1
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Kovalevsky A, Aniana A, Coates L, Ghirlando R, Nashed NT, Louis JM. Visualizing the Active Site Oxyanion Loop Transition Upon Ensitrelvir Binding and Transient Dimerization of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease. J Mol Biol 2024; 436:168616. [PMID: 38762033 PMCID: PMC11182712 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2024.168616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
N-terminal autoprocessing from its polyprotein precursor enables creating the mature-like stable dimer interface of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (MPro), concomitant with the active site oxyanion loop equilibrium transitioning to the active conformation (E*) and onset of catalytic activity. Through mutagenesis of critical interface residues and evaluating noncovalent inhibitor (ensitrelvir, ESV) facilitated dimerization through its binding to MPro, we demonstrate that residues extending from Ser1 through Glu14 are critical for dimerization. Combined mutations G11A, E290A and R298A (MPro™) restrict dimerization even upon binding of ESV to monomeric MPro™ with an inhibitor dissociation constant of 7.4 ± 1.6 µM. Contrasting the covalent inhibitor NMV or GC373 binding to monomeric MPro, ESV binding enabled capturing the transition of the oxyanion loop conformations in the absence of a reactive warhead and independent of dimerization. Characterization of complexes by room-temperature X-ray crystallography reveals ESV bound to the E* state of monomeric MPro as well as an intermediate approaching the inactive state (E). It appears that the E* to E equilibrium shift occurs initially from G138-F140 residues, leading to the unwinding of the loop and formation of the 310-helix. Finally, we describe a transient dimer structure of the MPro precursor held together through interactions of residues A5-G11 with distinct states of the active sites, E and E*, likely representing an intermediate in the autoprocessing pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Kovalevsky
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.
| | - Annie Aniana
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA
| | - Leighton Coates
- Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Rodolfo Ghirlando
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA
| | - Nashaat T Nashed
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA
| | - John M Louis
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA.
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2
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Breidenbach J, Voget R, Si Y, Hingst A, Claff T, Sylvester K, Wolf V, Krasniqi V, Useini A, Sträter N, Ogura Y, Kawaguchi A, Müller CE, Gütschow M. Macrocyclic Azapeptide Nitriles: Structure-Based Discovery of Potent SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease Inhibitors as Antiviral Drugs. J Med Chem 2024; 67:8757-8790. [PMID: 38753594 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Given the crucial role of the main protease (Mpro) in the replication cycle of SARS-CoV-2, this viral cysteine protease constitutes a high-profile drug target. We investigated peptidomimetic azapeptide nitriles as auspicious, irreversibly acting inhibitors of Mpro. Our systematic approach combined an Mpro active-site scanning by combinatorially assembled azanitriles with structure-based design. Encouraged by the bioactive conformation of open-chain inhibitors, we conceptualized the novel chemotype of macrocyclic azanitriles whose binding mode was elucidated by cocrystallization. This strategy provided a favorable entropic contribution to target binding and resulted in the development of the extraordinarily potent Mpro inhibitor 84 with an IC50 value of 3.23 nM and a second-order rate constant of inactivation, kinac/Ki, of 448,000 M-1s-1. The open-chain Mpro inhibitor 58, along with the macrocyclic compounds 83 and 84, a broad-spectrum anticoronaviral agent, demonstrated the highest antiviral activity with EC50 values in the single-digit micromolar range. Our findings are expected to promote the future development of peptidomimetic Mpro inhibitors as anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Breidenbach
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Rabea Voget
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Yaoyao Si
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Alexandra Hingst
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Tobias Claff
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Katharina Sylvester
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Valentina Wolf
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Vesa Krasniqi
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Abibe Useini
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Center for Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Leipzig University, Deutscher Platz 5, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Norbert Sträter
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Center for Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Leipzig University, Deutscher Platz 5, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Yukino Ogura
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, 305-8575 Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kawaguchi
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, 305-8575 Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Christa E Müller
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael Gütschow
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
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3
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Aniana A, Nashed NT, Ghirlando R, Coates L, Kneller DW, Kovalevsky A, Louis JM. Insights into the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 main protease autocatalytic maturation from model precursors. Commun Biol 2023; 6:1159. [PMID: 37957287 PMCID: PMC10643566 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05469-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
A critical step for SARS-CoV-2 assembly and maturation involves the autoactivation of the main protease (MProWT) from precursor polyproteins. Upon expression, a model precursor of MProWT mediates its own release at its termini rapidly to yield a mature dimer. A construct with an E290A mutation within MPro exhibits time dependent autoprocessing of the accumulated precursor at the N-terminal nsp4/nsp5 site followed by the C-terminal nsp5/nsp6 cleavage. In contrast, a precursor containing E290A and R298A mutations (MProM) displays cleavage only at the nsp4/nsp5 site to yield an intermediate monomeric product, which is cleaved at the nsp5/nsp6 site only by MProWT. MProM and the catalytic domain (MPro1-199) fused to the truncated nsp4 region also show time-dependent conversion in vitro to produce MProM and MPro1-199, respectively. The reactions follow first-order kinetics indicating that the nsp4/nsp5 cleavage occurs via an intramolecular mechanism. These results support a mechanism involving an N-terminal intramolecular cleavage leading to an increase in the dimer population and followed by an intermolecular cleavage at the C-terminus. Thus, targeting the predominantly monomeric MPro precursor for inhibition may lead to the identification of potent drugs for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie Aniana
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892-0520, USA
| | - Nashaat T Nashed
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892-0520, USA
| | - Rodolfo Ghirlando
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892-0520, USA
| | - Leighton Coates
- Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Daniel W Kneller
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
- New England Biolabs, 240 County Road, Ipswich, MA, 01938-2723, USA
| | - Andrey Kovalevsky
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.
| | - John M Louis
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892-0520, USA.
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4
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Chan HT, Oliveira ASF, Schofield CJ, Mulholland AJ, Duarte F. Dynamical Nonequilibrium Molecular Dynamics Simulations Identify Allosteric Sites and Positions Associated with Drug Resistance in the SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease. JACS AU 2023; 3:1767-1774. [PMID: 37384148 PMCID: PMC10262681 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.3c00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) plays an essential role in the coronavirus lifecycle by catalyzing hydrolysis of the viral polyproteins at specific sites. Mpro is the target of drugs, such as nirmatrelvir, though resistant mutants have emerged that threaten drug efficacy. Despite its importance, questions remain on the mechanism of how Mpro binds its substrates. Here, we apply dynamical nonequilibrium molecular dynamics (D-NEMD) simulations to evaluate structural and dynamical responses of Mpro to the presence and absence of a substrate. The results highlight communication between the Mpro dimer subunits and identify networks, including some far from the active site, that link the active site with a known allosteric inhibition site, or which are associated with nirmatrelvir resistance. They imply that some mutations enable resistance by altering the allosteric behavior of Mpro. More generally, the results show the utility of the D-NEMD technique for identifying functionally relevant allosteric sites and networks including those relevant to resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. T.
Henry Chan
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and the Ineos Oxford
Institute for Antimicrobial Research, University
of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK
| | - A. Sofia F. Oliveira
- Centre
for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Christopher J. Schofield
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and the Ineos Oxford
Institute for Antimicrobial Research, University
of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Adrian J. Mulholland
- Centre
for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Fernanda Duarte
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and the Ineos Oxford
Institute for Antimicrobial Research, University
of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK
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5
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Kovalevsky A, Aniana A, Coates L, Bonnesen PV, Nashed NT, Louis JM. Contribution of the catalytic dyad of SARS-CoV-2 main protease to binding covalent and noncovalent inhibitors. J Biol Chem 2023:104886. [PMID: 37271339 PMCID: PMC10238122 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The effect of mutations of the catalytic dyad residues of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (MProWT) on the thermodynamics of binding of covalent inhibitors comprising nitrile [nirmatrelvir (NMV), NBH2], aldehyde (GC373) and ketone (BBH1) warheads to MPro is examined together with room temperature X-ray crystallography. When lacking the nucleophilic C145, NMV binding is ∼400-fold weaker corresponding to 3.5 kcal/mol and 13.3 °C decreases in free energy (ΔG) and thermal stability (Tm), respectively, relative to MProWT. The H41A mutation results in a 20-fold increase in the dissociation constant (Kd), and 1.7 kcal/mol and 1.4 °C decreases in ΔG and Tm, respectively. Increasing the pH from 7.2 to 8.2 enhances NMV binding to MProH41A, whereas no significant change is observed in binding to MProWT. Structures of the four inhibitor complexes with MPro1-304/C145A show that the active site geometries of the complexes are nearly identical to that of MProWT with the nucleophilic sulfur of C145 positioned to react with the nitrile or the carbonyl carbon. These results support a two-step mechanism for the formation of the covalent complex involving an initial non-covalent binding followed by a nucleophilic attack by the thiolate anion of C145 on the warhead carbon. Noncovalent inhibitor ensitrelvir (ESV) exhibits a binding affinity to MProWT that is similar to NMV but differs in its thermodynamic signature from NMV. The binding of ESV to MProC145A also results in a significant, but smaller, increase in Kd and decrease in ΔG and Tm, relative to NMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Kovalevsky
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.
| | - Annie Aniana
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA
| | - Leighton Coates
- Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Peter V Bonnesen
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Nashaat T Nashed
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA
| | - John M Louis
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA.
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6
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Narwal M, Armache JP, Edwards TJ, Murakami KS. SARS-CoV-2 polyprotein substrate regulates the stepwise M pro cleavage reaction. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104697. [PMID: 37044215 PMCID: PMC10084705 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The processing of the Coronavirus polyproteins pp1a and pp1ab by the main protease Mpro to produce mature proteins is a crucial event in virus replication and a promising target for antiviral drug development. Mpro cleaves polyproteins in a defined order, but how Mpro and/or the polyproteins determine the order of cleavage remains enigmatic due to a lack of structural information about polyprotein-bound Mpro. Here, we present the cryo-EM structures of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro in an apo form and in complex with the nsp7-10 region of the pp1a polyprotein. The complex structure shows that Mpro interacts with only the recognition site residues between nsp9 and nsp10, without any association with the rest of the polyprotein. Comparison between the apo form and polyprotein-bound structures of Mpro highlights the flexible nature of the active site region of Mpro, which allows it to accommodate 10 recognition sites found in the polyprotein. These observations suggest that the role of Mpro in selecting a preferred cleavage site is limited and underscore the roles of the structure, conformation and/or dynamics of the polyproteins in determining the sequence of polyprotein cleavage by Mpro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manju Narwal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Jean-Paul Armache
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Center for Structural Biology, Huck Institute of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Thomas J Edwards
- National Cryo-EM Facility, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Katsuhiko S Murakami
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Center for Structural Biology, Huck Institute of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Center for RNA Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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7
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Joshi RP, Schultz KJ, Wilson JW, Kruel A, Varikoti RA, Kombala CJ, Kneller DW, Galanie S, Phillips G, Zhang Q, Coates L, Parvathareddy J, Surendranathan S, Kong Y, Clyde A, Ramanathan A, Jonsson CB, Brandvold KR, Zhou M, Head MS, Kovalevsky A, Kumar N. AI-Accelerated Design of Targeted Covalent Inhibitors for SARS-CoV-2. J Chem Inf Model 2023; 63:1438-1453. [PMID: 36808989 PMCID: PMC9969887 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.2c01377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Direct-acting antivirals for the treatment of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus are needed to complement vaccination efforts. Given the ongoing emergence of new variants, automated experimentation, and active learning based fast workflows for antiviral lead discovery remain critical to our ability to address the pandemic's evolution in a timely manner. While several such pipelines have been introduced to discover candidates with noncovalent interactions with the main protease (Mpro), here we developed a closed-loop artificial intelligence pipeline to design electrophilic warhead-based covalent candidates. This work introduces a deep learning-assisted automated computational workflow to introduce linkers and an electrophilic "warhead" to design covalent candidates and incorporates cutting-edge experimental techniques for validation. Using this process, promising candidates in the library were screened, and several potential hits were identified and tested experimentally using native mass spectrometry and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based screening assays. We identified four chloroacetamide-based covalent inhibitors of Mpro with micromolar affinities (KI of 5.27 μM) using our pipeline. Experimentally resolved binding modes for each compound were determined using room-temperature X-ray crystallography, which is consistent with the predicted poses. The induced conformational changes based on molecular dynamics simulations further suggest that the dynamics may be an important factor to further improve selectivity, thereby effectively lowering KI and reducing toxicity. These results demonstrate the utility of our modular and data-driven approach for potent and selective covalent inhibitor discovery and provide a platform to apply it to other emerging targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra P. Joshi
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
| | - Katherine J. Schultz
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
| | - Jesse William Wilson
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
| | - Agustin Kruel
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
| | - Rohith Anand Varikoti
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
| | - Chathuri J. Kombala
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of
Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, Washington State University,
Spokane, Washington 99202, United States
| | - Daniel W. Kneller
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United
States
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
| | - Stephanie Galanie
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United
States
- Department of Process Research and Development,
Merck & Co., Inc., 126 E. Lincoln Avenue, Rahway, New
Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Gwyndalyn Phillips
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United
States
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
| | - Qiu Zhang
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United
States
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
| | - Leighton Coates
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
- Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United
States
| | - Jyothi Parvathareddy
- Regional Biocontainment Laboratory, The
University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38105,
United States
| | - Surekha Surendranathan
- Regional Biocontainment Laboratory, The
University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38105,
United States
| | - Ying Kong
- Regional Biocontainment Laboratory, The
University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38105,
United States
| | - Austin Clyde
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
- Data Science and Learning Division,
Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439,
United States
| | - Arvind Ramanathan
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
- Data Science and Learning Division,
Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439,
United States
| | - Colleen B. Jonsson
- Regional Biocontainment Laboratory, The
University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38105,
United States
- Institute for the Study of Host-Pathogen Systems,
University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis,
Tennessee 38103, United States
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and
Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center,
Memphis, Tennessee 38103, United States
| | - Kristoffer R. Brandvold
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of
Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, Washington State University,
Spokane, Washington 99202, United States
| | - Mowei Zhou
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
| | - Martha S. Head
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
- Joint Institute for Biological Sciences,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831,
United States
- Center for Research Acceleration by Digital
Innovation, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, California 91320,
United States
| | - Andrey Kovalevsky
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United
States
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
| | - Neeraj Kumar
- Earth and Biological Sciences Directorate,
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
99352, United States
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory,
US Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia
20585, United States
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8
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Moritsugu K, Ekimoto T, Ikeguchi M, Kidera A. Binding and Unbinding Pathways of Peptide Substrates on the SARS-CoV-2 3CL Protease. J Chem Inf Model 2023; 63:240-250. [PMID: 36539353 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.2c00946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Based on many crystal structures of ligand complexes, much study has been devoted to understanding the molecular recognition of SARS-CoV-2 3C-like protease (3CLpro), a potent drug target for COVID-19. In this research, to extend this present static view, we examined the kinetic process of binding/unbinding of an eight-residue substrate peptide to/from 3CLpro by evaluating the path ensemble with the weighted ensemble simulation. The path ensemble showed the mechanism of how a highly flexible peptide folded into the bound form. At the early stage, the dominant motion was the diffusion on the protein surface showing a broad distribution, whose center was led into the cleft of the chymotrypsin fold. We observed a definite sequential formation of the hydrogen bonds at the later stage occurring in the cleft, initiated between Glu166 (3CLpro) and P3_Val (peptide), followed by binding to the oxyanion hole and completed by the sequence-specific recognition at P1_Gln.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Moritsugu
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, 1-7-29 Suehirocho, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa230-0045, Japan.,Graduate School of Science, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-2 Gakuencho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka599-8570, Japan
| | - Toru Ekimoto
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, 1-7-29 Suehirocho, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa230-0045, Japan
| | - Mitsunori Ikeguchi
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, 1-7-29 Suehirocho, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa230-0045, Japan
| | - Akinori Kidera
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, 1-7-29 Suehirocho, Tsurumi, Yokohama, Kanagawa230-0045, Japan
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9
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Sasi VM, Ullrich S, Ton J, Fry SE, Johansen-Leete J, Payne RJ, Nitsche C, Jackson CJ. Predicting Antiviral Resistance Mutations in SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease with Computational and Experimental Screening. Biochemistry 2022; 61:2495-2505. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.2c00489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vishnu M. Sasi
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Sven Ullrich
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Jennifer Ton
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Sarah E. Fry
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Jason Johansen-Leete
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Richard J. Payne
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Christoph Nitsche
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Colin J. Jackson
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
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10
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Akbayrak IY, Caglayan SI, Kurgan L, Uversky VN, Coskuner-Weber O. Insights into the structural properties of SARS-CoV-2 main protease. Curr Res Struct Biol 2022; 4:349-355. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crstbi.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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11
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Bafna K, Cioffi CL, Krug RM, Montelione GT. Structural similarities between SARS-CoV2 3CL pro and other viral proteases suggest potential lead molecules for developing broad spectrum antivirals. Front Chem 2022; 10:948553. [PMID: 36353143 PMCID: PMC9638714 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.948553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Considering the significant impact of the recent COVID-19 outbreak, development of broad-spectrum antivirals is a high priority goal to prevent future global pandemics. Antiviral development processes generally emphasize targeting a specific protein from a particular virus. However, some antiviral agents developed for specific viral protein targets may exhibit broad spectrum antiviral activity, or at least provide useful lead molecules for broad spectrum drug development. There is significant potential for repurposing a wide range of existing viral protease inhibitors to inhibit the SARS-CoV2 3C-like protease (3CLpro). If effective even as relatively weak inhibitors of 3CLpro, these molecules can provide a diverse and novel set of scaffolds for new drug discovery campaigns. In this study, we compared the sequence- and structure-based similarity of SARS-CoV2 3CLpro with proteases from other viruses, and identified 22 proteases with similar active-site structures. This structural similarity, characterized by secondary-structure topology diagrams, is evolutionarily divergent within taxonomically related viruses, but appears to result from evolutionary convergence of protease enzymes between virus families. Inhibitors of these proteases that are structurally similar to the SARS-CoV2 3CLpro protease were identified and assessed as potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV2 3CLpro protease by virtual docking. Several of these molecules have docking scores that are significantly better than known SARS-CoV2 3CLpro inhibitors, suggesting that these molecules are also potential inhibitors of the SARS-CoV2 3CLpro protease. Some have been previously reported to inhibit SARS-CoV2 3CLpro. The results also suggest that established inhibitors of SARS-CoV2 3CLpro may be considered as potential inhibitors of other viral 3C-like proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khushboo Bafna
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Christopher L. Cioffi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Robert M. Krug
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, John Ring LaMontagne Center for Infectious Disease, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Gaetano T. Montelione
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
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12
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Nashed NT, Kneller DW, Coates L, Ghirlando R, Aniana A, Kovalevsky A, Louis JM. Autoprocessing and oxyanion loop reorganization upon GC373 and nirmatrelvir binding of monomeric SARS-CoV-2 main protease catalytic domain. Commun Biol 2022; 5:976. [PMID: 36114420 PMCID: PMC9481597 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03910-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The monomeric catalytic domain (residues 1–199) of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (MPro1-199) fused to 25 amino acids of its flanking nsp4 region mediates its autoprocessing at the nsp4-MPro1-199 junction. We report the catalytic activity and the dissociation constants of MPro1-199 and its analogs with the covalent inhibitors GC373 and nirmatrelvir (NMV), and the estimated monomer-dimer equilibrium constants of these complexes. Mass spectrometry indicates the presence of the accumulated adduct of NMV bound to MProWT and MPro1-199 and not of GC373. A room temperature crystal structure reveals a native-like fold of the catalytic domain with an unwound oxyanion loop (E state). In contrast, the structure of a covalent complex of the catalytic domain-GC373 or NMV shows an oxyanion loop conformation (E* state) resembling the full-length mature dimer. These results suggest that the E-E* equilibrium modulates autoprocessing of the main protease when converting from a monomeric polyprotein precursor to the mature dimer. Structural characterization and catalytic activity of SARS-CoV-2 main protease reveal minimal interface regions enabling dimer formation driven by inhibitor-induced conformational changes of the oxyanion loop.
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13
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Hameedi MA, T Prates E, Garvin MR, Mathews II, Amos BK, Demerdash O, Bechthold M, Iyer M, Rahighi S, Kneller DW, Kovalevsky A, Irle S, Vuong VQ, Mitchell JC, Labbe A, Galanie S, Wakatsuki S, Jacobson D. Structural and functional characterization of NEMO cleavage by SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5285. [PMID: 36075915 PMCID: PMC9453703 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32922-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to its essential role in viral polyprotein processing, the SARS-CoV-2 3C-like protease (3CLpro) can cleave human immune signaling proteins, like NF-κB Essential Modulator (NEMO) and deregulate the host immune response. Here, in vitro assays show that SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro cleaves NEMO with fine-tuned efficiency. Analysis of the 2.50 Å resolution crystal structure of 3CLpro C145S bound to NEMO226-234 reveals subsites that tolerate a range of viral and host substrates through main chain hydrogen bonds while also enforcing specificity using side chain hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic contacts. Machine learning- and physics-based computational methods predict that variation in key binding residues of 3CLpro-NEMO helps explain the high fitness of SARS-CoV-2 in humans. We posit that cleavage of NEMO is an important piece of information to be accounted for, in the pathology of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail A Hameedi
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, Structural Molecular Biology, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, Biosciences, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Erica T Prates
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Michael R Garvin
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Irimpan I Mathews
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, Structural Molecular Biology, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - B Kirtley Amos
- Department of Horticulture, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Omar Demerdash
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Mark Bechthold
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Mamta Iyer
- Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA
| | - Simin Rahighi
- Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA
| | - Daniel W Kneller
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Andrey Kovalevsky
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Stephan Irle
- Computational Sciences and Engineering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Van-Quan Vuong
- The Bredesen Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Education, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Julie C Mitchell
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Audrey Labbe
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Stephanie Galanie
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, 07065, USA
| | - Soichi Wakatsuki
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, Structural Molecular Biology, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA.
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, Biosciences, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA.
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Daniel Jacobson
- National Virtual Biotechnology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA.
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
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14
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X-ray crystallographic characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease polyprotein cleavage sites essential for viral processing and maturation. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5196. [PMID: 36057636 PMCID: PMC9440467 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32854-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the pathogen that causes COVID-19, produces polyproteins 1a and 1ab that contain, respectively, 11 or 16 non-structural proteins (nsp). Nsp5 is the main protease (Mpro) responsible for cleavage at eleven positions along these polyproteins, including at its own N- and C-terminal boundaries, representing essential processing events for viral assembly and maturation. Using C-terminally substituted Mpro chimeras, we have determined X-ray crystallographic structures of Mpro in complex with 10 of its 11 viral cleavage sites, bound at full occupancy intermolecularly in trans, within the active site of either the native enzyme and/or a catalytic mutant (C145A). Capture of both acyl-enzyme intermediate and product-like complex forms of a P2(Leu) substrate in the native active site provides direct comparative characterization of these mechanistic steps as well as further informs the basis for enhanced product release of Mpro’s own unique C-terminal P2(Phe) cleavage site to prevent autoinhibition. We characterize the underlying noncovalent interactions governing binding and specificity for this diverse set of substrates, showing remarkable plasticity for subsites beyond the anchoring P1(Gln)-P2(Leu/Val/Phe), representing together a near complete analysis of a multiprocessing viral protease. Collectively, these crystallographic snapshots provide valuable mechanistic and structural insights for antiviral therapeutic development. The SARS-CoV-2 protease Mpro is essential for viral replication. Here, the authors have determined the structures of Mpro in complex with 10 of the 11 viral cleavage sequences including a covalent acyl-enzyme intermediate, providing mechanistic and structural insights for antiviral development.
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15
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Hu Q, Xiong Y, Zhu GH, Zhang YN, Zhang YW, Huang P, Ge GB. The SARS-CoV-2 main protease (M pro): Structure, function, and emerging therapies for COVID-19. MedComm (Beijing) 2022; 3:e151. [PMID: 35845352 PMCID: PMC9283855 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The main proteases (Mpro), also termed 3‐chymotrypsin‐like proteases (3CLpro), are a class of highly conserved cysteine hydrolases in β‐coronaviruses. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that 3CLpros play an indispensable role in viral replication and have been recognized as key targets for preventing and treating coronavirus‐caused infectious diseases, including COVID‐19. This review is focused on the structural features and biological function of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) main protease Mpro (also known as 3CLpro), as well as recent advances in discovering and developing SARS‐CoV‐2 3CLpro inhibitors. To better understand the characteristics of SARS‐CoV‐2 3CLpro inhibitors, the inhibition activities, inhibitory mechanisms, and key structural features of various 3CLpro inhibitors (including marketed drugs, peptidomimetic, and non‐peptidomimetic synthetic compounds, as well as natural compounds and their derivatives) are summarized comprehensively. Meanwhile, the challenges in this field are highlighted, while future directions for designing and developing efficacious 3CLpro inhibitors as novel anti‐coronavirus therapies are also proposed. Collectively, all information and knowledge presented here are very helpful for understanding the structural features and inhibitory mechanisms of SARS‐CoV‐2 3CLpro inhibitors, which offers new insights or inspiration to medicinal chemists for designing and developing more efficacious 3CLpro inhibitors as novel anti‐coronavirus agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Hu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Shanghai China.,Clinical Pharmacy Center Cancer Center Department of Pharmacy Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated People's Hospital Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Yuan Xiong
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Shanghai China
| | - Guang-Hao Zhu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Shanghai China
| | - Ya-Ni Zhang
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Shanghai China
| | - Yi-Wen Zhang
- Clinical Pharmacy Center Cancer Center Department of Pharmacy Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated People's Hospital Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Ping Huang
- Clinical Pharmacy Center Cancer Center Department of Pharmacy Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated People's Hospital Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Guang-Bo Ge
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Shanghai China
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16
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Borgstahl GEO, O'Dell WB, Egli M, Kern JF, Kovalevsky A, Lin JYY, Myles D, Wilson MA, Zhang W, Zwart P, Coates L. EWALD: A macromolecular diffractometer for the second target station. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2022; 93:064103. [PMID: 35778015 DOI: 10.1063/5.0090810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Revealing the positions of all the atoms in large macromolecules is powerful but only possible with neutron macromolecular crystallography (NMC). Neutrons provide a sensitive and gentle probe for the direct detection of protonation states at near-physiological temperatures and clean of artifacts caused by x rays or electrons. Currently, NMC use is restricted by the requirement for large crystal volumes even at state-of-the-art instruments such as the macromolecular neutron diffractometer at the Spallation Neutron Source. EWALD's design will break the crystal volume barrier and, thus, open the door for new types of experiments, the study of grand challenge systems, and the more routine use of NMC in biology. EWALD is a single crystal diffractometer capable of collecting data from macromolecular crystals on orders of magnitude smaller than what is currently feasible. The construction of EWALD at the Second Target Station will cause a revolution in NMC by enabling key discoveries in the biological, biomedical, and bioenergy sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria E O Borgstahl
- Eppley Institute for Cancer and Allied Diseases, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-6805, USA
| | - William B O'Dell
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA and Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Martin Egli
- Department of Biochemistry, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, USA
| | - Jan F Kern
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Andrey Kovalevsky
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Jiao Y Y Lin
- Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Dean Myles
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Mark A Wilson
- Department of Biochemistry and the Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | - Wen Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, USA
| | - Petrus Zwart
- Center for Advanced Mathematics in Energy Research Applications, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Leighton Coates
- Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
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17
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Antiviral Drug Discovery for the Treatment of COVID-19 Infections. Viruses 2022; 14:v14050961. [PMID: 35632703 PMCID: PMC9143071 DOI: 10.3390/v14050961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a recently emerged human coronavirus. COVID-19 vaccines have proven to be successful in protecting the vaccinated from infection, reducing the severity of disease, and deterring the transmission of infection. However, COVID-19 vaccination faces many challenges, such as the decline in vaccine-induced immunity over time, and the decrease in potency against some SARS-CoV-2 variants including the recently emerged Omicron variant, resulting in breakthrough infections. The challenges that COVID-19 vaccination is facing highlight the importance of the discovery of antivirals to serve as another means to tackle the pandemic. To date, neutralizing antibodies that block viral entry by targeting the viral spike protein make up the largest class of antivirals that has received US FDA emergency use authorization (EUA) for COVID-19 treatment. In addition to the spike protein, other key targets for the discovery of direct-acting antivirals include viral enzymes that are essential for SARS-CoV-2 replication, such as RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and proteases, as judged by US FDA approval for remdesivir, and EUA for Paxlovid (nirmatrelvir + ritonavir) for treating COVID-19 infections. This review presents an overview of the current status and future direction of antiviral drug discovery for treating SARS-CoV-2 infections, covering important antiviral targets such as the viral spike protein, non-structural protein (nsp) 3 papain-like protease, nsp5 main protease, and the nsp12/nsp7/nsp8 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex.
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18
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Covalent narlaprevir- and boceprevir-derived hybrid inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2268. [PMID: 35477935 PMCID: PMC9046211 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-29915-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants continue to threaten the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines, and small-molecule antivirals can provide an important therapeutic treatment option. The viral main protease (Mpro) is critical for virus replication and thus is considered an attractive drug target. We performed the design and characterization of three covalent hybrid inhibitors BBH-1, BBH-2 and NBH-2 created by splicing components of hepatitis C protease inhibitors boceprevir and narlaprevir, and known SARS-CoV-1 protease inhibitors. A joint X-ray/neutron structure of the Mpro/BBH-1 complex demonstrates that a Cys145 thiolate reaction with the inhibitor’s keto-warhead creates a negatively charged oxyanion. Protonation states of the ionizable residues in the Mpro active site adapt to the inhibitor, which appears to be an intrinsic property of Mpro. Structural comparisons of the hybrid inhibitors with PF-07321332 reveal unconventional F···O interactions of PF-07321332 with Mpro which may explain its more favorable enthalpy of binding. BBH-1, BBH-2 and NBH-2 exhibit comparable antiviral properties in vitro relative to PF-07321332, making them good candidates for further design of improved antivirals. Three covalent hybrid inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) have been designed and compared to Pfizer’s nirmatrelvir (PF-07321332), providing atomic and thermodynamic details of their binding to the enzyme, and antiviral potency.
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19
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Mótyán JA, Mahdi M, Hoffka G, Tőzsér J. Potential Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease (Mpro) against Protease Inhibitors: Lessons Learned from HIV-1 Protease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:3507. [PMID: 35408866 PMCID: PMC8998604 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been one of the most devastating pandemics of recent times. The lack of potent novel antivirals had led to global health crises; however, emergence and approval of potent inhibitors of the viral main protease (Mpro), such as Pfizer's newly approved nirmatrelvir, offers hope not only in the therapeutic front but also in the context of prophylaxis against the infection. By their nature, RNA viruses including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have inherently high mutation rates, and lessons learnt from previous and currently ongoing pandemics have taught us that these viruses can easily escape selection pressure through mutation of vital target amino acid residues in monotherapeutic settings. In this paper, we review nirmatrelvir and its binding to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro and draw a comparison to inhibitors of HIV protease that were rendered obsolete by emergence of resistance mutations, emphasizing potential pitfalls in the design of inhibitors that may be of important relevance to the long-term use of novel inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- János András Mótyán
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (J.A.M.); (M.M.); (G.H.)
| | - Mohamed Mahdi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (J.A.M.); (M.M.); (G.H.)
| | - Gyula Hoffka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (J.A.M.); (M.M.); (G.H.)
- Doctoral School of Molecular Cell and Immune Biology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - József Tőzsér
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (J.A.M.); (M.M.); (G.H.)
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20
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Nashed NT, Aniana A, Ghirlando R, Chiliveri SC, Louis JM. Modulation of the monomer-dimer equilibrium and catalytic activity of SARS-CoV-2 main protease by a transition-state analog inhibitor. Commun Biol 2022; 5:160. [PMID: 35233052 PMCID: PMC8888643 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03084-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of dimer formation for the onset of catalytic activity of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (MProWT) was assessed using a predominantly monomeric mutant (MProM). Rates of MProWT and MProM catalyzed hydrolyses display substrate saturation kinetics and second-order dependency on the protein concentration. The addition of the prodrug GC376, an inhibitor of MProWT, to MProM leads to an increase in the dimer population and catalytic activity with increasing inhibitor concentration. The activity reaches a maximum corresponding to a dimer population in which one active site is occupied by the inhibitor and the other is available for catalytic activity. This phase is followed by a decrease in catalytic activity due to the inhibitor competing with the substrate. Detailed kinetics and equilibrium analyses are presented and a modified Michaelis-Menten equation accounts for the results. These observations provide conclusive evidence that dimer formation is coupled to catalytic activity represented by two equivalent active sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nashaat T Nashed
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Annie Aniana
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Rodolfo Ghirlando
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sai Chaitanya Chiliveri
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - John M Louis
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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21
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Fornasier E, Macchia ML, Giachin G, Sosic A, Pavan M, Sturlese M, Salata C, Moro S, Gatto B, Bellanda M, Battistutta R. A new inactive conformation of SARS-CoV-2 main protease. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2022; 78:363-378. [PMID: 35234150 PMCID: PMC8900819 DOI: 10.1107/s2059798322000948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The SARS‐CoV‐2 main protease (Mpro) has a pivotal role in mediating viral genome replication and transcription of the coronavirus, making it a promising target for drugs against the COVID‐19 pandemic. Here, a crystal structure is presented in which Mpro adopts an inactive state that has never been observed before, called new‐inactive. It is shown that the oxyanion loop, which is involved in substrate recognition and enzymatic activity, adopts a new catalytically incompetent conformation and that many of the key interactions of the active conformation of the enzyme around the active site are lost. Solvation/desolvation energetic contributions play an important role in the transition from the inactive to the active state, with Phe140 moving from an exposed to a buried environment and Asn142 moving from a buried environment to an exposed environment. In new‐inactive Mpro a new cavity is present near the S2′ subsite, and the N‐terminal and C‐terminal tails, as well as the dimeric interface, are perturbed, with partial destabilization of the dimeric assembly. This novel conformation is relevant both for comprehension of the mechanism of action of Mpro within the catalytic cycle and for the successful structure‐based drug design of antiviral drugs.
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22
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Hameedi MA, Prates ET, Garvin MR, Mathews I, Kirtley Amos B, Demerdash O, Bechthold M, Iyer M, Rahighi S, Kneller DW, Kovalevsky A, Irle S, Vuong V, Mitchell JC, Labbe A, Galanie S, Wakatsuki S, Jacobson D. Structural and functional characterization of NEMO cleavage by SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro.. [PMID: 34816264 PMCID: PMC8609902 DOI: 10.1101/2021.11.11.468228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In addition to its essential role in viral polyprotein processing, the SARS-CoV-2 3C-like (3CLpro) protease can cleave human immune signaling proteins, like NF-κB Essential Modulator (NEMO) and deregulate the host immune response. Here, in vitro assays show that SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro cleaves NEMO with fine-tuned efficiency. Analysis of the 2.14 Å resolution crystal structure of 3CLpro C145S bound to NEMO226–235 reveals subsites that tolerate a range of viral and host substrates through main chain hydrogen bonds while also enforcing specificity using side chain hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic contacts. Machine learning- and physics-based computational methods predict that variation in key binding residues of 3CLpro-NEMO helps explain the high fitness of SARS-CoV-2 in humans. We posit that cleavage of NEMO is an important piece of information to be accounted for in the pathology of COVID-19.
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