Conductivity Tensor Imaging of In Vivo Human Brain and Experimental Validation Using Giant Vesicle Suspension

Feasibility of Magnetic Resonance-Based Conductivity Imaging as a Tool to Estimate the Severity of Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury in the First Hours After Cardiac Arrest

BACKGROUND

Early identification of the severity of hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI) after cardiac arrest can be used to help plan appropriate subsequent therapy. We evaluated whether conductivity of cerebral tissue measured using magnetic resonance-based conductivity imaging (MRCI), which provides contrast derived from the concentration and mobility of ions within the imaged tissue, can reflect the severity of HIBI in the early hours after cardiac arrest.

METHODS

Fourteen minipigs were resuscitated after 5 min or 12 min of untreated cardiac arrest. MRCI was performed at baseline and at 1 h and 3.5 h after return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC).

RESULTS

In both groups, the conductivity of cerebral tissue significantly increased at 1 h after ROSC compared with that at baseline (P = 0.031 and 0.016 in the 5-min and 12-min groups, respectively). The increase was greater in the 12-min group, resulting in significantly higher conductivity values in the 12-min group (P = 0.030). At 3.5 h after ROSC, the conductivity of cerebral tissue in the 12-min group remained increased (P = 0.022), whereas that in the 5-min group returned to its baseline level.

CONCLUSIONS

The conductivity of cerebral tissue was increased in the first hours after ROSC, and the increase was more prominent and lasted longer in the 12-min group than in the 5-min group. Our findings suggest the promising potential of MRCI as a tool to estimate the severity of HIBI in the early hours after cardiac arrest.

Estimations of Charge Deposition Onto Convoluted Axon Surfaces Within Extracellular Electric Fields

OBJECTIVE

Biophysical models of neural stimulation are a valuable approach to explaining the mechanisms of neuronal recruitment via applied extracellular electric fields. Typically, the applied electric field is estimated via a macroscopic finite element method solution and then applied to cable models as an extracellular voltage source. However, the field resolution is limited by the finite element size (typically 10's-100's of times greater than average neuronal cross-section). As a result, induced charges deposited onto anatomically realistic curved membrane interfaces are not taken into consideration. However, these details may alter estimates of the applied electric field and predictions of neural tissue activation.

METHODS

To estimate microscopic variations of the electric field, data for intra-axonal space segmented from 3D scanning electron microscopy of the mouse brain genu of corpus callosum were used. The boundary element fast multipole method was applied to accurately compute the extracellular solution. Neuronal recruitment was then estimated via an activating function.

RESULTS

Taking the physical structure of the arbor into account generally predicts higher values of the activating function. The relative integral 2-norm difference is 90% on average when the entire axonal arbor is present. A large fraction of this difference might be due to the axonal body itself. When an isolated physical axon is considered with all other axons removed, the relative integral 2-norm difference between the single-axon solution and the complete solution is 25% on average.

CONCLUSION

Our result may provide an explanation as to why Deep Brain Stimulation experiments typically predict lower activation thresholds than commonly used FEM/Cable model approaches to predicting neuronal responses to extracellular electrical stimulation.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results may change methods for bi-domain neural modeling and neural excitation.

Estimation of brain tissue response by electrical stimulation in a subject-specific model implemented by conductivity tensor imaging

Electrical stimulation such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is widely used to treat neuropsychiatric diseases and neurological disorders. Computational modeling is an important approach to understand the mechanisms underlying tDCS and optimize treatment planning. When applying computational modeling to treatment planning, uncertainties exist due to insufficient conductivity information inside the brain. In this feasibility study, we performed in vivo MR-based conductivity tensor imaging (CTI) experiments on the entire brain to precisely estimate the tissue response to the electrical stimulation. A recent CTI method was applied to obtain low-frequency conductivity tensor images. Subject-specific three-dimensional finite element models (FEMs) of the head were implemented by segmenting anatomical MR images and integrating a conductivity tensor distribution. The electric field and current density of brain tissues following electrical stimulation were calculated using a conductivity tensor-based model and compared to results using an isotropic conductivity model from literature values. The current density by the conductivity tensor was different from the isotropic conductivity model, with an average relative difference |rD| of 52 to 73%, respectively, across two normal volunteers. When applied to two tDCS electrode montages of C3-FP2 and F4-F3, the current density showed a focused distribution with high signal intensity which is consistent with the current flowing from the anode to the cathode electrodes through the white matter. The gray matter tended to carry larger amounts of current densities regardless of directional information. We suggest this CTI-based subject-specific model can provide detailed information on tissue responses for personalized tDCS treatment planning.

High frequency conductivity decomposition by solving physically constraint underdetermined inverse problem in human brain

The developed magnetic resonance electrical properties tomography (MREPT) can visualize the internal conductivity distribution at Larmor frequency by measuring the B1 transceive phase data from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The recovered high-frequency conductivity (HFC) value is highly complex and heterogeneous in a macroscopic imaging voxel. Using high and low b-value diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) data, the multi-compartment spherical mean technique (MC-SMT) characterizes the water molecule movement within and between intra- and extra-neurite compartments by analyzing the microstructures and underlying architectural organization of brain tissues. The proposed method decomposes the recovered HFC into the conductivity values in the intra- and extra-neurite compartments via the recovered intra-neurite volume fraction (IVF) and the diffusion patterns using DWI data. As a form of decomposition of intra- and extra-neurite compartments, the problem to determine the intra- and extra-neurite conductivity values from the HFC is still an underdetermined inverse problem. To solve the underdetermined problem, we use the compartmentalized IVF as a criterion to decompose the electrical properties because the ion-concentration and mobility have different characteristics in the intra- and extra-neurite compartments. The proposed method determines a representative apparent intra- and extra-neurite conductivity values by changing the underdetermined equation for a voxel into an over-determined minimization problem over a local window consisting of surrounding voxels. To suppress the noise amplification and estimate a feasible conductivity, we define a diffusion pattern distance to weight the over-determined system in the local window. To quantify the proposed method, we conducted a simulation experiment. The simulation experiments show the relationships between the noise reduction and the spatial resolution depending on the designed local window sizes and diffusion pattern distance. Human brain experiments (five young healthy volunteers and a patient with brain tumor) were conducted to evaluate and validate the reliability of the proposed method. To quantitatively compare the results with previously developed methods, we analyzed the errors for reconstructed extra-neurite conductivity using existing methods and indirectly verified the feasibility of the proposed method.

Measurement of extracellular volume fraction using magnetic resonance-based conductivity tensor imaging

Conductivity tensor imaging (CTI) using MRI is an advanced method that can non-invasively measure the electrical properties of living tissues. The contrast of CTI is based on underlying hypothesis about the proportionality between the mobility and diffusivity of ions and water molecules inside tissues. The experimental validation of CTI in both in vitro and in vivo settings is required as a reliable tool to assess tissue conditions. The changes in extracellular space can be indicators for disease progression, such as fibrosis, edema, and cell swelling. In this study, we conducted a phantom imaging experiment to test the feasibility of CTI for measuring the extracellular volume fraction in biological tissue. To mimic tissue conditions with different extracellular volume fractions, four chambers of giant vesicle suspension (GVS) with different vesicle densities were included in the phantom. The reconstructed CTI images of the phantom were compared with the separately-measured conductivity spectra of the four chambers using an impedance analyzer. Moreover, the values of the estimated extracellular volume fraction in each chamber were compared with those measured by a spectrophotometer. As the vesicle density increased, we found that the extracellular volume fraction, extracellular diffusion coefficient, and low-frequency conductivity decreased, while the intracellular diffusion coefficient slightly increased. On the other hand, the high-frequency conductivity could not clearly distinguish the four chambers. The extracellular volume fraction measured by the spectrophotometer and CTI method in each chamber were quite comparable, i.e., (1.00, 0.98 ± 0.01), (0.59, 0.63 ± 0.02), (0.40, 0.40 ± 0.05), and (0.16, 0.18 ± 0.02). The prominent factor influencing the low-frequency conductivity at different GVS densities was the extracellular volume fraction. Further studies are needed to validate the CTI method as a tool to measure the extracellular volume fractions in living tissues with different intracellular and extracellular compartments.

Measurement of extracellular volume fraction using magnetic resonance-based conductivity tensor imaging

Conductivity tensor imaging (CTI) using MRI is an advanced method that can non-invasively measure the electrical properties of living tissues. The contrast of CTI is based on underlying hypothesis about the proportionality between the mobility and diffusivity of ions and water molecules inside tissues. The experimental validation of CTI in both in vitro and in vivo settings is required as a reliable tool to assess tissue conditions. The changes in extracellular space can be indicators for disease progression, such as fibrosis, edema, and cell swelling. In this study, we conducted a phantom imaging experiment to test the feasibility of CTI for measuring the extracellular volume fraction in biological tissue. To mimic tissue conditions with different extracellular volume fractions, four chambers of giant vesicle suspension (GVS) with different vesicle densities were included in the phantom. The reconstructed CTI images of the phantom were compared with the separately-measured conductivity spectra of the four chambers using an impedance analyzer. Moreover, the values of the estimated extracellular volume fraction in each chamber were compared with those measured by a spectrophotometer. As the vesicle density increased, we found that the extracellular volume fraction, extracellular diffusion coefficient, and low-frequency conductivity decreased, while the intracellular diffusion coefficient slightly increased. On the other hand, the high-frequency conductivity could not clearly distinguish the four chambers. The extracellular volume fraction measured by the spectrophotometer and CTI method in each chamber were quite comparable, i.e., (1.00, 0.98 ± 0.01), (0.59, 0.63 ± 0.02), (0.40, 0.40 ± 0.05), and (0.16, 0.18 ± 0.02). The prominent factor influencing the low-frequency conductivity at different GVS densities was the extracellular volume fraction. Further studies are needed to validate the CTI method as a tool to measure the extracellular volume fractions in living tissues with different intracellular and extracellular compartments.

Effects of Irradiation on Brain Tumors Using MR-Based Electrical Conductivity Imaging

Ionizing radiation delivers sufficient energy inside the human body to create ions, which kills cancerous tissues either by damaging the DNA directly or by creating charged particles that can damage the DNA. Recent magnetic resonance (MR)-based conductivity imaging shows higher sensitivity than other MR techniques for evaluating the responses of normal tissues immediately after irradiation. However, it is still necessary to verify the responses of cancer tissues to irradiation by conductivity imaging for it to become a reliable tool in evaluating therapeutic effects in clinical practice. In this study, we applied MR-based conductivity imaging to mouse brain tumors to evaluate the responses in irradiated and non-irradiated tissues during the peri-irradiation period. Absolute conductivities of brain tissues were measured to quantify the irradiation effects, and the percentage changes were determined to estimate the degree of response. The conductivity of brain tissues with irradiation was higher than that without irradiation for all tissue types. The percentage changes of tumor tissues with irradiation were clearly different than those without irradiation. The measured conductivity and percentage changes between tumor rims and cores to irradiation were clearly distinguished. The contrast of the conductivity images following irradiation may reflect the response to the changes in cellularity and the amounts of electrolytes in tumor tissues.

Measurement and image-based estimation of dielectric properties of biological tissues —past, present, and future—

The dielectric properties of biological tissues are fundamental pararmeters that are essential for electromagnetic modeling of the human body. The primary database of dielectric properties compiled in 1996 on the basis of dielectric measurements at frequencies from 10 Hz to 20 GHz has attracted considerable attention in the research field of human protection from non-ionizing radiation. This review summarizes findings on the dielectric properties of biological tissues at frequencies up to 1 THz since the database was developed. Although the 1996 database covered general (normal) tissues, this review also covers malignant tissues that are of interest in the research field of medical applications. An intercomparison of dielectric properties based on reported data is presented for several tissue types. Dielectric properties derived from image-based estimation techniques developed as a result of recent advances in dielectric measurement are also included. Finally, research essential for future advances in human body modeling is discussed.

Shamo: A Tool for Electromagnetic Modeling, Simulation and Sensitivity Analysis of the Head

Accurate electromagnetic modeling of the head of a subject is of main interest in the fields of source reconstruction and brain stimulation. Those processes rely heavily on the quality of the model and, even though the geometry of the tissues can be extracted from magnetic resonance images (MRI) or computed tomography (CT), their physical properties such as the electrical conductivity are difficult to measure with non intrusive techniques. In this paper, we propose a tool to assess the uncertainty in the model parameters, the tissue conductivity, as well as compute a parametric forward models for electroencephalography (EEG) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) current distribution.

The influence of white matter lesions on the electric field in transcranial electric stimulation

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Sensitivity analysis allows the simulation of tDCS with uncertain conductivities.

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White matter lesions (WML) have no global influence on the electric field in tDCS.

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In subjects with a high lesion load, a local influence can be observed.

•

In low to medium lesion load subjects, explicit modeling of WML is not required.

Background

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a promising tool to enhance therapeutic efforts, for instance, after a stroke. The achieved stimulation effects exhibit high inter-subject variability, primarily driven by perturbations of the induced electric field (EF). Differences are further elevated in the aging brain due to anatomical changes such as atrophy or lesions. Informing tDCS protocols by computer-based, individualized EF simulations is a suggested measure to mitigate this variability.

Objective

While brain anatomy in general and specifically atrophy as well as stroke lesions are deemed influential on the EF in simulation studies, the influence of the uncertainty in the change of the electrical properties of the white matter due to white matter lesions (WMLs) has not been quantified yet.

Methods

A group simulation study with 88 subjects assigned into four groups of increasing lesion load was conducted. Due to the lack of information about the electrical conductivity of WMLs, an uncertainty analysis was employed to quantify the variability in the simulation when choosing an arbitrary conductivity value for the lesioned tissue.

Results

The contribution of WMLs to the EF variance was on average only one tenth to one thousandth of the contribution of the other modeled tissues. While the contribution of the WMLs significantly increased (p≪.01) in subjects exhibiting a high lesion load compared to low lesion load subjects, typically by a factor of 10 and above, the total variance of the EF didnot change with the lesion load.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that WMLs do not perturb the EF globally and can thus be omitted when modeling subjects with low to medium lesion load. However, for high lesion load subjects, the omission of WMLs may yield less robust local EF estimations in the vicinity of the lesioned tissue. Our results contribute to the efforts of accurate modeling of tDCS for treatment planning.

Image-Based Evaluation of Irradiation Effects in Brain Tissues by Measuring Absolute Electrical Conductivity Using MRI

Radiation-induced injury is damage to normal tissues caused by unintentional exposure to ionizing radiation. Image-based evaluation of tissue damage by irradiation has an advantage for the early assessment of therapeutic effects by providing sensitive information on minute tissue responses in situ. Recent magnetic resonance (MR)-based electrical conductivity imaging has shown potential as an effective early imaging biomarker for treatment response and radiation-induced injury. However, to be a tool for evaluating therapeutic effects, validation of its reliability and sensitivity according to various irradiation conditions is required. We performed MR-based electrical conductivity imaging on designed phantoms to confirm the effect of ionizing radiation at different doses and on in vivo mouse brains to distinguish tissue response depending on different doses and the elapsed time after irradiation. To quantify the irradiation effects, we measured the absolute conductivity of brain tissues and calculated relative conductivity changes based on the value of pre-irradiation. The conductivity of the phantoms with the distilled water and saline solution increased linearly with the irradiation doses. The conductivity of in vivo mouse brains showed different time-course variations and residual contrast depending on the irradiation doses. Future studies will focus on validation at long-term time points, including early and late delayed response and evaluation of irradiation effects in various tissue types.

Comparison of Five Conductivity Tensor Models and Image Reconstruction Methods Using MRI

Imaging of the electrical conductivity distribution inside the human body has been investigated for numerous clinical applications. The conductivity tensors of biological tissue have been obtained from water diffusion tensors by applying several models, which may not cover the entire phenomenon. Recently, a new conductivity tensor imaging (CTI) method was developed through a combination of B1 mapping, and multi-b diffusion weighted imaging. In this study, we compared the most recent CTI method with the four existing models of conductivity tensors reconstruction. Two conductivity phantoms were designed to evaluate the accuracy of the models. Applied to five human brains, the conductivity tensors using the four existing models and CTI were imaged and compared with the values from the literature. The conductivity image of the phantoms by the CTI method showed relative errors between 1.10% and 5.26%. The images by the four models using DTI could not measure the effects of different ion concentrations subsequently due to prior information of the mean conductivity values. The conductivity tensor images obtained from five human brains through the CTI method were comparable to previously reported literature values. The images by the four methods using DTI were highly correlated with the diffusion tensor images, showing a coefficient of determination (R2) value of 0.65 to 1.00. However, the images by the CTI method were less correlated with the diffusion tensor images and exhibited an averaged R2 value of 0.51. The CTI method could handle the effects of different ion concentrations as well as mobilities and extracellular volume fractions by collecting and processing additional B1 map data. It is necessary to select an application-specific model taking into account the pros and cons of each model. Future studies are essential to confirm the usefulness of these conductivity tensor imaging methods in clinical applications, such as tumor characterization, EEG source imaging, and treatment planning for electrical stimulation.

Conductivity Tensor Imaging of the Human Brain Using Water Mapping Techniques

Conductivity tensor imaging (CTI) has been recently proposed to map the conductivity tensor in 3D using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at the frequency range of the brain at rest, i.e., low-frequencies. Conventional CTI mapping methods process the trans-receiver phase of the MRI signal using the MR electric properties tomography (MR-EPT) technique, which in turn involves the application of the Laplace operator. This results in CTI maps with a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), artifacts at tissue boundaries and a limited spatial resolution. In order to improve on these aspects, a methodology independent from the MR-EPT method is proposed. This relies on the strong assumption for which electrical conductivity is univocally pre-determined by water concentration. In particular, CTI maps are calculated by combining high-frequency conductivity derived from water maps and multi b-value diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data. Following the implementation of a pipeline to optimize the pre-processing of diffusion data and the fitting routine of a multi-compartment diffusivity model, reconstructed conductivity images were evaluated in terms of the achieved spatial resolution in five healthy subjects scanned at rest. We found that the pre-processing of diffusion data and the optimization of the fitting procedure improve the quality of conductivity maps. We achieve reproducible measurements across healthy participants and, in particular, we report conductivity values across subjects of 0.55 ± 0.01Sm, 0.3 ± 0.01Sm and 2.15 ± 0.02Sm for gray matter (GM), white matter (WM), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), respectively. By attaining an actual spatial resolution of the conductivity tensor close to 1 mm in-plane isotropic, partial volume effects are reduced leading to good discrimination of tissues with similar conductivity values, such as GM and WM. The application of the proposed framework may contribute to a better definition of the head tissue compartments in electroencephalograpy/magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG) source imaging and be used as biomarker for assessing conductivity changes in pathological conditions, such as stroke and brain tumors.

Degree of improving TMS focality through a geometrically stable solution of an inverse TMS problem

The Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) inverse problem (TMS-IP) investigated in this study aims to focus the TMS induced electric field close to a specified target point defined on the gray matter interface in the M1_HAND area while otherwise minimizing it. The goal of the study is to numerically evaluate the degree of improvement of the TMS-IP solutions relative to the well-known sulcus-aligned mapping (a projection approach with the 90^∘ local sulcal angle). In total, 1536 individual TMS-IP solutions have been analyzed for multiple target points and multiple subjects using the boundary element fast multipole method (BEM-FMM) as the forward solver. Our results show that the optimal TMS inverse-problem solutions improve the focality - reduce the size of the field "hot spot" and its deviation from the target - by approximately 21-33% on average for all considered subjects, all observation points, two distinct coil types, two segmentation types, two intracortical observation surfaces under study, and three tested values of the field threshold. The inverse-problem solutions with the maximized focality simultaneously improve the TMS mapping resolution (differentiation between neighbor targets separated by approximately 10 mm) although this improvement is quite modest. Coil position/orientation and conductivity uncertainties have been included into consideration as the corresponding de-focalization factors. The present results will change when the levels of uncertainties change. Our results also indicate that the accuracy of the head segmentation critically influences the expected TMS-IP performance.

High-frequency conductivity at Larmor-frequency in human brain using moving local window multilayer perceptron neural network

Magnetic resonance electrical properties tomography (MREPT) aims to visualize the internal high-frequency conductivity distribution at Larmor frequency using the B1 transceive phase data. From the magnetic field perturbation by the electrical field associated with the radiofrequency (RF) magnetic field, the high-frequency conductivity and permittivity distributions inside the human brain have been reconstructed based on the Maxwell’s equation. Starting from the Maxwell’s equation, the complex permittivity can be described as a second order elliptic partial differential equation. The established reconstruction algorithms have focused on simplifying and/or regularizing the elliptic partial differential equation to reduce the noise artifact. Using the nonlinear relationship between the Maxwell’s equation, measured magnetic field, and conductivity distribution, we design a deep learning model to visualize the high-frequency conductivity in the brain, directly derived from measured magnetic flux density. The designed moving local window multi-layer perceptron (MLW-MLP) neural network by sliding local window consisting of neighboring voxels around each voxel predicts the high-frequency conductivity distribution in each local window. The designed MLW-MLP uses a family of multiple groups, consisting of the gradients and Laplacian of measured B1 phase data, as the input layer in a local window. The output layer of MLW-MLP returns the conductivity values in each local window. By taking a non-local mean filtering approach in the local window, we reconstruct a noise suppressed conductivity image while maintaining spatial resolution. To verify the proposed method, we used B1 phase datasets acquired from eight human subjects (five subjects for training procedure and three subjects for predicting the conductivity in the brain).

Decomposition of high-frequency electrical conductivity into extracellular and intracellular compartments based on two-compartment model using low-to-high multi-b diffusion MRI

Background

As an object’s electrical passive property, the electrical conductivity is proportional to the mobility and concentration of charged carriers that reflect the brain micro-structures. The measured multi-b diffusion-weighted imaging (Mb-DWI) data by controlling the degree of applied diffusion weights can quantify the apparent mobility of water molecules within biological tissues. Without any external electrical stimulation, magnetic resonance electrical properties tomography (MREPT) techniques have successfully recovered the conductivity distribution at a Larmor-frequency.

Methods

This work provides a non-invasive method to decompose the high-frequency conductivity into the extracellular medium conductivity based on a two-compartment model using Mb-DWI. To separate the intra- and extracellular micro-structures from the recovered high-frequency conductivity, we include higher b-values DWI and apply the random decision forests to stably determine the micro-structural diffusion parameters.

Results

To demonstrate the proposed method, we conducted phantom and human experiments by comparing the results of reconstructed conductivity of extracellular medium and the conductivity in the intra-neurite and intra-cell body. The phantom and human experiments verify that the proposed method can recover the extracellular electrical properties from the high-frequency conductivity using a routine protocol sequence of MRI scan.

Conclusion

We have proposed a method to decompose the electrical properties in the extracellular, intra-neurite, and soma compartments from the high-frequency conductivity map, reconstructed by solving the electro-magnetic equation with measured B1 phase signals.

MR-Based Electrical Conductivity Imaging of Liver Fibrosis in an Experimental Rat Model

BACKGROUND

Liver fibrosis is characterized by the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins. Electrical conductivity imaging at low frequency can provide novel contrast because the contrast mechanisms originate from the changes in the concentration and mobility of ions in the extracellular space.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the feasibility of an MR-based electrical conductivity imaging that can detect the changes in a tissue condition associated with the progression of liver fibrosis.

STUDY TYPE

Prospective phantom and animal study.

ANIMAL MODEL

Fibrosis was induced by weekly intraperitoneal injection of dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) in 45 male Sprague-Dawley rats.

FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE

3T MRI with a multispin-echo pulse sequence.

ASSESSMENT

The percentage change of conductivity (Δσ, %) in the same region-of-interest (ROI) was calculated from the DMN-treated rats based on the values of the normal control rats. The percentage change was also calculated between the ROIs in each DMN-treated group.

STATISTICAL TESTS

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a two-sample t-test were performed.

RESULTS

Liver tissues in normal control rats showed a uniform conductivity distribution of 56.6 ± 4.4 (mS/m). In rats more than 5 weeks after induction, the fibrous region showed an increased conductivity of ≥12% compared to that of the corresponding normal control rats. From regional comparisons in the same liver, the fibrous region showed an increased conductivity of ≥11% compared to the opposite, less induced region of rats more than 5 weeks after induction. Liver samples from the fibrous region represent tissue damages such as diffuse centrilobular congestion with marked dilatation of central veins from the histological findings. Immunohistochemistry revealed significant levels of attenuated fibrosis and increased inflammatory response.

DATA CONCLUSION

The increased conductivity in the fibrous region is related to the changes of the extracellular space. The correlation between the collagen deposition and conductivity changes is essential for future clinical studies. Level of Evidence 2 Technical Efficacy Stage 2 J. MAGN. RESON. IMAGING 2021;53:554-563.

Validation of conductivity tensor imaging using giant vesicle suspensions with different ion mobilities

Background

Electrical conductivity of a biological tissue at low frequencies can be approximately expressed as a tensor. Noting that cross-sectional imaging of a low-frequency conductivity tensor distribution inside the human body has wide clinical applications of many bioelectromagnetic phenomena, a new conductivity tensor imaging (CTI) technique has been lately developed using an MRI scanner. Since the technique is based on a few assumptions between mobility and diffusivity of ions and water molecules, experimental validations are needed before applying it to clinical studies.

Methods

We designed two conductivity phantoms each with three compartments. The compartments were filled with electrolytes and/or giant vesicle suspensions. The giant vesicles were cell-like materials with thin insulating membranes. We controlled viscosity of the electrolytes and the giant vesicle suspensions to change ion mobility and therefore conductivity values. The conductivity values of the electrolytes and giant vesicle suspensions were measured using an impedance analyzer before CTI experiments. A 9.4-T research MRI scanner was used to reconstruct conductivity tensor images of the phantoms.

Results

The CTI technique successfully reconstructed conductivity tensor images of the phantoms with a voxel size of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$0.5\times 0.5\times 0.5\hbox { mm}^3$$\end{document}0.5×0.5×0.5mm3. The relative \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$L^2$$\end{document}L2 errors between the conductivity values measured by the impedance analyzer and those reconstructed by the MRI scanner was between 1.1 and 11.5.

Conclusions

The accuracy of the new CTI technique was estimated to be high enough for most clinical applications. Future studies of animal models and human subjects should be pursued to show the clinical efficacy of the CTI technique.

Extracellular electrical conductivity property imaging by decomposition of high-frequency conductivity at Larmor-frequency using multi-b-value diffusion-weighted imaging

Magnetic resonance electrical properties tomography (MREPT) uses the B1 mapping technique to provide the high-frequency conductivity distribution at Larmor frequency that simultaneously reflects the intracellular and extracellular effects. In biological tissues, the electrical conductivity can be described as the concentration and mobility of charge carriers. For the water molecule diffusivity, diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) measures the random Brownian motion of water molecules within biological tissues. The DWI data can quantitatively access the mobility of microscopic water molecules within biological tissues. By measuring multi-b-value DWI data and the recovered high-frequency conductivity at Larmor frequency, we propose a new method to decompose the conductivity into the total ion concentration and mobility in the extracellular space (ECS) within a routinely applicable MR scan time. Using the measured multi-b-value DWI data, a constrained compartment model is designed to estimate the extracellular volume fraction and extracellular mean diffusivity. With the extracted extracellular volume fraction and water molecule diffusivity, we directly reconstruct the low-frequency electrical properties including the extracellular mean conductivity and extracellular conductivity tensor. To demonstrate the proposed method by comparing the ion concentration and the ion mobility, we conducted human experiments for the proposed low-frequency conductivity imaging. Human experiments verify that the proposed method can recover the low-frequency electrical properties using a conventional MRI scanner.

Electrical conductivity-based contrast imaging for characterizing prostatic tissues: in vivo animal feasibility study

Background

Electrical conductivity-based magnetic resonance (MR) imaging may provide unique information on tissue condition because its contrast originates from the concentration and mobility of ions in the cellular space. We imaged the conductivity of normal canine prostate in vivo and evaluated tissue contrast in terms of both the conductivity distribution and anatomical significance.

Methods

Five healthy laboratory beagles were used. After clipping the pelvis hair, we attached electrodes and placed each dog inside the bore of an MRI scanner. During MR scanning, we injected imaging currents into two mutually orthogonal directions between two pairs of electrodes. A multi spin echo pulse sequence was used to obtain the MR magnitude and magnetic flux density images. The projected current density algorithm was used to reconstruct the conductivity image.

Results

Conductivity images showed unique contrast depending on the prostatic tissues. From the conductivity distribution, conductivity was highest in the center area and lower in the order of the middle and outer areas of prostatic tissues. The middle and outer areas were, respectively, 11.2 and 25.5% lower than the center area. Considering anatomical significance, conductivity was highest in the central zone and lower in the order of the transitional and peripheral zones in all prostates. The transitional and peripheral zones were, respectively, 7.5 and 17.8% lower than the central zone.

Conclusions

Current conductivity-based MR imaging can differentiate prostatic tissues without using any contrast media or additional MR scans. The electrical conductivity images with unique contrast to tissue condition can provide a prior information on tissues in situ to be used for human imaging.