF from rice-virulent strain K1 functions as an ETI inducer in the non-host plant finger millet. Furthermore, inoculation of rice and finger millet with either RHIF-deficient N1141 or K1 strains showed that a deficiency of RHIF genes in both strains results in decreased infectivity toward each the host plants. Collectively, novel effector RHIFs identified from A. avenae strains N1141 and K1 function in establishing infection in host plants and in ETI induction in non-host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minami Nakamura
- Graduate School of Biosciences, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
| | - Machiko Kondo
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
| | - Aika Suzuki
- Graduate School of Biosciences, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Hirai
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
| | - Fang-Sik Che
- Graduate School of Biosciences, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
- Genome Editing Research Institute, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Nagahama, Japan
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14
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Zhu G, Gao C, Wu C, Li M, Xu JR, Liu H, Wang Q. Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals distinct gene expression profiles in Brachypodium distachyon infected by two fungal pathogens. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 21:304. [PMID: 34193039 PMCID: PMC8243454 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-021-03019-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The production of cereal crops is frequently affected by diseases caused by Fusarium graminearum and Magnaporthe oryzae, two devastating fungal pathogens. To improve crop resistance, many studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms of host defense against these two fungi individually. However, our knowledge of the common and different host defenses against these pathogens is very limited. RESULTS In this study, we employed Brachypodium distachyon as a model for cereal crops and performed comparative transcriptomics to study the dynamics of host gene expression at different infection stages. We found that infection with either F. graminearum or M. oryzae triggered massive transcriptomic reprogramming in the diseased tissues. Numerous defense-related genes were induced with dynamic changes during the time course of infection, including genes that function in pattern detection, MAPK cascade, phytohormone signaling, transcription, protein degradation, and secondary metabolism. In particular, the expression of jasmonic acid signaling genes and proteasome component genes were likely specifically inhibited or manipulated upon infection by F. graminearum. CONCLUSIONS Our analysis showed that, although the affected host pathways are similar, their expression programs and regulations are distinct during infection by F. graminearum and M. oryzae. The results provide valuable insight into the interactions between B. distachyon and two important cereal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gengrui Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas and College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chengyu Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas and College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chenyu Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas and College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Mu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas and College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jin-Rong Xu
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Huiquan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas and College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qinhu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas and College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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15
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Ding Y, Northen TR, Khalil A, Huffaker A, Schmelz EA. Getting back to the grass roots: harnessing specialized metabolites for improved crop stress resilience. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2021; 70:174-186. [PMID: 34129999 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2021.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Roots remain an understudied site of complex and important biological interactions mediating plant productivity. In grain and bioenergy crops, grass root specialized metabolites (GRSM) are central to key interactions, yet our basic knowledge of the chemical language remains fragmentary. Continued improvements in plant genome assembly and metabolomics are enabling large-scale advances in the discovery of specialized metabolic pathways as a means of regulating root-biotic interactions. Metabolomics, transcript coexpression analyses, forward genetic studies, gene synthesis and heterologous expression assays drive efficient pathway discoveries. Functional genetic variants identified through genome wide analyses, targeted CRISPR/Cas9 approaches, and both native and non-native overexpression studies critically inform novel strategies for bioengineering metabolic pathways to improve plant traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yezhang Ding
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Trent R Northen
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
| | - Ahmed Khalil
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Alisa Huffaker
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Eric A Schmelz
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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16
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Meisrimler C, Allan C, Eccersall S, Morris RJ. Interior design: how plant pathogens optimize their living conditions. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 229:2514-2524. [PMID: 33098094 PMCID: PMC7898814 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Pathogens use effectors to suppress host defence mechanisms, promote the derivation of nutrients, and facilitate infection within the host plant. Much is now known about effectors that target biotic pathways, particularly those that interfere with plant innate immunity. By contrast, an understanding of how effectors manipulate nonimmunity pathways is only beginning to emerge. Here, we focus on exciting new insights into effectors that target abiotic stress adaptation pathways, tampering with key functions within the plant to promote colonization. We critically assess the role of various signalling agents in linking different pathways upon perturbation by pathogen effectors. Additionally, this review provides a summary of currently known bacterial, fungal, and oomycete pathogen effectors that induce biotic and abiotic stress responses in the plant, as a first step towards establishing a comprehensive picture for linking effector targets to pathogenic lifestyles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia Allan
- School of Biological ScienceUniversity of CanterburyPrivate Bag 4800Christchurch8041New Zealand
| | - Sophie Eccersall
- School of Biological ScienceUniversity of CanterburyPrivate Bag 4800Christchurch8041New Zealand
| | - Richard J Morris
- Computational and Systems BiologyJohn Innes CentreNorwichNR4 7UHUK
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17
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Plants under the Attack of Allies: Moving towards the Plant Pathobiome Paradigm. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10010125. [PMID: 33435275 PMCID: PMC7827841 DOI: 10.3390/plants10010125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Plants are functional macrobes living in a close association with diverse communities of microbes and viruses as complex systems that continuously interact with the surrounding environment. The microbiota within the plant holobiont serves various essential and beneficial roles, such as in plant growth at different stages, starting from seed germination. Meanwhile, pathogenic microbes—differentiated from the rest of the plant microbiome based on their ability to damage the plant tissues through transient blooming under specific conditions—are also a part of the plant microbiome. Recent advances in multi-omics have furthered our understanding of the structure and functions of plant-associated microbes, and a pathobiome paradigm has emerged as a set of organisms (i.e., complex eukaryotic, microbial, and viral communities) within the plant’s biotic environment which interact with the host to deteriorate its health status. Recent studies have demonstrated that the one pathogen–one disease hypothesis is insufficient to describe the disease process in many cases, particularly when complex organismic communities are involved. The present review discusses the plant holobiont and covers the steady transition of plant pathology from the one pathogen–one disease hypothesis to the pathobiome paradigm. Moreover, previous reports on model plant diseases, in which more than one pathogen or co-operative interaction amongst pathogenic microbes is implicated, are reviewed and discussed.
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18
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Yadav V, Wang Z, Wei C, Amo A, Ahmed B, Yang X, Zhang X. Phenylpropanoid Pathway Engineering: An Emerging Approach towards Plant Defense. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9040312. [PMID: 32340374 PMCID: PMC7238016 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9040312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogens hitting the plant cell wall is the first impetus that triggers the phenylpropanoid pathway for plant defense. The phenylpropanoid pathway bifurcates into the production of an enormous array of compounds based on the few intermediates of the shikimate pathway in response to cell wall breaches by pathogens. The whole metabolomic pathway is a complex network regulated by multiple gene families and it exhibits refined regulatory mechanisms at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels. The pathway genes are involved in the production of anti-microbial compounds as well as signaling molecules. The engineering in the metabolic pathway has led to a new plant defense system of which various mechanisms have been proposed including salicylic acid and antimicrobial mediated compounds. In recent years, some key players like phenylalanine ammonia lyases (PALs) from the phenylpropanoid pathway are proposed to have broad spectrum disease resistance (BSR) without yield penalties. Now we have more evidence than ever, yet little understanding about the pathway-based genes that orchestrate rapid, coordinated induction of phenylpropanoid defenses in response to microbial attack. It is not astonishing that mutants of pathway regulator genes can show conflicting results. Therefore, precise engineering of the pathway is an interesting strategy to aim at profitably tailored plants. Here, this review portrays the current progress and challenges for phenylpropanoid pathway-based resistance from the current prospective to provide a deeper understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Yadav
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China; (V.Y.); (Z.W.); (C.W.); (B.A.); (X.Y.)
| | - Zhongyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China; (V.Y.); (Z.W.); (C.W.); (B.A.); (X.Y.)
| | - Chunhua Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China; (V.Y.); (Z.W.); (C.W.); (B.A.); (X.Y.)
| | - Aduragbemi Amo
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China;
| | - Bilal Ahmed
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China; (V.Y.); (Z.W.); (C.W.); (B.A.); (X.Y.)
| | - Xiaozhen Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China; (V.Y.); (Z.W.); (C.W.); (B.A.); (X.Y.)
| | - Xian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China; (V.Y.); (Z.W.); (C.W.); (B.A.); (X.Y.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-029-8708-2613
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19
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Zhu YX, Ge C, Ma S, Liu XY, Liu M, Sun Y, Wang GF. Maize ZmFNSI Homologs Interact with an NLR Protein to Modulate Hypersensitive Response. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E2529. [PMID: 32260554 PMCID: PMC7177559 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21072529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide binding, leucine-rich-repeat (NLR) proteins are the major class of resistance (R) proteins used by plants to defend against pathogen infection. The recognition between NLRs and their cognate pathogen effectors usually triggers a rapid localized cell death, termed the hypersensitive response (HR). Flavone synthase I (FNSI) is one of the key enzymes in the flavone biosynthesis pathway. It also displays salicylic acid (SA) 5-hydroxylase (S5H) activity. A close homolog of FNSI/S5H displays SA 3-hydroxylase (S3H) activity. Both FNSI/S5H and S3H play important roles in plant innate immunity. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms and the relationship between S5H and S3H with the NLR-mediated HR are not known in any plant species. In this study, we identified three genes encoding ZmFNSI-1, ZmFNSI-2 and ZmS3H that are significantly upregulated in a maize line carrying an autoactive NLR Rp1-D21 mutant. Functional analysis showed that ZmFNSI-1 and ZmFNSI-2, but not ZmS3H, suppressed HR conferred by Rp1-D21 and its signaling domain CCD21 when transiently expressed in N. benthamiana. ZmFNSI-1 and ZmFNSI-2 physically interacted with CCD21. Furthermore, ZmFNSI-1 and ZmFNSI-2 interacted with HCT, a key enzyme in lignin biosynthesis pathway, which can also suppress Rp1-D21-mediated HR. These results lay the foundation for the further functional analysis of the roles of FNSI in plant innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Guan-Feng Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; (Y.-X.Z.); (C.G.); (S.M.); (X.-Y.L.); (M.L.); (Y.S.)
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20
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Castro-Moretti FR, Gentzel IN, Mackey D, Alonso AP. Metabolomics as an Emerging Tool for the Study of Plant-Pathogen Interactions. Metabolites 2020; 10:E52. [PMID: 32013104 PMCID: PMC7074241 DOI: 10.3390/metabo10020052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants defend themselves from most microbial attacks via mechanisms including cell wall fortification, production of antimicrobial compounds, and generation of reactive oxygen species. Successful pathogens overcome these host defenses, as well as obtain nutrients from the host. Perturbations of plant metabolism play a central role in determining the outcome of attempted infections. Metabolomic analyses, for example between healthy, newly infected and diseased or resistant plants, have the potential to reveal perturbations to signaling or output pathways with key roles in determining the outcome of a plant-microbe interaction. However, application of this -omic and its tools in plant pathology studies is lagging relative to genomic and transcriptomic methods. Thus, it is imperative to bring the power of metabolomics to bear on the study of plant resistance/susceptibility. This review discusses metabolomics studies that link changes in primary or specialized metabolism to the defense responses of plants against bacterial, fungal, nematode, and viral pathogens. Also examined are cases where metabolomics unveils virulence mechanisms used by pathogens. Finally, how integrating metabolomics with other -omics can advance plant pathology research is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda R. Castro-Moretti
- BioDiscovery Institute, University of North Texas, TX 76201, USA;
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, TX 76201, USA
| | - Irene N. Gentzel
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - David Mackey
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Ana P. Alonso
- BioDiscovery Institute, University of North Texas, TX 76201, USA;
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, TX 76201, USA
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21
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Kretschmer M, Damoo D, Djamei A, Kronstad J. Chloroplasts and Plant Immunity: Where Are the Fungal Effectors? Pathogens 2019; 9:E19. [PMID: 31878153 PMCID: PMC7168614 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroplasts play a central role in plant immunity through the synthesis of secondary metabolites and defense compounds, as well as phytohormones, such as jasmonic acid and salicylic acid. Additionally, chloroplast metabolism results in the production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide as defense molecules. The impact of viral and bacterial infections on plastids and chloroplasts has been well documented. In particular, bacterial pathogens are known to introduce effectors specifically into chloroplasts, and many viral proteins interact with chloroplast proteins to influence viral replication and movement, and plant defense. By contrast, clear examples are just now emerging for chloroplast-targeted effectors from fungal and oomycete pathogens. In this review, we first present a brief overview of chloroplast contributions to plant defense and then discuss examples of connections between fungal interactions with plants and chloroplast function. We then briefly consider well-characterized bacterial effectors that target chloroplasts as a prelude to discussing the evidence for fungal effectors that impact chloroplast activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Kretschmer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; (M.K.); (D.D.)
| | - Djihane Damoo
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; (M.K.); (D.D.)
| | - Armin Djamei
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) OT Gatersleben Corrensstrasse 3, D-06466 Stadt Seeland, Germany;
| | - James Kronstad
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; (M.K.); (D.D.)
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22
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Doblas-Ibáñez P, Deng K, Vasquez MF, Giese L, Cobine PA, Kolkman JM, King H, Jamann TM, Balint-Kurti P, De La Fuente L, Nelson RJ, Mackey D, Smith LG. Dominant, Heritable Resistance to Stewart's Wilt in Maize Is Associated with an Enhanced Vascular Defense Response to Infection with Pantoea stewartii. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2019; 32:1581-1597. [PMID: 31657672 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-05-19-0129-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Vascular wilt bacteria such as Pantoea stewartii, the causal agent of Stewart's bacterial wilt of maize (SW), are destructive pathogens that are difficult to control. These bacteria colonize the xylem, where they form biofilms that block sap flow leading to characteristic wilting symptoms. Heritable forms of SW resistance exist and are used in maize breeding programs but the underlying genes and mechanisms are mostly unknown. Here, we show that seedlings of maize inbred lines with pan1 mutations are highly resistant to SW. However, current evidence suggests that other genes introgressed along with pan1 are responsible for resistance. Genomic analyses of pan1 lines were used to identify candidate resistance genes. In-depth comparison of P. stewartii interaction with susceptible and resistant maize lines revealed an enhanced vascular defense response in pan1 lines characterized by accumulation of electron-dense materials in xylem conduits visible by electron microscopy. We propose that this vascular defense response restricts P. stewartii spread through the vasculature, reducing both systemic bacterial colonization of the xylem network and consequent wilting. Though apparently unrelated to the resistance phenotype of pan1 lines, we also demonstrate that the effector WtsE is essential for P. stewartii xylem dissemination, show evidence for a nutritional immunity response to P. stewartii that alters xylem sap composition, and present the first analysis of maize transcriptional responses to P. stewartii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Doblas-Ibáñez
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A
| | - Kaiyue Deng
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A
| | - Miguel F Vasquez
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A
| | - Laura Giese
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| | - Paul A Cobine
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, U.S.A
| | - Judith M Kolkman
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A
| | - Helen King
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A
| | - Tiffany M Jamann
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, U.S.A
| | - Peter Balint-Kurti
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC 27695, U.S.A. and Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, U.S.A
| | | | - Rebecca J Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A
| | - David Mackey
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| | - Laurie G Smith
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A
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23
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Funnell-Harris DL, Sattler SE, O'Neill PM, Gries T, Tetreault HM, Clemente TE. Response of Sorghum Enhanced in Monolignol Biosynthesis to Stalk Rot Pathogens. PLANT DISEASE 2019; 103:2277-2287. [PMID: 31215851 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-09-18-1622-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To increase phenylpropanoid constituents and energy content in the versatile C4 grass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench), sorghum genes for proteins related to monolignol biosynthesis were overexpressed: SbMyb60 (transcriptional activator), SbPAL (phenylalanine ammonia lyase), SbCCoAOMT (caffeoyl coenzyme A [CoA] 3-O-methyltransferase), Bmr2 (4-coumarate:CoA ligase), and SbC3H (coumaroyl shikimate 3-hydroxylase). Overexpression lines were evaluated for responses to stalk pathogens under greenhouse and field conditions. Greenhouse-grown plants were inoculated with Fusarium thapsinum (Fusarium stalk rot) and Macrophomina phaseolina (charcoal rot), which cause yield-reducing diseases. F. thapsinum-inoculated overexpression plants had mean lesion lengths not significantly different than wild-type, except for significantly smaller lesions on two of three SbMyb60 and one of two SbCCoAOMT lines. M. phaseolina-inoculated overexpression lines had lesions not significantly different from wild-type except one SbPAL line (of two lines studied) with mean lesion lengths significantly larger. Field-grown SbMyb60 and SbCCoAOMT overexpression plants were inoculated with F. thapsinum. Mean lesions of SbMyb60 lines were similar to wild-type, but one SbCCoAOMT had larger lesions, whereas the other line was not significantly different than wild-type. Because overexpression of SbMyb60, Bmr2, or SbC3H may not render sorghum more susceptible to stalk rots, these lines may provide sources for development of sorghum with increased phenylpropanoid concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna L Funnell-Harris
- Wheat, Sorghum and Forage Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Scott E Sattler
- Wheat, Sorghum and Forage Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Patrick M O'Neill
- Wheat, Sorghum and Forage Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Tammy Gries
- Wheat, Sorghum and Forage Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Hannah M Tetreault
- Wheat, Sorghum and Forage Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Lincoln, NE 68583
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
| | - Thomas E Clemente
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
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Gentzel I, Giese L, Zhao W, Alonso AP, Mackey D. A Simple Method for Measuring Apoplast Hydration and Collecting Apoplast Contents. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 179:1265-1272. [PMID: 30824565 PMCID: PMC6446764 DOI: 10.1104/pp.18.01076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The plant leaf apoplast is a dynamic environment subject to a variety of both internal and external stimuli. In addition to being a conduit for water vapor and gas exchange involved in transpiration and photosynthesis, the apoplast also accumulates many nutrients transported from the soil as well as those produced through photosynthesis. The internal leaf also provides a protective environment for endophytic and pathogenic microbes alike. Given the diverse array of physiological processes occurring in the apoplast, it is expedient to develop methods to study its contents. Many established methods rely on vacuum infiltration of an apoplast wash solution followed by centrifugation. In this study, we describe a refined method optimized for maize (Zea mays) seedling leaves, which not only provides a simple procedure for obtaining apoplast fluid, but also allows direct calculation of apoplast hydration at the time of harvest for every sample. In addition, we describe an abbreviated method for estimating apoplast hydration if the full apoplast extraction is not necessary. Finally, we show the applicability of this optimized apoplast extraction procedure for plants infected with the maize pathogen Pantoea stewartii ssp stewartii, including the efficient isolation of bacteria previously residing in the apoplast. The approaches to establishing this method should make it generally applicable to other types of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Gentzel
- Translational Plant Sciences Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Laura Giese
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Wanying Zhao
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Ana Paula Alonso
- BioDiscovery Institute, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76201
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76201
| | - David Mackey
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
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Abstract
Pseudomonas syringae is one of the best-studied plant pathogens and serves as a model for understanding host-microorganism interactions, bacterial virulence mechanisms and host adaptation of pathogens as well as microbial evolution, ecology and epidemiology. Comparative genomic studies have identified key genomic features that contribute to P. syringae virulence. P. syringae has evolved two main virulence strategies: suppression of host immunity and creation of an aqueous apoplast to form its niche in the phyllosphere. In addition, external environmental conditions such as humidity profoundly influence infection. P. syringae may serve as an excellent model to understand virulence and also of how pathogenic microorganisms integrate environmental conditions and plant microbiota to become ecologically robust and diverse pathogens of the plant kingdom.
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Aung K, Jiang Y, He SY. The role of water in plant-microbe interactions. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 93:771-780. [PMID: 29205604 PMCID: PMC5849256 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Throughout their life plants are associated with various microorganisms, including commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms. Pathogens are genetically adapted to aggressively colonize and proliferate in host plants to cause disease. However, disease outbreaks occur only under permissive environmental conditions. The interplay between host, pathogen and environment is famously known as the 'disease triangle'. Among the environmental factors, rainfall events, which often create a period of high atmospheric humidity, have repeatedly been shown to promote disease outbreaks in plants, suggesting that the availability of water is crucial for pathogenesis. During pathogen infection, water-soaking spots are frequently observed on infected leaves as an early symptom of disease. Recent studies have shown that pathogenic bacteria dedicate specialized virulence proteins to create an aqueous habitat inside the leaf apoplast under high humidity. Water availability in the apoplastic environment, and probably other associated changes, can determine the success of potentially pathogenic microbes. These new findings reinforce the notion that the fight over water may be a major battleground between plants and pathogens. In this article, we will discuss the role of water availability in host-microbe interactions, with a focus on plant-bacterial interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyaw Aung
- Department of Energy, Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- For correspondence (; )
| | - Yanjuan Jiang
- Department of Energy, Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Sheng Yang He
- Department of Energy, Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Plant Resilience Institute, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- For correspondence (; )
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Kretschmer M, Croll D, Kronstad JW. Chloroplast-associated metabolic functions influence the susceptibility of maize to Ustilago maydis. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2017; 18:1210-1221. [PMID: 27564650 PMCID: PMC6638283 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Biotrophic fungal pathogens must evade or suppress plant defence responses to establish a compatible interaction in living host tissue. In addition, metabolic changes during disease reflect both the impact of nutrient acquisition by the fungus to support proliferation and the integration of metabolism with the plant defence response. In this study, we used transcriptome analyses to predict that the chloroplast and associated functions are important for symptom formation by the biotrophic fungus Ustilago maydis on maize. We tested our prediction by examining the impact on disease of a genetic defect (whirly1) in chloroplast function. In addition, we examined whether disease was influenced by inhibition of glutamine synthetase by glufosinate (impacting amino acid biosynthesis) or inhibition of 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase by glyphosate (influencing secondary metabolism). All of these perturbations increased the severity of disease, thus suggesting a contribution to resistance. Overall, these findings provide a framework for understanding the components of host metabolism that benefit the plant versus the pathogen during a biotrophic interaction. They also reinforce the emerging importance of the chloroplast as a mediator of plant defence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Kretschmer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Daniel Croll
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
- Present address:
Institute of Integrative BiologyETH Zürich8092 ZürichSwitzerland
| | - James W. Kronstad
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCV6T 1Z4Canada
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Packard H, Kernell Burke A, Jensen RV, Stevens AM. Analysis of the in planta transcriptome expressed by the corn pathogen Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii via RNA-Seq. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3237. [PMID: 28462040 PMCID: PMC5410145 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii is a bacterial phytopathogen that causes Stewart's wilt disease in corn. It uses quorum sensing to regulate expression of some genes involved in virulence in a cell density-dependent manner as the bacterial population grows from small numbers at the initial infection site in the leaf apoplast to high cell numbers in the xylem where it forms a biofilm. There are also other genes important for pathogenesis not under quorum-sensing control such as a Type III secretion system. The purpose of this study was to compare gene expression during an in planta infection versus either a pre-inoculum in vitro liquid culture or an in vitro agar plate culture to identify genes specifically expressed in planta that may also be important for colonization and/or virulence. RNA was purified from each sample type to determine the transcriptome via RNA-Seq using Illumina sequencing of cDNA. Fold gene expression changes in the in planta data set in comparison to the two in vitro grown samples were determined and a list of the most differentially expressed genes was generated to elucidate genes important for plant association. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to validate expression patterns for a select subset of genes. Analysis of the transcriptome data via gene ontology revealed that bacterial transporters and systems important for oxidation reduction processes appear to play a critical role for P. stewartii as it colonizes and causes wilt disease in corn plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Packard
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Alison Kernell Burke
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Roderick V. Jensen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Ann M. Stevens
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States
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Kondo M, Hirai H, Furukawa T, Yoshida Y, Suzuki A, Kawaguchi T, Che FS. Frameshift Mutation Confers Function as Virulence Factor to Leucine-Rich Repeat Protein from Acidovorax avenae. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 7:1988. [PMID: 28101092 PMCID: PMC5209373 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Many plant pathogens inject type III (T3SS) effectors into host cells to suppress host immunity and promote successful infection. The bacterial pathogen Acidovorax avenae causes brown stripe symptom in many species of monocotyledonous plants; however, individual strains of each pathogen infect only one host species. T3SS-deleted mutants of A. avenae K1 (virulent to rice) or N1141 (virulent to finger millet) caused no symptom in each host plant, suggesting that T3SS effectors are involved in the symptom formation. To identify T3SS effectors as virulence factors, we performed whole-genome and predictive analyses. Although the nucleotide sequence of the novel leucine-rich repeat protein (Lrp) gene of N1141 had high sequence identity with K1 Lrp, the amino acid sequences of the encoded proteins were quite different due to a 1-bp insertion within the K1 Lrp gene. An Lrp-deleted K1 strain (KΔLrp) did not cause brown stripe symptom in rice (host plant for K1); by contrast, the analogous mutation in N1141 (NΔLrp) did not interfere with infection of finger millet. In addition, NΔLrp retained the ability to induce effector-triggered immunity (ETI), including hypersensitive response cell death and expression of ETI-related genes. These data indicated that K1 Lrp functions as a virulence factor in rice, whereas N1141 Lrp does not play a similar role in finger millet. Yeast two-hybrid screening revealed that K1 Lrp interacts with oryzain α, a pathogenesis-related protein of the cysteine protease family, whereas N1141 Lrp, which contains LRR domains, does not. This specific interaction between K1 Lrp and oryzain α was confirmed by Bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay in rice cells. Thus, K1 Lrp protein may have acquired its function as virulence factor in rice due to a frameshift mutation.
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Pfeilmeier S, Caly DL, Malone JG. Bacterial pathogenesis of plants: future challenges from a microbial perspective: Challenges in Bacterial Molecular Plant Pathology. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2016; 17:1298-313. [PMID: 27170435 PMCID: PMC6638335 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Revised: 05/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Plant infection is a complicated process. On encountering a plant, pathogenic microorganisms must first adapt to life on the epiphytic surface, and survive long enough to initiate an infection. Responsiveness to the environment is critical throughout infection, with intracellular and community-level signal transduction pathways integrating environmental signals and triggering appropriate responses in the bacterial population. Ultimately, phytopathogens must migrate from the epiphytic surface into the plant tissue using motility and chemotaxis pathways. This migration is coupled with overcoming the physical and chemical barriers to entry into the plant apoplast. Once inside the plant, bacteria use an array of secretion systems to release phytotoxins and protein effectors that fulfil diverse pathogenic functions (Fig. ) (Melotto and Kunkel, ; Phan Tran et al., ). As our understanding of the pathways and mechanisms underpinning plant pathogenicity increases, a number of central research challenges are emerging that will profoundly shape the direction of research in the future. We need to understand the bacterial phenotypes that promote epiphytic survival and surface adaptation in pathogenic bacteria. How do these pathways function in the context of the plant-associated microbiome, and what impact does this complex microbial community have on the onset and severity of plant infections? The huge importance of bacterial signal transduction to every stage of plant infection is becoming increasingly clear. However, there is a great deal to learn about how these signalling pathways function in phytopathogenic bacteria, and the contribution they make to various aspects of plant pathogenicity. We are increasingly able to explore the structural and functional diversity of small-molecule natural products from plant pathogens. We need to acquire a much better understanding of the production, deployment, functional redundancy and physiological roles of these molecules. Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are important and well-studied contributors to bacterial disease. Several key unanswered questions will shape future investigations of these systems. We need to define the mechanism of hierarchical and temporal control of effector secretion. For successful infection, effectors need to interact with host components to exert their function. Advanced biochemical, proteomic and cell biological techniques will enable us to study the function of effectors inside the host cell in more detail and on a broader scale. Population genomics analyses provide insight into evolutionary adaptation processes of phytopathogens. The determination of the diversity and distribution of type III effectors (T3Es) and other virulence genes within and across pathogenic species, pathovars and strains will allow us to understand how pathogens adapt to specific hosts, the evolutionary pathways available to them, and the possible future directions of the evolutionary arms race between effectors and molecular plant targets. Although pathogenic bacteria employ a host of different virulence and proliferation strategies, as a result of the space constraints, this review focuses mainly on the hemibiotrophic pathogens. We discuss the process of plant infection from the perspective of these important phytopathogens, and highlight new approaches to address the outstanding challenges in this important and fast-moving field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Pfeilmeier
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Delphine L Caly
- Université de Lille, EA 7394, ICV - Institut Charles Viollette, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Jacob G Malone
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK.
- University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.
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Wen W, Brotman Y, Willmitzer L, Yan J, Fernie AR. Broadening Our Portfolio in the Genetic Improvement of Maize Chemical Composition. Trends Genet 2016; 32:459-469. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Wang GF, Balint-Kurti PJ. Maize Homologs of CCoAOMT and HCT, Two Key Enzymes in Lignin Biosynthesis, Form Complexes with the NLR Rp1 Protein to Modulate the Defense Response. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 171:2166-77. [PMID: 27208251 PMCID: PMC4936554 DOI: 10.1104/pp.16.00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Disease resistance (R) genes encode nucleotide binding Leu-rich-repeat (NLR) proteins that confer resistance to specific pathogens. Upon pathogen recognition they trigger a defense response that usually includes a so-called hypersensitive response (HR), a rapid localized cell death at the site of pathogen infection. Intragenic recombination between two maize (Zea mays) NLRs, Rp1-D and Rp1-dp2, resulted in the formation of a hybrid NLR, Rp1-D21, which confers an autoactive HR in the absence of pathogen infection. From a previous quantitative trait loci and genome-wide association study, we identified genes encoding two key enzymes in lignin biosynthesis, hydroxycinnamoyltransferase (HCT) and caffeoyl CoA O-methyltransferase (CCoAOMT), adjacent to the nucleotide polymorphisms that were highly associated with variation in the severity of Rp1-D21-induced HR We have previously shown that the two maize HCT homologs suppress the HR conferred by Rp1-D21 in a heterologous system, very likely through physical interaction. Here, we show, similarly, that CCoAOMT2 suppresses the HR induced by either the full-length or by the N-terminal coiled-coil domain of Rp1-D21 also likely via physical interaction and that the metabolic activity of CCoAOMT2 is unlikely to be necessary for its role in suppressing HR. We also demonstrate that CCoAOMT2, HCTs, and Rp1 proteins can form in the same complexes. A model is derived to explain the roles of CCoAOMT and HCT in Rp1-mediated defense resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guan-Feng Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 (G.-F.W., P.J.B.-K.)Key Laboratory of Plant Cell Engineering and Germplasm Innovation, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250100, P.R. China (G.-F.W.); U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 (P.J.B.-K.)
| | - Peter J Balint-Kurti
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 (G.-F.W., P.J.B.-K.)Key Laboratory of Plant Cell Engineering and Germplasm Innovation, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250100, P.R. China (G.-F.W.); U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 (P.J.B.-K.)
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Popa C, Li L, Gil S, Tatjer L, Hashii K, Tabuchi M, Coll NS, Ariño J, Valls M. The effector AWR5 from the plant pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum is an inhibitor of the TOR signalling pathway. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27058. [PMID: 27257085 PMCID: PMC4891724 DOI: 10.1038/srep27058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens possess complex type III effector (T3E) repertoires that are translocated inside the host cells to cause disease. However, only a minor proportion of these effectors have been assigned a function. Here, we show that the T3E AWR5 from the phytopathogen Ralstonia solanacearum is an inhibitor of TOR, a central regulator in eukaryotes that controls the switch between cell growth and stress responses in response to nutrient availability. Heterologous expression of AWR5 in yeast caused growth inhibition and autophagy induction coupled to massive transcriptomic changes, unmistakably reminiscent of TOR inhibition by rapamycin or nitrogen starvation. Detailed genetic analysis of these phenotypes in yeast, including suppression of AWR5-induced toxicity by mutation of CDC55 and TPD3, encoding regulatory subunits of the PP2A phosphatase, indicated that AWR5 might exert its function by directly or indirectly inhibiting the TOR pathway upstream PP2A. We present evidence in planta that this T3E caused a decrease in TOR-regulated plant nitrate reductase activity and also that normal levels of TOR and the Cdc55 homologues in plants are required for R. solanacearum virulence. Our results suggest that the TOR pathway is a bona fide T3E target and further prove that yeast is a useful platform for T3E function characterisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crina Popa
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB), Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- Genetics Department, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Liang Li
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB), Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Sergio Gil
- Genetics Department, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Laura Tatjer
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina and Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Keisuke Hashii
- Laboratory of Applied Molecular and Cell Biology, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Mitsuaki Tabuchi
- Laboratory of Applied Molecular and Cell Biology, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Núria S. Coll
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB), Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Joaquín Ariño
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina and Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Marc Valls
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB), Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- Genetics Department, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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Serrano I, Audran C, Rivas S. Chloroplasts at work during plant innate immunity. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:3845-54. [PMID: 26994477 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The major role played by chloroplasts during light harvesting, energy production, redox homeostasis, and retrograde signalling processes has been extensively characterized. Beyond the obvious link between chloroplast functions in primary metabolism and as providers of photosynthesis-derived carbon sources and energy, a growing body of evidence supports a central role for chloroplasts as integrators of environmental signals and, more particularly, as key defence organelles. Here, we review the importance of these organelles as primary sites for the biosynthesis and transmission of pro-defence signals during plant immune responses. In addition, we highlight interorganellar communication as a crucial process for amplification of the immune response. Finally, molecular strategies used by microbes to manipulate, directly or indirectly, the production/function of defence-related signalling molecules and subvert chloroplast-based defences are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Serrano
- LIPM, Université de Toulouse, INRA, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Corinne Audran
- LIPM, Université de Toulouse, INRA, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Susana Rivas
- LIPM, Université de Toulouse, INRA, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
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Jin L, Ham JH, Hage R, Zhao W, Soto-Hernández J, Lee SY, Paek SM, Kim MG, Boone C, Coplin DL, Mackey D. Direct and Indirect Targeting of PP2A by Conserved Bacterial Type-III Effector Proteins. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005609. [PMID: 27191168 PMCID: PMC4871590 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial AvrE-family Type-III effector proteins (T3Es) contribute significantly to the virulence of plant-pathogenic species of Pseudomonas, Pantoea, Ralstonia, Erwinia, Dickeya and Pectobacterium, with hosts ranging from monocots to dicots. However, the mode of action of AvrE-family T3Es remains enigmatic, due in large part to their toxicity when expressed in plant or yeast cells. To search for targets of WtsE, an AvrE-family T3E from the maize pathogen Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii, we employed a yeast-two-hybrid screen with non-lethal fragments of WtsE and a synthetic genetic array with full-length WtsE. Together these screens indicate that WtsE targets maize protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) heterotrimeric enzyme complexes via direct interaction with B' regulatory subunits. AvrE1, another AvrE-family T3E from Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000 (Pto DC3000), associates with specific PP2A B' subunit proteins from its susceptible host Arabidopsis that are homologous to the maize B' subunits shown to interact with WtsE. Additionally, AvrE1 was observed to associate with the WtsE-interacting maize proteins, indicating that PP2A B' subunits are likely conserved targets of AvrE-family T3Es. Notably, the ability of AvrE1 to promote bacterial growth and/or suppress callose deposition was compromised in Arabidopsis plants with mutations of PP2A genes. Also, chemical inhibition of PP2A activity blocked the virulence activity of both WtsE and AvrE1 in planta. The function of HopM1, a Pto DC3000 T3E that is functionally redundant to AvrE1, was also impaired in specific PP2A mutant lines, although no direct interaction with B' subunits was observed. These results indicate that sub-component specific PP2A complexes are targeted by bacterial T3Es, including direct targeting by members of the widely conserved AvrE-family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Jin
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jong Hyun Ham
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Plant Pathology and Crop Physiology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Rosemary Hage
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Wanying Zhao
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jaricelis Soto-Hernández
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Sang Yeol Lee
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21Plus), PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju daero, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Mann Paek
- College of Pharmacy, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju daero, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Gab Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju daero, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Charles Boone
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - David L. Coplin
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - David Mackey
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
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Macho AP. Subversion of plant cellular functions by bacterial type-III effectors: beyond suppression of immunity. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:51-7. [PMID: 26306858 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Most bacterial plant pathogens employ a type-III secretion system to inject type-III effector (T3E) proteins directly inside plant cells. These T3Es manipulate host cellular processes in order to create a permissive niche for bacterial proliferation, allowing development of the disease. An important role of T3Es in plant pathogenic bacteria is the suppression of plant immune responses. However, in recent years, research has uncovered T3E functions different from direct immune suppression, including the modulation of plant hormone signaling, metabolism or organelle function. This insight article discusses T3E functions other than suppression of immunity, which may contribute to the modulation of plant cells in order to promote bacterial survival, nutrient release, and bacterial replication and dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto P Macho
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201602, China
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Draft Genome Sequence of Pantoea ananatis Strain AMG521, a Rice Plant Growth-Promoting Bacterial Endophyte Isolated from the Guadalquivir Marshes in Southern Spain. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2016; 4:4/1/e01681-15. [PMID: 26893418 PMCID: PMC4759065 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.01681-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The rice endophyte Pantoea ananatis AMG521 shows several plant growth-promoting properties and promotes rice yield increases. Its draft genome was estimated at 4,891,568 bp with 4,704 coding sequences (CDS). The genome encodes genes for N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) synthases, AHL hydrolases, hyperadherence (yidQ, yidP, and yidR), fusaric acid resistance, and oxidation of lignin, highlighting its biotechnological potential.
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Xin XF, Nomura K, Ding X, Chen X, Wang K, Aung K, Uribe F, Rosa B, Yao J, Chen J, He SY. Pseudomonas syringae Effector Avirulence Protein E Localizes to the Host Plasma Membrane and Down-Regulates the Expression of the NONRACE-SPECIFIC DISEASE RESISTANCE1/HARPIN-INDUCED1-LIKE13 Gene Required for Antibacterial Immunity in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 169. [PMID: 26206852 PMCID: PMC4577396 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.00547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens of plants and animals deliver effector proteins into host cells to promote infection. Elucidation of how pathogen effector proteins function not only is critical for understanding bacterial pathogenesis but also provides a useful tool in discovering the functions of host genes. In this study, we characterized the Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 effector protein Avirulence Protein E (AvrE), the founding member of a widely distributed, yet functionally enigmatic, bacterial effector family. We show that AvrE is localized in the plasma membrane (PM) and PM-associated vesicle-like structures in the plant cell. AvrE contains two physically interacting domains, and the amino-terminal portion contains a PM-localization signal. Genome-wide microarray analysis indicates that AvrE, as well as the functionally redundant effector Hypersensitive response and pathogenicity-dependent Outer Protein M1, down-regulates the expression of the NONRACE-SPECIFIC DISEASE RESISTANCE1/HARPIN-INDUCED1-LIKE13 (NHL13) gene in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Mutational analysis shows that NHL13 is required for plant immunity, as the nhl13 mutant plant displayed enhanced disease susceptibility. Our results defined the action site of one of the most important bacterial virulence proteins in plants and the antibacterial immunity function of the NHL13 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Fang Xin
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Kinya Nomura
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Xinhua Ding
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Xujun Chen
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Kun Wang
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Kyaw Aung
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Francisco Uribe
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Bruce Rosa
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Jian Yao
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Jin Chen
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
| | - Sheng Yang He
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory (X.-F.X., K.N., X.D., X.C., K.A., F.U., B.R., J.Y., J.C., S.Y.H.), Department of Plant Biology (X.-F.X.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (K.W.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.Y.H.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824;State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018 Shandong, China (X.D.);Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China (X.C.);Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63108 (B.R.); andDepartment of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 (J.Y.)
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