1
|
Begum HM, Shen K. Intracellular and microenvironmental regulation of mitochondrial membrane potential in cancer cells. WIREs Mech Dis 2023; 15:e1595. [PMID: 36597256 PMCID: PMC10176868 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cells have an abnormally high mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm ), which is associated with enhanced invasive properties in vitro and increased metastases in vivo. The mechanisms underlying the abnormal ΔΨm in cancer cells remain unclear. Research on different cell types has shown that ΔΨm is regulated by various intracellular mechanisms such as by mitochondrial inner and outer membrane ion transporters, cytoskeletal elements, and biochemical signaling pathways. On the other hand, the role of extrinsic, tumor microenvironment (TME) derived cues in regulating ΔΨm is not well defined. In this review, we first summarize the existing literature on intercellular mechanisms of ΔΨm regulation, with a focus on cancer cells. We then offer our perspective on the different ways through which the microenvironmental cues such as hypoxia and mechanical stresses may regulate cancer cell ΔΨm . This article is categorized under: Cancer > Environmental Factors Cancer > Biomedical Engineering Cancer > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hydari Masuma Begum
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
| | - Keyue Shen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
- USC Stem Cell, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Domb K, Wang N, Hummel G, Liu C. Spatial Features and Functional Implications of Plant 3D Genome Organization. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 73:173-200. [PMID: 35130445 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-102720-022810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The advent of high-throughput sequencing-based methods for chromatin conformation, accessibility, and immunoprecipitation assays has been a turning point in 3D genomics. Altogether, these new tools have been pushing upward the interpretation of pioneer cytogenetic evidence for a higher order in chromatin packing. Here, we review the latest development in our understanding of plant spatial genome structures and different levels of organization and discuss their functional implications. Then, we spotlight the complexity of organellar (i.e., mitochondria and plastids) genomes and discuss their 3D packing into nucleoids. Finally, we propose unaddressed research axes to investigate functional links between chromatin-like dynamics and transcriptional regulation within organellar nucleoids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Domb
- Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Nan Wang
- Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Guillaume Hummel
- Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Chang Liu
- Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pawłowski TA, Bujarska-Borkowska B, Suszka J, Tylkowski T, Chmielarz P, Klupczyńska EA, Staszak AM. Temperature Regulation of Primary and Secondary Seed Dormancy in Rosa canina L.: Findings from Proteomic Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197008. [PMID: 32977616 PMCID: PMC7582745 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Temperature is a key environmental factor restricting seed germination. Rose (Rosa canina L.) seeds are characterized by physical/physiological dormancy, which is broken during warm, followed by cold stratification. Exposing pretreated seeds to 20 °C resulted in the induction of secondary dormancy. The aim of this study was to identify and functionally characterize the proteins associated with dormancy control of rose seeds. Proteins from primary dormant, after warm and cold stratification (nondormant), and secondary dormant seeds were analyzed using 2-D electrophoresis. Proteins that varied in abundance were identified by mass spectrometry. Results showed that cold stratifications affected the variability of the highest number of spots, and there were more common spots with secondary dormancy than with warm stratification. The increase of mitochondrial proteins and actin during dormancy breaking suggests changes in cell functioning and seed preparation to germination. Secondary dormant seeds were characterized by low levels of legumin, metabolic enzymes, and actin, suggesting the consumption of storage materials, a decrease in metabolic activity, and cell elongation. Breaking the dormancy of rose seeds increased the abundance of cellular and metabolic proteins that promote germination. Induction of secondary dormancy caused a decrease in these proteins and germination arrest.
Collapse
|
4
|
In vitro rejuvenation of brain mitochondria by the inhibition of actin polymerization. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15585. [PMID: 30348987 PMCID: PMC6197264 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34006-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) activity of respiratory complex IV (CIV) in brain mitochondria significantly decline in middle-aged male mice compared to younger male mice. To explore the mechanisms underlying the regulation of brain mitochondrial function, we examined CIV-associated proteins, and identified actin inside the isolated brain mitochondria. Inhibiting actin polymerization using cytochalasin B (CB) significantly enhanced the OCR and CcO activity of CIV in the mitochondria. These changes were accompanied by a significant reduction in the amount of CIV-bound cytochrome c (cyt c). Actin was also associated with respiratory complex III (CIII); however, the amount of CIII-bound cyt c increased significantly after treatment of the mitochondria with CB. In contrast, no significant alteration in the assembly or the CcO activity of CIV in CIV-containing supercomplexes or CIV monomers was induced by CB. These results suggest that mitochondrial actin plays a crucial role in the regulation of the CcO activity and OCR of CIV with modification of the retention of cyt c between CIV and CIII.
Collapse
|
5
|
Nuclear actin: ancient clue to evolution in eukaryotes? Histochem Cell Biol 2018; 150:235-244. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-018-1693-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
6
|
In Mitochondria ?-Actin Regulates mtDNA Transcription and Is Required for Mitochondrial Quality Control. iScience 2018; 3:226-237. [PMID: 30428323 PMCID: PMC6137402 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2018.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotic cells, actin regulates both cytoplasmic and nuclear functions. However, whether actin-based structures are present in the mitochondria and are involved in mitochondrial functions has not been investigated. Here, using wild-type ?-actin +/+ and knockout (KO) ?-actin ?/? mouse embryonic fibroblasts we show evidence for the defect in maintaining mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) in ?-actin-null cells. MMP defects were associated with impaired mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) transcription and nuclear oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) gene expression. Using super-resolution microscopy we provided direct evidence on the presence of ?-actin-containing structures inside mitochondria. Large aggregates of TFAM-stained nucleoids were observed in bulb-shaped mitochondria in KO cells, suggesting defects in mitochondrial nucleoid segregation without ?-actin. The observation that mitochondria-targeted ?-actin rescued mtDNA transcription and MMP suggests an indispensable functional role of a mitochondrial ?-actin pool necessary for mitochondrial quality control.
Collapse
|
7
|
Arabidopsis vegetative actin isoforms, AtACT2 and AtACT7, generate distinct filament arrays in living plant cells. Sci Rep 2018. [PMID: 29531328 PMCID: PMC5847576 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22707-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Flowering plants express multiple actin isoforms. Previous studies suggest that individual actin isoforms have specific functions; however, the subcellular localization of actin isoforms in plant cells remains obscure. Here, we transiently expressed and observed major Arabidopsis vegetative actin isoforms, AtACT2 and AtACT7, as fluorescent-fusion proteins. By optimizing the linker sequence between fluorescent protein and actin, we succeeded in observing filaments that contained these expressed actin isoforms fused with green fluorescent protein (GFP) in Arabidopsis protoplasts. Different colored fluorescent proteins fused with AtACT2 and AtACT7 and co-expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana mesophyll cells co-polymerized in a segregated manner along filaments. In epidermal cells, surprisingly, AtACT2 and AtACT7 tended to polymerize into different types of filaments. AtACT2 was incorporated into thinner filaments, whereas AtACT7 was incorporated into thick bundles. We conclude that different actin isoforms are capable of constructing unique filament arrays, depending on the cell type or tissue. Interestingly, staining patterns induced by two indirect actin filament probes, Lifeact and mTalin1, were different between filaments containing AtACT2 and those containing AtACT7. We suggest that filaments containing different actin isoforms bind specific actin-binding proteins in vivo, since the two probes comprise actin-binding domains from different actin-binding proteins.
Collapse
|
8
|
Chang CH, Hsu FC, Lee SC, Lo YS, Wang JD, Shaw J, Taliansky M, Chang BY, Hsu YH, Lin NS. The Nucleolar Fibrillarin Protein Is Required for Helper Virus-Independent Long-Distance Trafficking of a Subviral Satellite RNA in Plants. THE PLANT CELL 2016; 28:2586-2602. [PMID: 27702772 PMCID: PMC5134973 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.16.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
RNA trafficking plays pivotal roles in regulating plant development, gene silencing, and adaptation to environmental stress. Satellite RNAs (satRNAs), parasites of viruses, depend on their helper viruses (HVs) for replication, encapsidation, and efficient spread. However, it remains largely unknown how satRNAs interact with viruses and the cellular machinery to undergo trafficking. Here, we show that the P20 protein of Bamboo mosaic potexvirus satRNA (satBaMV) can functionally complement in trans the systemic trafficking of P20-defective satBaMV in infected Nicotiana benthamiana The transgene-derived satBaMV, uncoupled from HV replication, was able to move autonomously across a graft union identified by RT-qPCR, RNA gel blot, and in situ RT-PCR analyses. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments revealed that the major nucleolar protein fibrillarin is coprecipitated in the P20 protein complex. Notably, silencing fibrillarin suppressed satBaMV-, but not HV-, phloem-based movement following grafting or coinoculation with HV Confocal microscopy revealed that the P20 protein colocalized with fibrillarin in the nucleoli and formed punctate structures associated with plasmodesmata. The mobile satBaMV RNA appears to exist as ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex composed of P20 and fibrillarin, whereas BaMV movement proteins, capsid protein, and BaMV RNA are recruited with HV coinfection. Taken together, our findings provide insight into movement of satBaMV via the fibrillarin-satBaMV-P20 RNP complex in phloem-mediated systemic trafficking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hao Chang
- Institute of Plant Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 11106, Taiwan
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Chen Hsu
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Chuan Lee
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Shan Lo
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jiun-Da Wang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jane Shaw
- The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Taliansky
- The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Ban-Yang Chang
- Department of Biochemistry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Yau-Heiu Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Na-Sheng Lin
- Institute of Plant Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 11106, Taiwan
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fu YB, Ahmed Z, Diederichsen A. Towards a better monitoring of seed ageing under ex situ seed conservation. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 3:cov026. [PMID: 27293711 PMCID: PMC4778438 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cov026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Long-term conservation of 7.4 million ex situ seed accessions held in agricultural genebanks and botanic gardens worldwide is a challenging mission for human food security and ecosystem services. Recent advances in seed biology and genomics may have opened new opportunities for effective management of seed germplasm under long-term storage. Here, we review the current development of tools for assessing seed ageing and research advances in seed biology and genomics, with a focus on exploring their potential as better tools for monitoring of seed ageing. Seed ageing is found to be associated with the changes reflected in reactive oxygen species and mitochondria-triggered programmed cell deaths, expression of antioxidative genes and DNA and protein repair genes, chromosome telomere lengths, epigenetic regulation of related genes (microRNA and methylation) and altered organelle and nuclear genomes. Among these changes, the signals from mitochondrial and nuclear genomes may show the most promise for use in the development of tools to predict seed ageing. Non-destructive and non-invasive analyses of stored seeds through calorimetry or imaging techniques are also promising. It is clear that research into developing advanced tools for monitoring seed ageing to supplement traditional germination tests will be fruitful for effective conservation of ex situ seed germplasm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Bi Fu
- Plant Genetic Resources of Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 0X2
| | - Zaheer Ahmed
- Plant Genetic Resources of Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 0X2
| | - Axel Diederichsen
- Plant Genetic Resources of Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 0X2
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wang Y, Li Y, Xue H, Pritchard HW, Wang X. Reactive oxygen species-provoked mitochondria-dependent cell death during ageing of elm (Ulmus pumila L.) seeds. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 81:438-52. [PMID: 25439659 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2014] [Revised: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that controlled deterioration treatment (CDT) induces programmed cell death in elm (Ulmus pumila L.) seeds, which undergo certain fundamental processes that are comparable to apoptosis in animals. In this study, the essential characteristics of mitochondrial physiology in elm seeds during CDT were identified by cellular ultrastructural analysis, whole-body optical imaging, Western blotting and semi-quantitative RT-PCR. The alteration in mitochondrial morphology was an early event during CDT, as indicated by progressive dynamic mitochondrial changes and rupture of the mitochondrial outer membrane; loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Δψ(m)) ensued, and mitochondrial ATP levels decreased. The mitochondrial permeability transition pore inhibitor cyclosporine A effectively suppressed these changes during ageing. The in situ localization of production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and evaluation of the expression of voltage-dependent anion-selective channel and cyclophilin D indicated that the levels of mitochondrial permeability transition pore components were positively correlated with ROS production, leading to an imbalance of the cellular redox potential and ultimately to programmed cell death. Pre-incubation with ascorbic acid slowed loss of mitochondrial Δψ(m), and decreased the effect of CDT on seed viability. However, there were no significant changes in multiple antioxidant elements or chaperones in the mitochondria during early stages of ageing. Our results indicate that CDT induces dynamic changes in mitochondrial physiology via increased ROS production, ultimately resulting in an irreversible loss of seed viability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Tree Breeding, College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, 35 Tsinghua East Road, Beijing, China
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zhao Y, Pan Z, Zhang Y, Qu X, Zhang Y, Yang Y, Jiang X, Huang S, Yuan M, Schumaker KS, Guo Y. The actin-related Protein2/3 complex regulates mitochondrial-associated calcium signaling during salt stress in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2013; 25:4544-59. [PMID: 24280386 PMCID: PMC3875735 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.113.117887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Revised: 10/30/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Microfilament and Ca(2+) dynamics play important roles in stress signaling in plants. Through genetic screening of Arabidopsis thaliana mutants that are defective in stress-induced increases in cytosolic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]cyt), we identified Actin-Related Protein2 (Arp2) as a regulator of [Ca(2+)]cyt in response to salt stress. Plants lacking Arp2 or other proteins in the Arp2/3 complex exhibited enhanced salt-induced increases in [Ca(2+)]cyt, decreased mitochondria movement, and hypersensitivity to salt. In addition, mitochondria aggregated, the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opened, and mitochondrial membrane potential Ψm was impaired in the arp2 mutant, and these changes were associated with salt-induced cell death. When opening of the enhanced mitochondrial permeability transition pore was blocked or increases in [Ca(2+)]cyt were prevented, the salt-sensitive phenotype of the arp2 mutant was partially rescued. These results indicate that the Arp2/3 complex regulates mitochondrial-dependent Ca(2+) signaling in response to salt stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhen Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaolu Qu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yuguo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yongqing Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiangning Jiang
- College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Tree Breeding, The Tree and Ornamental Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Laboratory of State Forestry Administration, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shanjin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Ming Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | | | - Yan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- National Center for Plant Gene Research, Beijing 100193, China
- Address correspondence to
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Gualberto JM, Mileshina D, Wallet C, Niazi AK, Weber-Lotfi F, Dietrich A. The plant mitochondrial genome: dynamics and maintenance. Biochimie 2013; 100:107-20. [PMID: 24075874 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2013.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Plant mitochondria have a complex and peculiar genetic system. They have the largest genomes, as compared to organelles from other eukaryotic organisms. These can expand tremendously in some species, reaching the megabase range. Nevertheless, whichever the size, the gene content remains modest and restricted to a few polypeptides required for the biogenesis of the oxidative phosphorylation chain complexes, ribosomal proteins, transfer RNAs and ribosomal RNAs. The presence of autonomous plasmids of essentially unknown function further enhances the level of complexity. The physical organization of the plant mitochondrial DNA includes a set of sub-genomic forms resulting from homologous recombination between repeats, with a mixture of linear, circular and branched structures. This material is compacted into membrane-bound nucleoids, which are the inheritance units but also the centers of genome maintenance and expression. Recombination appears to be an essential characteristic of plant mitochondrial genetic processes, both in shaping and maintaining the genome. Under nuclear surveillance, recombination is also the basis for the generation of new mitotypes and is involved in the evolution of the mitochondrial DNA. In line with, or as a consequence of its complex physical organization, replication of the plant mitochondrial DNA is likely to occur through multiple mechanisms, potentially involving recombination processes. We give here a synthetic view of these aspects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José M Gualberto
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS and Université de Strasbourg, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Daria Mileshina
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS and Université de Strasbourg, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Clémentine Wallet
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS and Université de Strasbourg, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Adnan Khan Niazi
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS and Université de Strasbourg, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Frédérique Weber-Lotfi
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS and Université de Strasbourg, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg, France.
| | - André Dietrich
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS and Université de Strasbourg, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg, France.
| |
Collapse
|