Interviewers' perceptions of impression management in employment interviews

I do not want to be perfect: investigating generation Z students' personal brands on social media for job seeking

Purpose

This research aims to explore generation (Gen) Z's personal branding on social media when job seeking.

Design/methodology/approach

Gen Z students, in their final year of university, were interviewed about personal branding, as well as recruiters and career advisors to gain insights into the recruitment process and expectations of online personal brands. Before interviewing, Gen Z students' LinkedIn profiles were examined, and then fed into the interview process.

Findings

Using impression management theory, the findings show that Gen Z perceive online personal brands as a crucial tool to gain more advantage in job markets. A gap was found between desired and perceived selves in Gen Z's online personal brands. Strategies such as effective self-reflection, authentic communication, self-promotion processes, awareness of risks and constantly controlling digital footprints were suggested to build stronger and more coherent personal brands. Gen Z are in favour of a more dynamic, interactive, work-in-process of authentic personal brands.

Originality/value

This research demonstrates the importance of authentically building online personal branding strategies and tactics to bridge the divide between Gen Z's desired and perceived images in personal branding on social media when job seeking.

Wie gehen Recruiter_innen mit der Herausforderung kulturübergreifender Bewerber_innenpools um?

Zusammenfassung. Bisherige Forschungen zu interkulturellen Job-Interviews fokussieren vorwiegend die Sicht der Bewerbenden und implizieren eine Benachteiligung kulturferner Bewerber_innen, möglich wäre jedoch auch, dass diese Bewerber_innen Kriterien nicht erfüllen. In der vorliegenden Studie wurden Kurzgutachten und numerischen Beurteilungen von N = 287 Bewerbungsinterviews regionaler Flugbegleiter_innen qualitativ und quantitativ untersucht. Eine Besonderheit lag darin, dass sich die Bewerber_innen in ihrem jeweiligen Heimatland (China, Indien, Deutschland) bei einer deutschen Fluggesellschaft auf die gleiche Stelle beworben haben. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Recruiter_innen zwar meistens in der Lage sind, ihre spontanen Reaktionen zu reflektieren, dass bei ihnen aber in einigen Fällen Stereotype wirksam werden. Dies und fehlende kulturspezifische Verhaltensanker können für die deutlich höhere Ablehnungquote chinesischer Bewerber_innen mit verantwortlich sein.

Conjoint analysis: the assumptions, applications, concerns, remedies and future research direction

Purpose

Since the inception of the conjoint analysis technique in the year 1971, papers addressing the epistemological aspects of conjoint analysis are scant. Hence, this paper attempts to address the vacuum of qualitative discourse addressing the epistemological and methodological aspects of conjoint analysis including different issues, challenges, probable solutions, limitations and future direction of conjoint analysis in the recent decade.

Design/methodology/approach

For exploring the methodological and epistemological aspects of conjoint analysis, the seminal papers on conjoint analysis were reviewed. Moreover, the authors' experience for the state-of-art review was also taken into consideration.

Findings

The findings suggest that conjoint analysis that roots back since 1971 has not seen much exploration in Asian regions and is mainly used for new product development in the field of marketing or allied areas. Moreover, the reliability and validity of conjoint analysis is always a matter of concern for the researchers that hinders this technique's wider adaptability. Thus, the paper presents some probable solutions to address the focal issues useful for improved reliability and validity of the conjoint analysis technique.

Research limitations/implications

This paper attempts to familiarize the researchers with epistemological and methodological aspects of conjoint analysis with certain solutions to evolve beyond existing conjoint analysis dimensions in terms of improved validity, reliability, epistemological and methodological aspects of conjoint analysis (CA). Moreover, it acts as a call for research in different research domains, especially in the Asian continent.

Originality/value

There exist certain seminal research papers on epistemological aspects of conjoint analysis. However, there is a dearth of such attempt in the recent decade addressing the application issues of conjoint analysis incorporating the recent issues as well. Therefore, this paper is an attempt to usher the future researcher to understand the methodological aspects of conjoint analysis. It may prevent them from violating the basic assumptions and methodological threshold. This research technique is preferred equally by academicians and practitioners, thus making it imperative to have clarity beforehand for improved research rigor.

Why some leaders qualify for hate: an empirical examination through the lens of followers’ perspective

Purpose

The leaders’ perception about self and the opinion of the subordinates about them is crucial to understand why some leaders qualify for hate. Much has been discussed on the positive and ethical side of leadership. However, the research on the darker side of leadership needs more attention. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore the factors along with their impact responsible for hate-for-leaders, a relatively scant area of leadership. This study may facilitate understanding why some leaders become subject to hate despite many efforts by the organization.

Design/methodology/approach

For exploring the different factors responsible for hate-for-leaders, a survey was conducted by developing a scale using the focus group, Delphi technique, exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. The results were analysed using structural equation modelling.

Findings

The factors responsible for qualifying the leaders for hate were identified. Moreover, the results indicated that the subordinate hate the leaders for his/her unacceptable behaviour/actions which they assume the leader has control over it and exhibited otherwise intentionally on targeted employees. Moreover, some undesirable behaviour of leaders is attributed to fundamental attribution errors i.e. situational factors.

Practical implications

A fully developed scale for assessing the hate-quotient for leaders is proposed. This research will facilitate the managers/leaders as to why some of the followers/employees hate them. This scale provides an opportunity for managers and leaders to introspect themselves for improved workplace relationships and not to encourage sunflower management that seeks to get submissive and aligned-thought employees around the leader.

Originality/value

The fact that the decisions taken by managers/leaders adversely affecting the employees are not always because of malice or wrong intentions but sometimes due to situational factors i.e. fundamental attribution error. Moreover, the scale act as a reference to evaluate the hate-for-leaders in the organizational context.

An Investigation of Situational and Dispositional Antecedents of Faking Intentions in Selection Interviews

Applicants use faking in selection interviews to create a favorable impression and to increase their chances for a job offer. Theoretical models assume that such a behavior is influenced by situational and dispositional variables. However, previous research has mainly focused on dispositional variables whereas research about situational variables is sparse. To address this gap, we conducted three studies in which we examined how competition for a job and warning interviewees that information from their answers will be verified can influence faking intentions. Furthermore, we wanted to know whether these situational variables are able to explain additional variance in faking intentions beyond dispositional variables and whether there are interactions between situational and dispositional variables. In Study 1, we only found that high competition led to slightly higher faking intentions than low competition in a student sample. In Study 2, only a warning about the verification of applicants’ answers led to slightly lower faking intentions compared to no warning concerning verification in a working sample. Furthermore, faking intentions were lower in Study 2 than in the student sample in Study 1. In Study 3, we found no impact of our situational variables in a combined sample of students and non-students. We only found slightly higher honest impression management intentions in the high competition and the verification warning condition. We also found hardly any support for interaction effects between the situational and dispositional variables. Furthermore, the situational variables did not explain additional variance beyond the dispositional variables in any of the three studies. Possible reasons for the non-significant or small effect sizes for the situational variables can be found in a qualitative analysis of answers to an open-ended question in Study 3. However, we found that Honesty-humility und all facets of the Dark Triad were related to faking intentions. These results indicate that dispositional variables in particular have an impact on faking intentions.

Shake and Fake: the Role of Interview Anxiety in Deceptive Impression Management

We investigated whether anxiety about self-presentation concerns during interviews (i.e., interview anxiety) is associated with applicants' use of deceptive impression management (IM) tactics. We examined the relationship between interview anxiety and deceptive IM, and we examined whether the personality traits of honesty-humility and extraversion would be indirectly related to deceptive IM through interview anxiety. Participants (N = 202) were recruited after an interview for a research assistant position. Interview anxiety scores were positively related to deceptive IM. Furthermore, there was evidence of a negative indirect effect of honesty-humility on deceptive IM, via overall interview anxiety. Also, extraversion was indirectly associated with deceptive IM through interview anxiety. Results suggest that deceptive IM can be used as a protective mechanism to maintain self-esteem or to avoid the loss of rewards. This paper is the first to examine the role of interview anxiety in interview faking.

The preference for potential in competence, not in morality: Asymmetric biases regarding a group's potential for moral improvement and decline

The current study examined the effect of a group’s potential for improvement and decline in morality and competence on applicants’ willingness to join the group. We conducted four experiments with 399 Chinese participants who rated their willingness to join groups with potential for improvement, potential for decline, or stability in terms of morality or competence. The results showed that, compared with groups with stable competence, participants preferred groups with potential for competence improvement and were more averse to groups with potential for competence decline. However, the biases regarding the potential for moral improvement and decline were asymmetric. Specifically, compared with groups with stable morality, participants had no preference for groups with potential for moral improvement, but were more averse to groups with potential for moral decline. Possible explanations for the asymmetric biases regarding the potential for moral improvement and decline and future research directions are discussed.

The grapes are sour: An envier's attributional perspective of coworker impression management

Arguing that it would serve scholars and practitioners better to view impression management (IM) from a coworker's perspective than from that of an actor's outcomes, this study demonstrates that IM by a coworker triggers a self-serving attributional process. The authors reason that denial of another's relative advantage leads the observing coworker to attribute this behavior to the actor's incompetence, consequently leading to counterproductive behavior toward them in efforts to reduce their own relative disadvantage. Data were collected at T1 and T2 from 142 service sector employees. Our results were consistent with our hypotheses. However, the moderated-mediation models for conditional effects of hostile attributional style were not supported. This study offers an integrated view of previously isolated domains of IM and attribution, suggesting future literature considers a similar perspective for more meaningful investigations.

Is anybody listening? The impact of automatically evaluated job interviews on impression management and applicant reactions

Purpose

Automatic evaluation of job interviews has become an alternative for assessing interviewees. Therefore, questions arise regarding applicant reactions and behavior when algorithms automatically evaluate applicants' interview responses. This study tests arguments from previous research suggesting that applicants whose interviews will be automatically evaluated may use less impression management (IM), but could react more negatively to the interview.

Design/methodology/approach

Participants (N = 124; primarily German students) took part in an online mock interview where they responded to interview questions via voice recordings (i.e. an asynchronous interview). Prior to the interview, half of them were informed that their answers would be evaluated automatically (vs by a human rater). After the interviews, participants reported their honest and deceptive IM behavior as well as their reactions to the interview.

Findings

Participants in the automatic evaluation condition engaged in less deceptive IM, felt they had fewer opportunities to perform during the interview, and provided shorter interview answers.

Research limitations/implications

The findings of this study suggest a trade-off between IM behavior and applicant reactions in technologically advanced interviews. Furthermore, the results indicate that automatically evaluated interviews might affect interview validity (e.g. because of less deceptive IM) and influence interviewees' response behavior.

Practical implications

Hiring managers might hope that automatically evaluated interviews decrease applicants' use of deceptive IM. However, the results also challenge organizations to pay attention to negative effects of automatic evaluation on applicant reactions.

Originality/value

This study is the first empirical study investigating the impact of automatically evaluated interviews on applicant behavior and reactions.

Liar at First Sight?

Abstract. Research suggests that early impressions influence employment interview outcomes. A highly controlled experiment examined the effects of pre-interview qualifications information and early applicant impression management behavior on interviewers’ early impressions and, in turn, applicant outcomes. Mock interviewers ( N = 247) judged the same applicant with a poorer pre-interview qualification ranking to be a poorer performer, but also perceived the applicant to have faked (deceived) more, and considered the applicant less likeable, less competent, less dedicated, and more conceited. Early applicant impression management behavior did not consistently contribute to interviewers’ early impressions, or to perceptions and judgments. Overall, these findings suggest that early applicant information can affect interviewer cognitions and judgments through the formation of early impressions.

The moderating role of interviewer's regulatory focus in the effectiveness of impression management tactics: Regulatory fit as a source of subjective value

Based on the recently explored regulatory fit effect in social contexts, the present research is the first to investigate the interaction between interviewer's regulatory focus and interviewee's impression management (IM) tactics. We hypothesized that assertive and defensive IM tactics would fit with interviewer's promotion and prevention focus, respectively, and that interviewer's experience of this regulatory fit would lead to enhanced interview evaluation. We conducted four studies in which the participants were asked to rate an interviewee after reading a list of the interviewee's IM-related behaviours or watching a videotaped interview. Additionally, the participant's regulatory focus was operationalized as both an induced situational state and a measured chronic trait. The results supported our hypotheses by showing a significant interaction of the interviewer's regulatory focus and the IM tactics on interview evaluation: the promotion-assertive and the prevention-defensive ratings were more positive than the prevention-assertive and the promotion-defensive ratings. Moreover, mediation analysis revealed that the interaction exerts its effects on interview evaluation by providing interviewers with an intrapersonal regulatory fit experience.

Love the Way You Lie

Abstract. In case of an applicant shortage, signaling theory and research on interviewer impression management (IM) imply that hiring managers use more IM. To test which kind of IM behavior they apply and whether it indeed influences applicants, participants fulfilled the role of hiring managers and recorded company presentation videos, either assuming an applicant shortage or a sufficient number of applicants. In the applicant shortage condition, participants used more defensive IM, indicated by self-reported, observed, and artifactual (withholding negative visual information about an organization) IM measures. Additionally, more defensive IM led to better perceived organizational attractiveness. This study contributes to IM research shedding light on hiring managers’ IM behavior and stimulating ideas on how to study IM behavior in the laboratory.

Using the Theory of Planned Behavior to Predict Faking in Selection Exercises Varying in Fidelity

Abstract. Faking has been a concern in selection research for many years. Many studies have examined faking in questionnaires while far less is known about faking in selection exercises with higher fidelity. This study applies the theory of planned behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991 ) to low- (interviews) and high-fidelity (role play, group discussion) exercises, testing whether the TPB predicts reported faking behavior. Data from a mock selection procedure suggests that candidates do report to fake in low- and high-fidelity exercises. Additionally, the TPB showed good predictive validity for faking in a low-fidelity exercise, yet not for faking in high-fidelity exercises.

Identifying Applicant Faking in Job Interviews

Abstract. Applicants’ use of faking tactics could threaten the validity of employment interviews. We examined criterion-based content analysis (CBCA), an approach used in legal contexts, as a potential indicator of interviewee faking. We also examined the moderating role of storytelling in the faking-CBCA relationship. We conducted one experimental study, with 100 interviewees receiving instructions to respond honestly versus to exaggerate/invent responses, and one mock interview study, with self-reported faking from 111 interviewees. Responses were recorded, transcribed, and coded for CBCA and storytelling. Faking was associated with CBCA when interviewees freely engaged in faking tactics, an overall CBCA indicator was used, and interviewees’ responses contained story features. Additional analyses highlight that CBCA-based assessments of faking/honesty could reach up to 63.4% accuracy.

Self-descriptions on LinkedIn: Recruitment or friendship identity?

We used quantitative semantics to find clusters of words in LinkedIn users' self-descriptions to an employer or a friend. Some of these clusters discriminated between worker and friend conditions (e.g., flexible vs. caring) and between LinkedIn users with high and low education (e.g., analytical vs. messy).

Behavioral genetics of deception detection performance

Purpose

Deception detection is instrumental in business management but professionals differ widely in terms of deception detection performance. The purpose of this paper is to examine the genetic basis of deception detection performance using the classic twin study design and address the research question: how much variance in individual differences in deception detection performance can be accounted for by the variance in genetics vs environmental influences?

Design/methodology/approach

In total, 192 twins, with 65 pairs of monozygotic (identical) twins and 31 pairs of dizygotic (fraternal) twins participated in an experiment. A series of behavioral genetic analyses were performed.

Findings

The variability in deception detection performance was largely determined by differences in shared and non-shared environments.

Research limitations/implications

The subjects were solicited during the Twins Days Festival so the sample selection and data collection were limited to the natural settings in the field. In addition, the risks and rewards associated with deception detection performance in the study are pale in comparison with those in practice.

Practical implications

Deception detection performance may be improved through training programs. Corporations should continue funding training programs for deception detection.

Originality/value

This is the first empirical study that examines the complementary influences of genetics and environment on people’s ability to detect deception.

The Goldwater Rule: Perspectives From, and Implications for, Psychological Science

When, if ever, should psychological scientists be permitted to offer professional opinions concerning the mental health of public figures they have never directly examined? This contentious question, which attracted widespread public attention during the 1964 U.S. presidential election involving Barry Goldwater, received renewed scrutiny during and after the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, when many mental health professionals raised pointed questions concerning the psychiatric status of Donald Trump. Although the Goldwater Rule prohibits psychiatrists from offering diagnostic opinions on individuals they have never examined, no comparable rule exists for psychologists. We contend that, owing largely to the Goldwater Rule's origins in psychiatry, a substantial body of psychological research on assessment and clinical judgment, including work on the questionable validity of unstructured interviews, the psychology of cognitive biases, and the validity of informant reports and of L (lifetime) data, has been overlooked in discussions of its merits. We conclude that although the Goldwater Rule may have been defensible several decades ago, it is outdated and premised on dubious scientific assumptions. We further contend that there are select cases in which psychological scientists with suitable expertise may harbor a "duty to inform," allowing them to offer informed opinions concerning public figures' mental health with appropriate caveats.

Individual Difference Variables and the Occurrence and Effectiveness of Faking Behavior in Interviews

There is widespread fear that applicants can fake during selection interviews and that this impairs the quality of selection decisions. Several theories assume that faking occurrence is influenced by personality and attitudes, which together influence applicants’ motivation to show faking behavior. However, for faking behavior to be effective, interviewees also need certain skills and abilities. To investigate the impact of several relevant individual difference variables on faking behavior and interview success, we conducted two studies. In Study 1, we surveyed 222 individuals to assess different personality variables, attitude toward faking, cognitive ability, self-reported faking behavior, and success in previous interviews, and in Study 2, we assessed cognitive ability, social skills, faking behavior, and interview performance in an interview simulation with 108 participants. Taken together, personality, as well as attitude toward faking, influenced who showed faking behavior in an interview, but there was no evidence for the assumed moderating effect of cognitive ability or social skills on interview success.

Impression Management in the Job Interview: An Effective Way of Mitigating Discrimination against Older Applicants?

The increasingly aging population in most industrialized societies, coupled with the rather age-diverse current workforce makes discrimination against older employees a prevalent issue, especially in employment contexts. This renders research on ways for reducing this type of discrimination a particularly pressing concern. Drawing on theories of social identity and impression management, our research examines the role of impression management, aimed at refuting common older worker stereotypes, in diminishing bias against older job applicants during the job interview. The study consisted in an experimental hiring simulation conducted on a sample of 515 undergraduate students. Results show that older applicants who used impression management to contradict common older worker stereotypes were perceived as more hirable than those who did not. However, despite this positive effect, discrimination persisted: older applicants were consistently rated as less hirable than their younger counterparts when displaying the same IM behavior. Taken together, this research demonstrates that older job seekers can indeed ameliorate biased interview outcomes by engaging in impression management targeting common age stereotypes; however, it also shows that this strategy is insufficient for overcoming age discrimination entirely. The current study has important implications for theory, by expanding research on the use of impression management in mitigating age discrimination, as well as for practice, by offering older employees a hands-on strategy to reduce bias and stereotyping against them.

Ethnic Minorities' Impression Management in the Interview: Helping or Hindering?

Cross-cultural impression management (IM) has not been considered much, which is remarkable given the fast rate at which the labor market is becoming multicultural. This study investigated whether ethnic minorities and majorities differed in their preference for IM-tactics and how this affected ethnic minorities' interview outcomes. A preliminary study (focus groups/survey) showed that ethnic minorities (i.e., Arab/Moroccans) preferred 'entitlements' whereas majorities (i.e., Flemish/Belgians) preferred 'opinion conformity' as IM-tactics. An experimental follow-up study among 163 ethnic majority raters showed no main effect of IM-tactics on interview ratings. Ethnic minorities' use of IM-tactics only affected interview ratings if rater characteristics were considered. Specifically, interview ratings were higher when ethnic minorities used opinion conformity (i.e., majority-preferred IM-tactic) and lower when minorities used entitlements (i.e., minority-preferred IM-tactic) if recruiters were high in social dominance orientation, and when they felt more experienced/proficient with interviewing. IM-tactics are a human capital factor that might help applicants to increase their job chances on the labor market. It is concluded that ethnic minority applicants' preferences for certain IM-tactics might lead to bias even in structured interview settings, but that this depends on ethnic majority recruiters' interview experience and ingroup/outgroup attitudes. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The contingencies of person-organization fit perceptions

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to build on previous studies on the link between objective and subjective person-organization fit (P-O fit) and argue that the strength between objective and subjective fit is contingent on advertisement attractiveness and organizational image. Accordingly, the authors observe if advertisement attractiveness and organizational image help to strengthen the objective-subjective P-O fit relation.

Design/methodology/approach

– The authors conduct a survey among 942 individuals and compare between prospective jobseeker (n=629) and actual jobseeker (n=313) subsamples.

Findings

– Generally, the authors show that ad advertisements positively moderates the relation between objective and subjective fit. Moreover, the authors show that advertisement attractiveness moderates the relationship between objective and subjective fit for prospective jobseekers while the moderating influence of advertisement attractiveness is not significant for actual jobseekers. Organizational image, however, is shown to act as a negative moderator, particularly for the actual jobseeker sample.

Research limitations/implications

– The authors aim to contribute to prior research by emphasizing how the link between objective and subjective P-O fit can be elevated by cues such as advertisement attractiveness and might be disturbed by a very good organizational image.

Practical implications

– This study informs practitioners how two important recruitment signals, job advertisement and organizational image, influence the transmission of objective into subjective fit and thus help firms to improve their recruitment efforts.

Originality/value

– Even though many studies support the effects of P-O fit on organizational attractiveness or application intentions, only little is known in terms of how the relationship between the two dimensions of P-O fit – objective and subjective fit – can be positively influenced. Hence, there is a lack of understanding of how firms can focus their recruitment efforts effectively on highly fitting individuals.

Correction for faking in self-report personality tests

Faking is a common problem in testing with self-report personality tests, especially in high-stakes situations. A possible way to correct for it is statistical control on the basis of social desirability scales. Two such scales were developed and applied in the present paper. It was stressed that the statistical models of faking need to be adapted to different properties of the personality scales, since such scales correlate with faking to different extents. In four empirical studies of self-report personality tests, correction for faking was investigated. One of the studies was experimental, and asked participants to fake or to be honest. In the other studies, job or school applicants were investigated. It was found that the approach to correct for effects of faking in self-report personality tests advocated in the paper removed a large share of the effects, about 90%. It was found in one study that faking varied as a function of degree of how important the consequences of test results could be expected to be, more high-stakes situations being associated with more faking. The latter finding is incompatible with the claim that social desirability scales measure a general personality trait. It is concluded that faking can be measured and that correction for faking, based on such measures, can be expected to remove about 90% of its effects.