Effective Electrode Configuration for Selective Stimulation With Inner Eye Prostheses

High-Fidelity Reproduction of Visual Signals by Electrical Stimulation in the Central Primate Retina

Electrical stimulation of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) with electronic implants provides rudimentary artificial vision to people blinded by retinal degeneration. However, current devices stimulate indiscriminately and therefore cannot reproduce the intricate neural code of the retina. Recent work has demonstrated more precise activation of RGCs using focal electrical stimulation with multielectrode arrays in the peripheral macaque retina, but it is unclear how effective this can be in the central retina, which is required for high-resolution vision. This work probes the neural code and effectiveness of focal epiretinal stimulation in the central macaque retina, using large-scale electrical recording and stimulation ex vivo The functional organization, light response properties, and electrical properties of the major RGC types in the central retina were mostly similar to the peripheral retina, with some notable differences in density, kinetics, linearity, spiking statistics, and correlations. The major RGC types could be distinguished by their intrinsic electrical properties. Electrical stimulation targeting parasol cells revealed similar activation thresholds and reduced axon bundle activation in the central retina, but lower stimulation selectivity. Quantitative evaluation of the potential for image reconstruction from electrically evoked parasol cell signals revealed higher overall expected image quality in the central retina. An exploration of inadvertent midget cell activation suggested that it could contribute high spatial frequency noise to the visual signal carried by parasol cells. These results support the possibility of reproducing high-acuity visual signals in the central retina with an epiretinal implant.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Artificial restoration of vision with retinal implants is a major treatment for blindness. However, present-day implants do not provide high-resolution visual perception, in part because they do not reproduce the natural neural code of the retina. Here, we demonstrate the level of visual signal reproduction that is possible with a future implant by examining how accurately responses to electrical stimulation of parasol retinal ganglion cells can convey visual signals. Although the precision of electrical stimulation in the central retina was diminished relative to the peripheral retina, the quality of expected visual signal reconstruction in parasol cells was greater. These findings suggest that visual signals could be restored with high fidelity in the central retina using a future retinal implant.

Pulse trains to percepts: A virtual patient describing the perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation

The field of cortical sight restoration prostheses is making rapid progress with three clinical trials of visual cortical prostheses underway. However, as yet, we have only limited insight into the perceptual experiences produced by these implants. Here we describe a computational model or 'virtual patient', based on the neurophysiological architecture of V1, which successfully predicts the perceptual experience of participants across a wide range of previously published cortical stimulation studies describing the location, size, brightness and spatiotemporal shape of electrically induced percepts in humans. Our simulations suggest that, in the foreseeable future the perceptual quality of cortical prosthetic devices is likely to be limited by the neurophysiological organization of visual cortex, rather than engineering constraints.

A finite element method framework to model extracellular neural stimulation

OBJECTIVE

Increasing complexity in extracellular stimulation experiments and neural implant design also requires realistic computer simulations capable of modeling the neural activity of nerve cells under the influence of an electrical stimulus. Classical model approaches are often based on simplifications, are not able to correctly calculate the electric field generated by complex electrode designs, and do not consider electrical effects of the cell on its surrounding. A more accurate approach is the finite element method (FEM), which provides necessary techniques to solve the Poisson equation for complex geometries under consideration of electrical tissue properties. Especially in situations where neurons experience large and non-symmetric extracellular potential gradients, a FEM solution that implements the cell membrane model can improve the computer simulation results. To investigate the response of neurons in an electric field generated by complex electrode designs, a FEM framework for extracellular stimulation was developed in COMSOL.

APPROACH

Methods to implement morphologically- and biophysically-detailed neurons including active Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) cell membrane dynamics as well as the stimulation setup are described in detail. Covered methods are (i) development of cell and electrode geometries including meshing strategies, (ii) assignment of physics for the conducting spaces and the realization of active electrodes, (iii) implementation of the HH model, and (iv) coupling of the physics to get a fully described model.

MAIN RESULTS

Several implementation examples are briefly presented: (i) a full FEM implementation of a HH model cell stimulated with a honeycomb electrode, (ii) the electric field of a cochlear electrode placed inside the cochlea, and (iii) a proof of concept implementation of a detailed double-cable cell membrane model for myelinated nerve fibers.

SIGNIFICANCE

The presented concepts and methods provide basic and advanced techniques to realize a full FEM framework for innovative studies of neural excitation in response to extracellular stimulation.

Spatially patterned bi-electrode epiretinal stimulation for axon avoidance at cellular resolution

Objective.Epiretinal prostheses are designed to restore vision to people blinded by photoreceptor degenerative diseases by stimulating surviving retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), which carry visual signals to the brain. However, inadvertent stimulation of RGCs at their axons can result in non-focal visual percepts, limiting the quality of artificial vision. Theoretical work has suggested that axon activation can be avoided with current stimulation designed to minimize the second spatial derivative of the induced extracellular voltage along the axon. However, this approach has not been verified experimentally at the resolution of single cells.Approach.In this work, a custom multi-electrode array (512 electrodes, 10μm diameter, 60μm pitch) was used to stimulate and record RGCs in macaque retinaex vivoat single-cell, single-spike resolution. RGC activation thresholds resulting from bi-electrode stimulation, which consisted of bipolar currents simultaneously delivered through two electrodes straddling an axon, were compared to activation thresholds from traditional single-electrode stimulation.Main results.On average, across three retinal preparations, the bi-electrode stimulation strategy reduced somatic activation thresholds (∼21%) while increasing axonal activation thresholds (∼14%), thus favoring selective somatic activation. Furthermore, individual examples revealed rescued selective activation of somas that was not possible with any individual electrode.Significance.This work suggests that a bi-electrode epiretinal stimulation strategy can reduce inadvertent axonal activation at cellular resolution, for high-fidelity artificial vision.

Minimizing axon bundle activation of retinal ganglion cells with oriented rectangular electrodes

OBJECTIVE

Retinal prostheses aim to restore vision in patients with retinal degenerative diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa. By implanting an array of microelectrodes, such a device creates percepts in patients through electrical stimulation of surviving retinal neurons. A challenge for retinal prostheses when trying to return high quality vision is the unintended activation of retinal ganglion cells through the stimulation of passing axon bundles, which leads to patients reporting large, elongated patches of light instead of focal spots.

APPROACH

In this work, we used calcium imaging to record the responses of retinal ganglion cells to electrical stimulation in explanted retina using rectangular electrodes placed with different orientations relative to the axon bundles.

MAIN RESULTS

We showed that narrow, rectangular electrodes oriented parallel to the axon bundles can achieve focal stimulation. To further improve the strategy, we studied the impact of different stimulation waveforms and electrode configurations. We found the selectivity for focal stimulation to be higher when using short (33 μs), anodic-first biphasic pulses, with long electrode lengths and at least 50 μm electrode-to-retinal separation. Focal stimulation was, in fact, less selective when the electrodes made direct contact with the retinal surface due to unwanted preferential stimulation of the proximal axon bundles.

SIGNIFICANCE

When employed in retinal prostheses, the proposed stimulation strategy is expected to provide improved quality of vision to the blind.

The Effects of Phase Durations on the Spatial Responses of Retinal Ganglion Cells to Epi- and Sub-Retinal Electrical Stimulation

Retinal prostheses have the potential to restore vision to blind patients that have retinitis pigmentosa or similar hereditary degenerative disorders, by electrically stimulating surviving retinal neurons through implanted electrode arrays. Current retinal prostheses provide limited visual acuity and one challenge is to spatially control neural activation following electrical stimulation. Most of the retinal prostheses are either epi-retinal - in front of the retinal ganglion cell layer, or sub-retinal - behind photoreceptor layer. In this study, we performed calcium imaging of ganglion cells from whole mounted retinas and compared the spread of neural activation between epi-retinal stimulation with a fiber electrode and sub-retinal stimulation with a disk electrode. We investigated the effects of phase durations on the spatial resolution of biphasic stimulation. Our results suggest that with fiber electrode epi-retinal stimulation, the axon bundles activation can lead to significant spread of stimulation, and cannot be avoided simply by changing the phase durations. However, sub-retinal stimulation with very short pulses (phase duration 0.033ms) can effectively confine the activation of retinal ganglion cells.

A model of ganglion axon pathways accounts for percepts elicited by retinal implants

Degenerative retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa and macular degeneration cause irreversible vision loss in more than 10 million people worldwide. Retinal prostheses, now implanted in over 250 patients worldwide, electrically stimulate surviving cells in order to evoke neuronal responses that are interpreted by the brain as visual percepts ('phosphenes'). However, instead of seeing focal spots of light, current implant users perceive highly distorted phosphenes that vary in shape both across subjects and electrodes. We characterized these distortions by asking users of the Argus retinal prosthesis system (Second Sight Medical Products Inc.) to draw electrically elicited percepts on a touchscreen. Using ophthalmic fundus imaging and computational modeling, we show that elicited percepts can be accurately predicted by the topographic organization of optic nerve fiber bundles in each subject's retina, successfully replicating visual percepts ranging from 'blobs' to oriented 'streaks' and 'wedges' depending on the retinal location of the stimulating electrode. This provides the first evidence that activation of passing axon fibers accounts for the rich repertoire of phosphene shape commonly reported in psychophysical experiments, which can severely distort the quality of the generated visual experience. Overall our findings argue for more detailed modeling of biological detail across neural engineering applications.

Biophysical basis of the linear electrical receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells

Responses of retinal ganglion cells to direct electrical stimulation have been shown experimentally to be well described by linear-nonlinear models. These models rely on the simplifying assumption that retinal ganglion cell responses to stimulation with an array of electrodes are driven by a simple linear weighted sum of stimulus current amplitudes from each electrode, known as the 'electrical receptive field'.

OBJECTIVE

This paper aims to demonstrate the biophysical basis of the linear-nonlinear model and the electrical receptive field to facilitate the development of improved stimulation strategies for retinal implants.

APPROACH

We compare the linear-nonlinear model of subretinal electrical stimulation with a multi-layered, biophysical, volume conductor model of retinal stimulation.

MAIN RESULTS

Our results show that the linear electrical receptive field of the linear-nonlinear model matches the transmembrane currents induced by electrodes (the activating function) at the site of the high-density sodium channel band with only minor discrepancies. The discrepancies are mostly eliminated by including axial current flow originating from adjacent cell compartments. Furthermore, for cells where a single linear electrical receptive field is insufficient, we show that cell responses are likely driven by multiple sites of action potential initiation with multiple distinct receptive fields, each of which can be accurately described by the activating function.

SIGNIFICANCE

This result establishes that the biophysical basis of the electrical receptive field of the linear-nonlinear model is the superposition of transmembrane currents induced by different electrodes at and near the site of action potential initiation. Together with existing experimental support for linear-nonlinear models of electrical stimulation, this provides a firm basis for using this much simplified model to generate more optimal stimulation patterns for retinal implants.

ERAASR: an algorithm for removing electrical stimulation artifacts from multielectrode array recordings

OBJECTIVE

Electrical stimulation is a widely used and effective tool in systems neuroscience, neural prosthetics, and clinical neurostimulation. However, electrical artifacts evoked by stimulation prevent the detection of spiking activity on nearby recording electrodes, which obscures the neural population response evoked by stimulation. We sought to develop a method to clean artifact-corrupted electrode signals recorded on multielectrode arrays in order to recover the underlying neural spiking activity.

APPROACH

We created an algorithm, which performs estimation and removal of array artifacts via sequential principal components regression (ERAASR). This approach leverages the similar structure of artifact transients, but not spiking activity, across simultaneously recorded channels on the array, across pulses within a train, and across trials. The ERAASR algorithm requires no special hardware, imposes no requirements on the shape of the artifact or the multielectrode array geometry, and comprises sequential application of straightforward linear methods with intuitive parameters. The approach should be readily applicable to most datasets where stimulation does not saturate the recording amplifier.

MAIN RESULTS

The effectiveness of the algorithm is demonstrated in macaque dorsal premotor cortex using acute linear multielectrode array recordings and single electrode stimulation. Large electrical artifacts appeared on all channels during stimulation. After application of ERAASR, the cleaned signals were quiescent on channels with no spontaneous spiking activity, whereas spontaneously active channels exhibited evoked spikes which closely resembled spontaneously occurring spiking waveforms.

SIGNIFICANCE

We hope that enabling simultaneous electrical stimulation and multielectrode array recording will help elucidate the causal links between neural activity and cognition and facilitate naturalistic sensory protheses.

Minimizing activation of overlying axons with epiretinal stimulation: The role of fiber orientation and electrode configuration

Currently, a challenge in electrical stimulation of the retina with a visual prosthesis (bionic eye) is to excite only the cells lying directly under the electrode in the ganglion cell layer, while avoiding excitation of axon bundles that pass over the surface of the retina in the nerve fiber layer. Stimulation of overlying axons results in irregular visual percepts, limiting perceptual efficacy. This research explores how differences in fiber orientation between the nerve fiber layer and ganglion cell layer leads to differences in the electrical activation of the axon initial segment and axons of passage. Approach. Axons of passage of retinal ganglion cells in the nerve fiber layer are characterized by a narrow distribution of fiber orientations, causing highly anisotropic spread of applied current. In contrast, proximal axons in the ganglion cell layer have a wider distribution of orientations. A four-layer computational model of epiretinal extracellular stimulation that captures the effect of neurite orientation in anisotropic tissue has been developed using a volume conductor model known as the cellular composite model. Simulations are conducted to investigate the interaction of neural tissue orientation, stimulating electrode configuration, and stimulation pulse duration and amplitude. Main results. Our model shows that simultaneous stimulation with multiple electrodes aligned with the nerve fiber layer can be used to achieve selective activation of axon initial segments rather than passing fibers. This result can be achieved while reducing required stimulus charge density and with only modest increases in the spread of activation in the ganglion cell layer, and is shown to extend to the general case of arbitrary electrode array positioning and arbitrary target volume. Significance. These results elucidate a strategy for more targeted stimulation of retinal ganglion cells with experimentally-relevant multi-electrode geometries and achievable stimulation requirements.

Impact of Electrode Position on the Elicitation of Sodium Spikes in Retinal Bipolar Cells

Bipolar cells of the magnocellular pathway in the primate retina can generate action potentials because they have an axonal segment with high sodium channel density, comparable to the sodium channel band in retinal ganglion cells or pyramidal cells. The similarity between the non-human primate and the human retina is of interest for the research on retinal implants for the blind, and especially, the conditions to elicit sodium spikes in bipolar cells using extracellular stimulation. A comparison of excitation characteristics of three model neurons, a bipolar cell, a retinal ganglion cell, and a cortical pyramidal cell, demonstrates the similarities and differences regarding stimulation with microelectrodes. Moving a microelectrode parallel to the axon of a neuron commonly allows to generate spikes for every position - and this rule holds both for cathodic and anodic pulses. However, for the simulated bipolar cell anodic pulses cannot generate sodium spikes directly. Further, there is only a small region for electrode placing where extracellular cathodic stimulation causes direct spike initiation in the sodium channel band. For all other positions, a sodium spike can only be generated by antidromic current flow originating from strongly depolarized terminals.

Electrical stimulus artifact cancellation and neural spike detection on large multi-electrode arrays

Simultaneous electrical stimulation and recording using multi-electrode arrays can provide a valuable technique for studying circuit connectivity and engineering neural interfaces. However, interpreting these measurements is challenging because the spike sorting process (identifying and segregating action potentials arising from different neurons) is greatly complicated by electrical stimulation artifacts across the array, which can exhibit complex and nonlinear waveforms, and overlap temporarily with evoked spikes. Here we develop a scalable algorithm based on a structured Gaussian Process model to estimate the artifact and identify evoked spikes. The effectiveness of our methods is demonstrated in both real and simulated 512-electrode recordings in the peripheral primate retina with single-electrode and several types of multi-electrode stimulation. We establish small error rates in the identification of evoked spikes, with a computational complexity that is compatible with real-time data analysis. This technology may be helpful in the design of future high-resolution sensory prostheses based on tailored stimulation (e.g., retinal prostheses), and for closed-loop neural stimulation at a much larger scale than currently possible.

Survey of electrically evoked responses in the retina - stimulus preferences and oscillation among neurons

Electrical stimulation is an important tool in neuroscience research and clinically. In the retina, extensive work has revealed how the retinal ganglion cells respond to extracellular electrical stimulation. But little is known about the responses of other neuronal types, and more generally, how the network responds to stimulation. We conducted a survey of electrically evoked responses, over a range of pulse amplitudes and pulse widths, for 21 cell types spanning the inner two layers of the rabbit retina. It revealed: (i) the evoked responses of some neurons were charge insensitive; (ii) pulse-width sensitivity varied between cell types, allowing preferential recruitment of cell types; and (iii) 10-20 Hz damped oscillations across retinal layers. These oscillations were generated by reciprocal excitatory / inhibitory synapses, at locations as early as the cone-horizontal-cell synapses. These results illustrate at cellular resolution how a network responds to extracellular stimulation, and could inform the development of bioelectronic implants for treating blindness.

Fractal Electrodes as a Generic Interface for Stimulating Neurons

The prospect of replacing damaged body parts with artificial implants is being transformed from science fiction to science fact through the increasing application of electronics to interface with human neurons in the limbs, the brain, and the retina. We propose bio-inspired electronics which adopt the fractal geometry of the neurons they interface with. Our focus is on retinal implants, although performance improvements will be generic to many neuronal types. The key component is a multifunctional electrode; light passes through this electrode into a photodiode which charges the electrode. Its electric field then stimulates the neurons. A fractal electrode might increase both light transmission and neuron proximity compared to conventional Euclidean electrodes. These advantages are negated if the fractal’s field is less effective at stimulating neurons. We present simulations demonstrating how an interplay of fractal properties generates enhanced stimulation; the electrode voltage necessary to stimulate all neighboring neurons is over 50% less for fractal than Euclidean electrodes. This smaller voltage can be achieved by a single diode compared to three diodes required for the Euclidean electrode’s higher voltage. This will allow patients, for the first time, to see with the visual acuity necessary for navigating rooms and streets.

A computational model of orientation-dependent activation of retinal ganglion cells

Currently, a challenge in electrical stimulation for epiretinal prostheses is the avoidance of stimulation of axons of passage in the nerve fiber layer that originate from distant regions of the ganglion cell layer. A computational model of extracellular stimulation that captures the effect of neurite orientation in anisotropic tissue is developed using a modified version of the standard volume conductor model, known as the cellular composite model, embedded in a four layer model of the retina. Simulations are conducted to investigate the interaction of neural tissue orientation, electrode placement, and stimulation pulse duration and amplitude. Using appropriate multiple electrode configurations and higher frequency stimulation, preferential activation of the axon initial segment is shown to be possible for a range of realistic electrode-retina separation distances. These results establish a quantitative relationship between the time-course of stimulation and physical properties of the tissue, such as fiber orientation.

Retinal prosthesis that incorporates the organization of the nerve fibre layer

Recent efforts to restore partial vision in blind patients have made significant progress. Currently, prosthetic design concentrates on stimulating as many foveal retinal ganglion cells as possible but is hampered by stimulation of the nerve fibre layer. This results in a nonvisuotopic arrangement of phosphenes (stimulation percepts). This article suggests that by extending the stimulation area well beyond the fovea and stimulating the nerve fibre layer, axons from any remaining ganglion cells in more peripheral regions of the retina (low acuity) can be used to generate a visuotopic map. Stimulation of the fibre layer will generate a large number of stimulation percepts; however, it is unlikely that these will have sufficient topographic order to be immediately useful to the patient. Thus, it will be necessary to recreate an ordered visuotopic map by using appropriate computer algorithms and interactions between the patient and the clinician.

Perspectives on: Materials Aspects for Retinal Prostheses

Retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration are both incurable eye diseases that lead to blindness due to photoreceptor degeneration. Electrically stimulating the remaining intact nerve cells may generate some useful vision for patients afflicted with these diseases. Various types of retinal prostheses, sub- and epi-retinal electrode arrays, as well as subretinal microphotodiode arrays are considered from a materials and biocompatibility point of view. Other, more innovative approaches to restoring vision, such as microfluidic pumps and activated nanosystems that deliver neurotransmitters in a controlled way and photodynamic therapy are being developed. This article discusses materials aspects of retinal prostheses that are currently in use or under development.

On the computation of a retina resistivity profile for applications in multi-scale modeling of electrical stimulation and absorption

This study proposes a methodology for computationally estimating resistive properties of tissue in multi-scale computational models, used for studying the interaction of electromagnetic fields with neural tissue, with applications to both dosimetry and neuroprosthetics. Traditionally, models at bulk tissue- and cellular-level scales are solved independently, linking resulting voltage from existing resistive tissue-scale models as extracellular sources to cellular models. This allows for solving the effects that external electric fields have on cellular activity. There are two major limitations to this approach: first, the resistive properties of the tissue need to be chosen, of which there are contradicting measurements in literature; second, the measurements of resistivity themselves may be inaccurate, leading to the mentioned contradicting results found across different studies. Our proposed methodology allows for constructing computed resistivity profiles using knowledge of only the neural morphology within the multi-scale model, resulting in a practical implementation of the effective medium theory; this bypasses concerns regarding the choice of resistive properties and accuracy of measurement setups. A multi-scale model of retina is constructed with an external electrode to serve as a test bench for analyzing existing and resulting resistivity profiles, and validation is presented through the reconstruction of a published resistivity profile of retina tissue. Results include a computed resistivity profile of retina tissue for use with a retina multi-scale model used to analyze effects of external electric fields on neural activity.

Electrical activity of ON and OFF retinal ganglion cells: a modelling study

OBJECTIVE

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) demonstrate a large range of variation in their ionic channel properties and morphologies. Cell-specific properties are responsible for the unique way RGCs process synaptic inputs, as well as artificial electrical signals such as that from a visual prosthesis. A cell-specific computational modelling approach allows us to examine the functional significance of regional membrane channel expression and cell morphology.

APPROACH

In this study, an existing RGC ionic model was extended by including a hyperpolarization activated non-selective cationic current as well as a T-type calcium current identified in recent experimental findings. Biophysically-defined model parameters were simultaneously optimized against multiple experimental recordings from ON and OFF RGCs.

MAIN RESULTS

With well-defined cell-specific model parameters and the incorporation of detailed cell morphologies, these models were able to closely reconstruct and predict ON and OFF RGC response properties recorded experimentally.

SIGNIFICANCE

The resulting models were used to study the contribution of different ion channel properties and spatial structure of neurons to RGC activation. The techniques of this study are generally applicable to other excitable cell models, increasing the utility of theoretical models in accurately predicting the response of real biological neurons.

Effects of different three-dimensional electrodes on epiretinal electrical stimulation by modeling analysis

BACKGROUND

Epiretinal prostheses have been greatly successful in helping restore the vision of patients blinded by retinal degenerative diseases. The design of stimulating electrodes plays a crucial role in the performance of epiretinal prostheses. The objective of this study was to investigate, through computational modeling analysis, the effects on the excitation of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) when different three-dimensional (3-D) electrodes were placed in the epiretinal space.

METHODS

3-D finite element models of retinal electrical stimulation were created in COMSOL using a platinum microelectrode, a vitreous body, multi-layered retinal tissue, and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Disk and non-planar electrodes with different 3-D structures were used in the epiretinal electrical stimulation. In addition, a multi-RGC model including ionic mechanisms was constructed in NEURON to study the excitability of RGCs in response to epiretinal electrical stimulation by different types of electrodes. Threshold current, threshold charge density, and the activated RGC area were the three key factors used to evaluate the stimulating electrode's performance.

RESULTS

As the electrode-retina distance increased, both threshold current and threshold charge density showed an approximately linear relationship. Increasing the disk electrode's diameter resulted in an increase in threshold current and a decrease in threshold charge density. Non-planar electrodes evoked different activation responses in RGCs than the disk electrode. Concave electrodes produced superior stimulation localization and electrode safety while convex electrodes performed relatively poorly.

CONCLUSIONS

Investigation of epiretinal electrical stimulation using different 3-D electrodes would further the optimization of electrode design and help improve the performance of epiretinal prostheses. The combination of finite element analysis in COMSOL and NEURON software provides an efficient way to evaluate the influences of various 3-D electrodes on epiretinal electrical stimulation. Non-planar electrodes had larger threshold currents than disk electrodes. Of the five types of electrodes, concave hemispherical electrodes may be the ideal option, considering their superior stimulation localization and electrode safety.

Design and in vivo evaluation of more efficient and selective deep brain stimulation electrodes

OBJECTIVE

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective treatment for movement disorders and a promising therapy for treating epilepsy and psychiatric disorders. Despite its clinical success, the efficiency and selectivity of DBS can be improved. Our objective was to design electrode geometries that increased the efficiency and selectivity of DBS.

APPROACH

We coupled computational models of electrodes in brain tissue with cable models of axons of passage (AOPs), terminating axons (TAs), and local neurons (LNs); we used engineering optimization to design electrodes for stimulating these neural elements; and the model predictions were tested in vivo.

MAIN RESULTS

Compared with the standard electrode used in the Medtronic Model 3387 and 3389 arrays, model-optimized electrodes consumed 45-84% less power. Similar gains in selectivity were evident with the optimized electrodes: 50% of parallel AOPs could be activated while reducing activation of perpendicular AOPs from 44 to 48% with the standard electrode to 0-14% with bipolar designs; 50% of perpendicular AOPs could be activated while reducing activation of parallel AOPs from 53 to 55% with the standard electrode to 1-5% with an array of cathodes; and, 50% of TAs could be activated while reducing activation of AOPs from 43 to 100% with the standard electrode to 2-15% with a distal anode. In vivo, both the geometry and polarity of the electrode had a profound impact on the efficiency and selectivity of stimulation.

SIGNIFICANCE

Model-based design is a powerful tool that can be used to improve the efficiency and selectivity of DBS electrodes.

Modeling the response of ON and OFF retinal bipolar cells during electric stimulation

Retinal implants allowing blind people suffering from diseases like retinitis pigmentosa and macular degeneration to regain rudimentary vision are struggling with several obstacles. One of the main problems during external electric stimulation is the co-activation of the ON and OFF pathways which results in mutual impairment. In this study the response of ON and OFF cone retinal bipolar cells during extracellular electric stimulation from the subretinal space was examined. To gain deeper insight into the behavior of these cells sustained L-type and transient T-type calcium channels were integrated in the synaptic terminals of reconstructed 3D morphologies of ON and OFF cone bipolar cells. Intracellular calcium concentration in the synaptic regions of the model neurons was investigated as well since calcium influx is a crucial parameter for cell-to-cell activity between bipolar cells and retinal ganglion cells. It was shown that monophasic stimulation results in significant different calcium concentrations in the synaptic terminals of ON and OFF bipolar cells. Intracellular calcium increased to values up to fourfold higher in the OFF bipolar model neuron in comparison to the ON bipolar cell. Furthermore, geometric properties strongly influence the activation of bipolar cells. Monophasic, biphasic, single and repetitive pulses with similar lengths, amplitudes and polarities were applied to the two model neurons.

Activation and inhibition of retinal ganglion cells in response to epiretinal electrical stimulation: a computational modelling study

OBJECTIVE

Retinal prosthetic devices aim to restore sight in visually impaired people by means of electrical stimulation of surviving retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). This modelling study aims to demonstrate that RGC inhibition caused by high-intensity cathodic pulses greatly influences their responses to epiretinal electrical stimulation and to investigate the impact of this inhibition on spatial activation profiles as well as their implications for retinal prosthetic device design. Another aim is to take advantage of this inhibition to reduce axonal activation in the nerve fibre layer.

APPROACH

A three-dimensional finite-element model of epiretinal electrical stimulation was utilized to obtain RGC activation and inhibition threshold profiles for a range of parameters.

MAIN RESULTS

RGC activation and inhibition thresholds were highly dependent on cell and stimulus parameters. Activation thresholds were 1.5, 3.4 and 11.3 μA for monopolar electrodes with 5, 20 and 50 μm radii, respectively. Inhibition to activation threshold ratios were mostly within the range 2-10. Inhibition significantly altered spatial patterns of RGC activation. With concentric electrodes and appropriately high levels of stimulus amplitudes, activation of passing axons was greatly reduced.

SIGNIFICANCE

RGC inhibition significantly impacts their spatial activation profiles, and therefore it most likely influences patterns of perceived phosphenes induced by retinal prosthetic devices. Thus this inhibition should be taken into account in future studies concerning retinal prosthesis development. It might be possible to utilize this inhibitory effect to bypass activation of passing axons and selectively stimulate RGCs near their somas and dendrites to achieve more localized phosphenes.

Spatially patterned electrical stimulation to enhance resolution of retinal prostheses

Retinal prostheses electrically stimulate neurons to produce artificial vision in people blinded by photoreceptor degenerative diseases. The limited spatial resolution of current devices results in indiscriminate stimulation of interleaved cells of different types, precluding veridical reproduction of natural activity patterns in the retinal output. Here we investigate the use of spatial patterns of current injection to increase the spatial resolution of stimulation, using high-density multielectrode recording and stimulation of identified ganglion cells in isolated macaque retina. As previously shown, current passed through a single electrode typically induced a single retinal ganglion cell spike with submillisecond timing precision. Current passed simultaneously through pairs of neighboring electrodes modified the probability of activation relative to injection through a single electrode. This modification could be accurately summarized by a piecewise linear model of current summation, consistent with a simple biophysical model based on multiple sites of activation. The generalizability of the piecewise linear model was tested by using the measured responses to stimulation with two electrodes to predict responses to stimulation with three electrodes. Finally, the model provided an accurate prediction of which among a set of spatial stimulation patterns maximized selective activation of a cell while minimizing activation of a neighboring cell. The results demonstrate that tailored multielectrode stimulation patterns based on a piecewise linear model may be useful in increasing the spatial resolution of retinal prostheses.

Current approaches to model extracellular electrical neural microstimulation

Nowadays, high-density microelectrode arrays provide unprecedented possibilities to precisely activate spatially well-controlled central nervous system (CNS) areas. However, this requires optimizing stimulating devices, which in turn requires a good understanding of the effects of microstimulation on cells and tissues. In this context, modeling approaches provide flexible ways to predict the outcome of electrical stimulation in terms of CNS activation. In this paper, we present state-of-the-art modeling methods with sufficient details to allow the reader to rapidly build numerical models of neuronal extracellular microstimulation. These include (1) the computation of the electrical potential field created by the stimulation in the tissue, and (2) the response of a target neuron to this field. Two main approaches are described: First we describe the classical hybrid approach that combines the finite element modeling of the potential field with the calculation of the neuron's response in a cable equation framework (compartmentalized neuron models). Then, we present a “whole finite element” approach allowing the simultaneous calculation of the extracellular and intracellular potentials, by representing the neuronal membrane with a thin-film approximation. This approach was previously introduced in the frame of neural recording, but has never been implemented to determine the effect of extracellular stimulation on the neural response at a sub-compartment level. Here, we show on an example that the latter modeling scheme can reveal important sub-compartment behavior of the neural membrane that cannot be resolved using the hybrid approach. The goal of this paper is also to describe in detail the practical implementation of these methods to allow the reader to easily build new models using standard software packages. These modeling paradigms, depending on the situation, should help build more efficient high-density neural prostheses for CNS rehabilitation.

Focal electrical stimulation of major ganglion cell types in the primate retina for the design of visual prostheses

Electrical stimulation of retinal neurons with an advanced retinal prosthesis may eventually provide high-resolution artificial vision to the blind. However, the success of future prostheses depends on the ability to activate the major parallel visual pathways of the human visual system. Electrical stimulation of the five numerically dominant retinal ganglion cell types was investigated by simultaneous stimulation and recording in isolated peripheral primate (Macaca sp.) retina using multi-electrode arrays. ON and OFF midget, ON and OFF parasol, and small bistratified ganglion cells could all be activated directly to fire a single spike with submillisecond latency using brief pulses of current within established safety limits. Thresholds for electrical stimulation were similar in all five cell types. In many cases, a single cell could be specifically activated without activating neighboring cells of the same type or other types. These findings support the feasibility of direct electrical stimulation of the major visual pathways at or near their native spatial and temporal resolution.

Model-based analysis of multiple electrode array stimulation for epiretinal visual prostheses

OBJECTIVE

Epiretinal stimulation, which uses an array of electrodes implanted on the inner retinal surface to relay a representation of the visual scene to the neuronal elements of the retina, has seen considerable success. The objective of the present study was to quantify the effects of multi-electrode stimulation on the patterns of neural excitation in a computational model of epiretinal stimulation.

APPROACH

A computational model of retinal ganglion cells was modified to represent the morphology of human retinal ganglion cells and validated against published experimental data. The ganglion cell model was then combined with a model of an axon of the nerve fiber layer to produce a population model of the inner retina. The response of the population of model neurons to epiretinal stimulation with a multi-electrode array was quantified across a range of electrode geometries using a novel means to quantify the model response-the minimum radius circle bounding the activated model neurons as a proxy for the evoked phosphene.

MAIN RESULTS

Multi-electrode stimulation created unique phosphenes, uch that the number of potential phosphenes can far exceed the number of electrode contacts.

SIGNIFICANCE

The ability to exploit the spatial and temporal interactions of stimulation may be critical to improvements in the performance of epiretinal prostheses.

Electronic restoration of vision in those with photoreceptor degenerations

Complete loss of vision is one of the most feared sequelae of retinal disease. Currently, there are few if any treatment options available to patients that may slow or prevent blindness in diseases caused by photoreceptor loss, such as retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration. Electronic restoration of vision has emerged over recent years as a safe and viable option for those who have lost substantial numbers of photoreceptors and who are severely vision impaired. Indeed, there has been a dramatic increase in our understanding of what is required to restore vision using an electronic retinal prosthesis. Recent reports show that for some patients, restoration of vision to the point of reading large letters is possible. In this review, we examine the types of implants currently under investigation and the results these devices have achieved clinically. We then consider a range of engineering and biological factors that may need to be considered to improve the visual performance of newer-generation devices. With added research, it is hoped that the level of vision achieved with newer generation devices will steadily improve, resulting in enhanced quality of life for those with severe vision impairment.

Strength-duration relationship for intra- versus extracellular stimulation with microelectrodes

Chronaxie, a historically introduced excitability time parameter for electrical stimulation, has been assumed to be closely related to the time constant of the cell membrane. Therefore, it is perplexing that significantly larger chronaxies have been found for intracellular than for extracellular stimulation. Using compartmental model analysis, this controversy is explained on the basis that extracellular stimulation also generates hyperpolarized regions of the cell membrane hindering a steady excitation as seen in the intracellular case. The largest inside/outside chronaxie ratio for microelectrode stimulation is found in close vicinity of the cell. In the case of monophasic cathodic stimulation, the length of the primarily excited zone which is situated between the hyperpolarized regions increases with electrode-cell distance. For distant electrodes this results in an excitation process comparable to the temporal behavior of intracellular stimulation. Chronaxie also varies along the neural axis, being small for electrode positions at the nodes of Ranvier and axon initial segment and larger at the soma and dendrites. As spike initiation site can change for short and long pulses, in some cases strength-duration curves have a bimodal shape, and thus, they deviate from a classical monotonic curve as described by the formulas of Lapicque or Weiss.

Frequency and amplitude modulation have different effects on the percepts elicited by retinal stimulation

PURPOSE

In an effort to restore functional form vision, epiretinal prostheses that elicit percepts by directly stimulating remaining retinal circuitry were implanted in human subjects with advanced retinitis pigmentosa RP). In this study, manipulating pulse train frequency and amplitude had different effects on the size and brightness of phosphene appearance.

METHODS

Experiments were performed on a single subject with severe RP (implanted with a 16-channel epiretinal prosthesis in 2004) on nine individual electrodes. Psychophysical techniques were used to measure both the brightness and size of phosphenes when the biphasic pulse train was varied by either modulating the current amplitude (with constant frequency) or the stimulating frequency (with constant current amplitude).

RESULTS

Increasing stimulation frequency always increased brightness, while having a smaller effect on the size of elicited phosphenes. In contrast, increasing stimulation amplitude generally increased both the size and brightness of phosphenes. These experimental findings can be explained by using a simple computational model based on previous psychophysical work and the expected spatial spread of current from a disc electrode.

CONCLUSIONS

Given that amplitude and frequency have separable effects on percept size, these findings suggest that frequency modulation improves the encoding of a wide range of brightness levels without a loss of spatial resolution. Future retinal prosthesis designs could benefit from having the flexibility to manipulate pulse train amplitude and frequency independently (clinicaltrials.gov number, NCT00279500).

Modeling extracellular electrical neural stimulation: from basic understanding to MEA-based applications

Extracellular electrical stimulation of neural networks has been widely used empirically for decades with individual electrodes. Since recently, microtechnology provides advanced systems with high-density microelectrode arrays (MEAs). Taking the most of these devices for fundamental goals or developing neural prosthesis requires a good knowledge of the mechanisms underlying electrical stimulation. Here, we review modeling approaches used to determine (1) the electric potential field created by a stimulation and (2) the response of an excitable cell to an applied field. Computation of the potential field requires solving the Poisson equation. While this can be performed analytically in simple electrode-neuron configurations, numerical models are required for realistic geometries. In these models, special care must be taken to model the potential drop at the electrode/tissue interface using appropriate boundary conditions. The neural response to the field can then be calculated using compartmentalized cell models, by solving a cable equation, the source term of which (called activating function) is proportional to the second derivative of the extracellular field along the neural arborization. Analytical and numerical solutions to this equation are first presented. Then, we discuss the use of approximated solutions to intuitively predict the neuronal response: Either the "activating function" or the "mirror estimate", depending on the pulse duration and the cell space constant. Finally, we address the design of optimal electrode configurations allowing the selective activation of neurons near each stimulation site. This can be achieved using either multipolar configurations, or the "ground surface" configuration, which can be easily integrated in high-density MEAs. Overall, models highlighting the mechanisms of electrical microstimulation and improving stimulating devices should help understanding the influence of extracellular fields on neural elements and developing optimized neural prostheses for rehabilitation.

Charge and energy minimization in electrical/magnetic stimulation of nervous tissue

In this work we address the problem of stimulating nervous tissue with the minimal necessary energy at reduced/minimal charge. Charge minimization is related to a valid safety concern (avoidance and reduction of stimulation-induced tissue and electrode damage). Energy minimization plays a role in battery-driven electrical or magnetic stimulation systems (increased lifetime, repetition rates, reduction of power requirements, thermal management). Extensive new theoretical results are derived by employing an optimal control theory framework. These results include derivation of the optimal electrical stimulation waveform for a mixed energy/charge minimization problem, derivation of the charge-balanced energy-minimal electrical stimulation waveform, solutions of a pure charge minimization problem with and without a constraint on the stimulation amplitude, and derivation of the energy-minimal magnetic stimulation waveform. Depending on the set stimulus pulse duration, energy and charge reductions of up to 80% are deemed possible. Results are verified in simulations with an active, mammalian-like nerve fiber model.

Activating function of needle electrodes in anisotropic tissue

We present an analytical solution for the electrical potential and activating function (AF) established by cylindrical needle electrodes in anisotropic tissue. We compare this activating function to (1) AF computed assuming line-source electrodes and (2) AF computed using a finite element program. The results show that when the fiber is two needle diameters away from the electrodes, the maximum of the AF for needle electrodes is 1.43-times larger than for line-source electrodes, which results in lower thresholds for stimulation and electroporation. Therefore, for fibers that are close to the stimulating electrodes, one would benefit from using the formula that accounts for the electrodes' geometry.

Improved focalization of electrical microstimulation using microelectrode arrays: a modeling study

Extracellular electrical stimulation (EES) of the central nervous system (CNS) has been used empirically for decades, with both fundamental and clinical goals. Currently, microelectrode arrays (MEAs) offer new possibilities for CNS microstimulation. However, although focal CNS activation is of critical importance to achieve efficient stimulation strategies, the precise spatial extent of EES remains poorly understood. The aim of the present work is twofold. First, we validate a finite element model to compute accurately the electrical potential field generated throughout the extracellular medium by an EES delivered with MEAs. This model uses Robin boundary conditions that take into account the surface conductance of electrode/medium interfaces. Using this model, we determine how the potential field is influenced by the stimulation and ground electrode impedances, and by the electrical conductivity of the neural tissue. We confirm that current-controlled stimulations should be preferred to voltage-controlled stimulations in order to control the amplitude of the potential field. Second, we evaluate the focality of the potential field and threshold-distance curves for different electrode configurations. We propose a new configuration to improve the focality, using a ground surface surrounding all the electrodes of the array. We show that the lower the impedance of this surface, the more focal the stimulation. In conclusion, this study proposes new boundary conditions for the design of precise computational models of extracellular stimulation, and a new electrode configuration that can be easily incorporated into future MEA devices, either in vitro or in vivo, for a better spatial control of CNS microstimulation.

Finite element bidomain model of epiretinal stimulation

A finite element model of epiretinal stimulation is presented, consisting of a continuum description of active retinal tissue in contact with bulk vitreous fluid. Simulations were undertaken to investigate the effect of mesh element size in the finite element model on threshold current. The threshold current varied by approximately 0.6% when the maximum mesh element size was changed from 125 to 225 microm. Threshold currents for activation of retinal ganglion cells were determined for electrodes placed at different heights above the retinal surface. These results compared favorably with published experimental data on transretinal electrical stimulation of mammalian retina in an isolated preparation. Model threshold values were some 2-5 times higher than that of the experimental values.

Prosthetic interfaces with the visual system: biological issues

The design of effective visual prostheses for the blind represents a challenge for biomedical engineers and neuroscientists. Significant progress has been made in the miniaturization and processing power of prosthesis electronics; however development lags in the design and construction of effective machine-brain interfaces with visual system neurons. This review summarizes what has been learned about stimulating neurons in the human and primate retina, lateral geniculate nucleus and visual cortex. Each level of the visual system presents unique challenges for neural interface design. Blind patients with the retinal degenerative disease retinitis pigmentosa (RP) are a common population in clinical trials of visual prostheses. The visual performance abilities of normals and RP patients are compared. To generate pattern vision in blind patients, the visual prosthetic interface must effectively stimulate the retinotopically organized neurons in the central visual field to elicit patterned visual percepts. The development of more biologically compatible methods of stimulating visual system neurons is critical to the development of finer spatial percepts. Prosthesis electrode arrays need to adapt to different optimal stimulus locations, stimulus patterns, and patient disease states.

Dipole distance for minimum threshold current to stimulate unmyelinated axons with microelectrodes

Excitation thresholds for long nerve or muscle fibers with two point sources parallel to the fiber axis depend on the dipole length. The aim of this study was to find the optimal interelectrode distance for the minimum stimulation current. For a specific electrode-fiber distance (z_el) dipole length is constrained by the energy efficacy of the electrodes requiring small interelectrode distances, and by rather low stimulation currents requiring large dipole distances. Far-field values for optimal dipole distance (approximately 1.4 *z_el) can be explained by the superposition of the positive parts of the activating functions for the monopolar elements of the dipole. A current redistribution effect in a target fiber close to the electrodes shifts the dipole length for threshold stimulation from the theoretical optimal activating function approach value towards greater dipole distances. Spike initiations in straight fibers and retinal ganglion cell axons are investigated.

Sites of neuronal excitation by epiretinal electrical stimulation

Action potentials arising from retinal ganglion cells ultimately create visual percepts. In persons blind from retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration, viable retinal ganglion cells remain, and the retina can be stimulated electrically to restore partial sight. However, it is unclear what neuronal elements in the retina are activated by epiretinal electrical stimulation. This study investigated the effects of cellular geometry, electrode to neuron distance, stimulus duration, and stimulus polarity on excitation of a retinal ganglion cell with an epiretinal electrode. Computer-based compartmental models representing simplified retinal ganglion cell morphology provided evidence that the threshold for excitation was lower when an electrode was located in proximity to the characteristic 90 degrees bend in the axon of the retinal ganglion cell than when it was located over a passing axon of the nerve fiber layer. This electrode-position-dependent difference in threshold occurred with both cathodic and anodic monophasic stimuli, with point source and disk electrodes, at multiple electrode-to-neuron distances, and was robust to changes in the electrical properties of the model. This finding reveals that the physical geometry of the retinal ganglion cells produces stimulation thresholds that depend strongly on electrode position. The low excitation thresholds near the bend in the axon will result in activation of cells local to the electrode at lower currents than required to excite passing axons. This pattern of activation provides a potential explanation of how epiretinal electrical stimulation results in the production of punctuate, rather than diffuse or streaky phosphenes.

A bidomain model of epiretinal stimulation

A computational bidomain model of epiretinal stimulation is presented, consisting of a continuum description of active retinal tissue in contact with bulk vitreous fluid. Results from two-electrode and four-electrode bipolar stimulation suggest that a biphasic cathodic-anodic stimulus sequence is effective in providing targeted focal activation of retinal tissue. Undesired secondary activations beneath each electrode return may be eliminated by using multiple returns for each stimulus electrode.

How the retinal network reacts to epiretinal stimulation to form the prosthetic visual input to the cortex

We considered the problem of determining how the retinal network may interact with electrical epiretinal stimulation in shaping the spike trains of ON and OFF ganglion cells, and thus the synaptic input to first-stage cortical neurons. To do so, we developed a biophysical model of the retinal network with nine stacked neuronal mosaics. Here, we describe the model's behavior under (i) electrical stimulation of a retina with complete cone photoreceptor loss, but an otherwise intact circuitry and (ii) electrical stimulation of a fully-functional retina. Our results show that electrical stimulation alone results in indiscriminate excitation of ON and OFF ganglion cells and a patchy input to the cortex with islands of excitation among regions of no net excitation. Activation of the retinal network biases the excitation of ON relative to OFF ganglion cells, and in addition, gradually interpolates and focuses the initial, patchy synaptic input to the cortex. As stimulation level increases, the cortical input spreads beyond the area occupied by the electrode contact. Further, at very strong stimulation levels, ganglion cell responses begin to saturate, resulting in a significant distortion in the spatial profile of the cortical input. These findings occur in both the normal and the degenerated retina simulations, but the normal retina exhibits a tighter spatiotemporal response. The complex spatiotemporal dynamics of the prosthetic input to the cortex that are revealed by our model should be addressed by prosthetic image encoders and by studies that simulate prosthetic vision.