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Pîrșcoveanu CI, Hansen EA, Franch J, Madeleine P. Walking against the odds: The intricate connection between spatiotemporal characteristics, kinetic and kinematic variables, cognitive stress, and passive assistive exoskeletons in senior and young adults. Hum Mov Sci 2024; 97:103268. [PMID: 39128412 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2024.103268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the combined effects of age, dual-tasking (DT) and a passive hip exoskeleton on gait patterns among senior (SA) and young adults (YA). It was hypothesized that SA will be more affected by DT and that wearing the exoskeleton will improve gait patterns for both groups during DT. Twenty-two SA and twenty-six YA performed a single task (normal walking) and DT walking at their preferred speed with an exoskeleton (EXO), without (noEXO), and a sham version (SHAM) in a randomized and balanced order. Speed, cadence, double support time (DST), step length, hip joint power, range of motion (ROM), and moments (mom), as well as DT performance, were extracted using mocap, force plates (1000 Hz), and a voice recorder. Three-way MANOVA with group × device × condition was conducted (p < .05, inferred significance). Results showed a predominantly significant main effect of group for step length, speed, DST, ROM, and mom (p ≤ .01), main effect of condition for cadence, DST, speed, and mom (p < .01) and a main effect of the device for ROMz and mom (p < .05). Age-related changes were seen by decreased walking speed and step length, independent of DT and use of exoskeleton. Wearing the EXO aided the SA group to maintain similar levels of cadence from single to DT and decreased the hip internal rotation mom by 65%. There was no difference in DT performance between groups. In conclusion, SA showed a decline in gait patterns during DT that was somewhat mitigated by wearing an EXO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina-Ioana Pîrșcoveanu
- Aalborg University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Health Science and Technology, ExerciseTech, Aalborg, Denmark.
| | - Ernst Albin Hansen
- University College Absalon, Centre for Health and Rehabilitation, Slagelse, Denmark
| | - Jesper Franch
- Aalborg University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Health Science and Technology, ExerciseTech, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Pascal Madeleine
- Aalborg University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Health Science and Technology, ExerciseTech, Aalborg, Denmark
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Wade L, Lichtwark G, Farris D. Implementation of a passive bi-articular ankle-knee exoskeleton during maximal squat jumping. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:240390. [PMID: 39086826 PMCID: PMC11288684 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.240390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Owing to the unexplored potential to harness knee extension power during jumping, the current study aimed to examine how joint mechanics were altered with a biologically inspired, passive bi-articular ankle-knee exoskeleton, which could potentially facilitate greater jump height by increasing work production about the knee and ankle. Twenty-five participants (16 males and 9 females, 175.2 ± 8.2 cm, 72.9 ± 10.3 kg, 24.0 ± 3.4 years) performed maximal squat jumping with and without the exoskeletal device and we compared jump height, joint moment and joint work of the lower limbs. Despite a low exoskeleton stiffness and therefore a limited capacity to store energy, the bi-articular device resulted in decreased jump height (1.9 ± 3.1 cm, p = 0.006), decreased net work about the knee (0.23 J/kg, p < 0.001) and no increase in ankle joint work (p = 0.207), compared with jumping with no exoskeleton. Based on our findings, to mimic unassisted ankle joint moment profiles, a future bi-articular device would need increased elastic element slack length, greater stiffness and a larger moment arm about the ankle. Future designs could also employ attachment sites that have minimal overlying soft tissue, such as the pelvis, to improve comfort of the device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Logan Wade
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Glen Lichtwark
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Dominic Farris
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Public Health & Sport Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
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Ostraich B, Riemer R. Rethinking Exoskeleton Simulation-Based Design: The Effect of Using Different Cost Functions. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2024; 32:2153-2164. [PMID: 38833397 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2024.3409633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Designing an exoskeleton that can improve user capabilities is a challenging task, and most designs rely on experiments to achieve this goal. A different approach is to use simulation-based designs to determine optimal device parameters. Most of these simulations use full trajectory tracking limb kinematics during a natural gait as a reference. However, exoskeletons typically change the natural gait kinematics of the user. Other types of simulations assume that human gait is optimized for a cost function that combines several objectives, such as the cost of transport, injury prevention, and stabilization. In this study, we use a 2D OpenSim model consisting of 10 degrees of freedom and considering 18 muscles, together with the Moco optimization tool, to investigate the differences between these two approaches with respect to running with a passive knee exoskeleton. Utilizing this model, we test the effect of a full trajectory tracking objective with different weights (representing the importance of the objective in the optimization cost function) and show that when using weights that are typically used in the literature, there is no deviation from the experimental data. Next, we develop a multi-objective cost function with foot clearance term based on peak knee angle during swing, that achieves trajectories similar (RMSE=7.4 deg) to experimental running data. Finally, we investigate the effect of different parameters in the design of a clutch-based passive knee exoskeleton (1.5 kg at each leg) and find that a design that utilizes a 2.5 Nm/deg spring achieves an improvement of up to 8% in net metabolic energy. Our results show that tracking objectives in the cost function, even with a low weight, hinders the simulation's ability to change the gait trajectory. Thus, there is a need for other predictive simulation methods for exoskeletons.
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Luo S, Jiang M, Zhang S, Zhu J, Yu S, Dominguez Silva I, Wang T, Rouse E, Zhou B, Yuk H, Zhou X, Su H. Experiment-free exoskeleton assistance via learning in simulation. Nature 2024; 630:353-359. [PMID: 38867127 PMCID: PMC11344585 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07382-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Exoskeletons have enormous potential to improve human locomotive performance1-3. However, their development and broad dissemination are limited by the requirement for lengthy human tests and handcrafted control laws2. Here we show an experiment-free method to learn a versatile control policy in simulation. Our learning-in-simulation framework leverages dynamics-aware musculoskeletal and exoskeleton models and data-driven reinforcement learning to bridge the gap between simulation and reality without human experiments. The learned controller is deployed on a custom hip exoskeleton that automatically generates assistance across different activities with reduced metabolic rates by 24.3%, 13.1% and 15.4% for walking, running and stair climbing, respectively. Our framework may offer a generalizable and scalable strategy for the rapid development and widespread adoption of a variety of assistive robots for both able-bodied and mobility-impaired individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuzhen Luo
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL, USA
| | - Menghan Jiang
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Sainan Zhang
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Junxi Zhu
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Shuangyue Yu
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Israel Dominguez Silva
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Tian Wang
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Elliott Rouse
- Neurobionics Lab, Department of Robotics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Bolei Zhou
- Department of Computer Science, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hyunwoo Yuk
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Xianlian Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Hao Su
- Lab of Biomechatronics and Intelligent Robotics, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
- Joint NCSU/UNC Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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Raitor M, Ruggles SW, Delp SL, Liu CK, Collins SH. Lower-Limb Exoskeletons Appeal to Both Clinicians and Older Adults, Especially for Fall Prevention and Joint Pain Reduction. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2024; 32:1577-1585. [PMID: 38536680 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2024.3381979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Exoskeletons are a burgeoning technology with many possible applications to improve human life; focusing the effort of exoskeleton research and development on the most important features is essential for facilitating adoption and maximizing positive societal impact. To identify important focus areas for exoskeleton research and development, we conducted a survey with 154 potential users (older adults) and another survey with 152 clinicians. The surveys were conducted online and to ensure a consistent concept of an exoskeleton across respondents, an image of a hip exoskeleton was shown during exoskeleton-related prompts. The survey responses indicate that both older adults and clinicians are open to using exoskeletons, fall prevention and joint pain reduction are especially important features, and users are likely to wear an exoskeleton in the scenarios when it has the greatest opportunity to help prevent a fall. These findings can help inform future exoskeleton research and guide the development of devices that are accepted, used, and provide meaningful benefit to users.
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Mohammadzadeh Gonabadi A, Antonellis P, Dzewaltowski AC, Myers SA, Pipinos II, Malcolm P. Design and Evaluation of a Bilateral Semi-Rigid Exoskeleton to Assist Hip Motion. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:211. [PMID: 38667222 PMCID: PMC11048386 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9040211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This study focused on designing and evaluating a bilateral semi-rigid hip exoskeleton. The exoskeleton assisted the hip joint, capitalizing on its proximity to the body's center of mass. Unlike its rigid counterparts, the semi-rigid design permitted greater freedom of movement. A temporal force-tracking controller allowed us to prescribe torque profiles during walking. We ensured high accuracy by tuning control parameters and series elasticity. The evaluation involved experiments with ten participants across ten force profile conditions with different end-timings and peak magnitudes. Our findings revealed a trend of greater reductions in metabolic cost with assistance provided at later timings in stride and at greater magnitudes. Compared to walking with the exoskeleton powered off, the largest reduction in metabolic cost was 9.1%. This was achieved when providing assistance using an end-timing at 44.6% of the stride cycle and a peak magnitude of 0.11 Nm kg-1. None of the tested conditions reduced the metabolic cost compared to walking without the exoskeleton, highlighting the necessity for further enhancements, such as a lighter and more form-fitting design. The optimal end-timing aligns with findings from other soft hip exosuit devices, indicating a comparable interaction with this prototype to that observed in entirely soft exosuit prototypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arash Mohammadzadeh Gonabadi
- Department of Biomechanics, and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA; (P.A.); (A.C.D.); (S.A.M.); (P.M.)
- Institute for Rehabilitation Science and Engineering, Madonna Rehabilitation Hospitals, Lincoln, NE 68506, USA
| | - Prokopios Antonellis
- Department of Biomechanics, and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA; (P.A.); (A.C.D.); (S.A.M.); (P.M.)
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Alex C. Dzewaltowski
- Department of Biomechanics, and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA; (P.A.); (A.C.D.); (S.A.M.); (P.M.)
- Scholl College of Podiatric Medicine, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine & Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Sara A. Myers
- Department of Biomechanics, and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA; (P.A.); (A.C.D.); (S.A.M.); (P.M.)
- Department of Surgery and Research Service, Nebraska-Western Iowa Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA;
| | - Iraklis I. Pipinos
- Department of Surgery and Research Service, Nebraska-Western Iowa Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA;
- Department of Surgery, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
| | - Philippe Malcolm
- Department of Biomechanics, and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA; (P.A.); (A.C.D.); (S.A.M.); (P.M.)
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Allen SP, Grabowski AM. The spring stiffness profile within a passive, full-leg exoskeleton affects lower-limb joint mechanics while hopping. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231449. [PMID: 38511081 PMCID: PMC10951728 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Passive, full-leg exoskeletons that act in parallel with the legs can reduce the metabolic power of bouncing gaits like hopping. However, the magnitude of metabolic power reduction depends on the spring stiffness profile of the exoskeleton and is presumably affected by how users adapt their lower-limb joint mechanics. We determined the effects of using a passive, full-leg exoskeleton with degressive (DG), linear (LN) and progressive (PG) stiffness springs on lower-limb joint kinematics and kinetics during stationary, bilateral hopping at 2.4 Hz. We found that the use of a passive, full-leg exoskeleton primarily reduced the muscle-tendon units (MTUs) contribution to overall joint moment and power at the ankle, followed by the knee, due to the average exoskeleton moment arm around each joint. The greatest reductions occurred with DG springs, followed by LN and PG stiffness springs, probably due to differences in elastic energy return. Moreover, the relative distribution of positive joint power remained unchanged when using a passive, full-leg exoskeleton compared with unassisted hopping. Passive, full-leg exoskeletons simultaneously assist multiple lower-limb joints and future assistive devices should consider the effects of spring stiffness profile in their design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P. Allen
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Alena M. Grabowski
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Denver, CO, USA
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Song J, Zhu A, Tu Y, Zheng C, Cao G. Magnetorheological Damper With Variable Displacement Permanent Magnet for Assisting the Transfer of Load in Lower Limb Exoskeleton. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2024; 32:43-52. [PMID: 38039179 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2023.3338969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Magnetorheological (MR) fluid exhibits the ability to modulate its shear state through variations in magnetic field intensity, and is widely used for applications requiring damping. Traditional MR dampers use the current in the coil to adjust the magnetic field strength, but the accumulated heat can cause the magnetic field strength to decay if it works for a long time. In order to deal with this shortcoming, a novel MR damper is proposed in this paper, which is based on a variable displacement permanent magnet to adjust the output resistance torque and applied to an exoskeleton joint for human load transfer assistance. A finite element model is used to determine the size parameters of the magnet and separator, so that the maximum output torque is optimal and the torque is uniformly distributed with the magnet displacement. The MR damper was characterized and calibrated on the experimental bench to make it controllable. The novel design enables the torque mass density of the MR damper to reach 8.83Nmm/g, the torque volume density to reach 48.7N/mm2, and has stability for long-term operation. Based on the torque control method proposed, a preliminary human experiment is conducted. The ground reaction force (GRF) data of the subjects is analyzed here, which represents the effect of load transfer to the exoskeleton. Compared with no exoskeleton, the GRF with exoskeleton is significantly reduced: the peak GRF in early stance phase is reduced by 24.14%, and in late stance phase is reduced by 19.77%. Based on our net load benefit (NLB) and net force benefit (NFB) evaluation indicators, the effectiveness of the proposed MR damper exoskeleton for human weight bearing assistance is established.
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Coifman I, Kram R, Riemer R. Metabolic power response to added mass on the lower extremities during running. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2024; 114:104109. [PMID: 37659891 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2023.104109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wearable exoskeletal devices can enhance locomotor performance, but their mass results in a metabolic penalty. Previous studies have quantified the metabolic cost of running with added mass on the feet, but less is known about the effects of adding mass to the thigh and shank segments. AIM To quantify the metabolic cost of running with additional leg mass. METHODS 15 participants (7 F, 8 M) completed treadmill running trials (3 m/s) normally and with lead mass (300-1350 g) attached to either the thigh, shank, or foot, bilaterally. We measured metabolic power using expired gas analysis. RESULTS Per 1000 g of added mass per leg, gross metabolic power increased by approximately 16% (foot) and 11% (shank) for females which was slightly greater than the 11% and 8% increases for males, respectively. For thigh loading, metabolic power increased by just 4% per 1000 g in both sexes. CONCLUSION Adding mass more distally on the leg increases the metabolic cost of running to a greater extent. For the same absolute added mass on the foot or shank, metabolic power increases more in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itay Coifman
- Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Rodger Kram
- Integrative Physiology Department, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Raziel Riemer
- Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
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Coifman I, Kram R, Riemer R. Joint kinematic and kinetic responses to added mass on the lower extremities during running. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2024; 114:104050. [PMID: 37633815 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2023.104050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM We analyzed the biomechanical response (joint angles, moments, and powers) to running with added leg mass. These data may help guide the design of wearable locomotor assistive devices (i.e., exoskeletons), which are becoming more prevalent. METHODS 15 participants (7 females, 8 males) completed treadmill running trials (3m•s-1) normally and with lead mass (300-1350 g) attached to the thigh, shank, or foot, bilaterally. We quantified the lower limb biomechanics combining motion capture and ground reaction force data using standard inverse dynamics analysis. RESULTS Only moderate kinematic changes occurred in response to the distal added limb mass. Maximum hip flexion and maximum knee flexion angles during swing phase increased by approximately 9% and 6% respectively for each 1 kg added to each foot. However, adding even small masses made dramatic changes to the joint moments and powers, mostly during the swing phase. For example, adding 1 kg to each foot increased maximum joint moments by as much as 40% (knee extension in late swing) and maximum joint power by as much as 50% (hip generation in late swing). CONCLUSION Leg joint kinematics were largely conserved in response to adding mass to the legs. Adding mass to the leg distally increased joint power mainly at the knee and hip joints during the swing phase, whereas adding mass proximally mainly affected the ankle joint mechanics during the stance phase. These changes have implications for shoe designs, people who run with added mass on their legs for sport/strength training and for the design of wearable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itay Coifman
- Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Rodger Kram
- Integrative Physiology Department, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Raziel Riemer
- Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
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Stingel JP, Hicks JL, Uhlrich SD, Delp SL. Simulating Muscle-Level Energetic Cost Savings When Humans Run with a Passive Assistive Device. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2023; 8:6267-6274. [PMID: 37745177 PMCID: PMC10512759 DOI: 10.1109/lra.2023.3303094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Connecting the legs with a spring attached to the shoelaces, called an exotendon, can reduce the energetic cost of running, but how the exotendon reduces the energetic burden of individual muscles remains unknown. We generated muscle-driven simulations of seven individuals running with and without the exotendon to discern whether savings occurred during the stance phase or the swing phase, and to identify which muscles contributed to energy savings. We computed differences in muscle-level energy consumption, muscle activations, and changes in muscle-fiber velocity and force between running with and without the exotendon. The seven of nine participants who reduced energy cost when running with the exotendon reduced their measured energy expenditure rate by 0.9 W/kg (8.3%). Simulations predicted a 1.4 W/kg (12.0%) reduction in the average rate of energy expenditure and correctly identified that the exotendon reduced rates of energy expenditure for all seven individuals. Simulations showed most of the savings occurred during stance (1.5 W/kg), though the rate of energy expenditure was also reduced during swing (0.3 W/kg). The energetic savings were distributed across the quadriceps, hip flexor, hip abductor, hamstring, hip adductor, and hip extensor muscle groups, whereas no changes were observed in the plantarflexor or dorsiflexor muscles. Energetic savings were facilitated by reductions in the rate of mechanical work performed by muscles and their estimated rate of heat production. By modeling muscle-level energetics, this simulation framework accurately captured measured changes in whole-body energetics when using an assistive device. This is a useful first step towards using simulation to accelerate device design by predicting how humans will interact with assistive devices that have yet to be built.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon P Stingel
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Jennifer L Hicks
- Bioengineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Scott D Uhlrich
- Bioengineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Scott L Delp
- Departments of Mechanical Engineering, Bioengineering, and Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
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12
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Tang X, Wang X, Xue Y, Wei P. An Unpowered Knee Exoskeleton for Walking Assistance and Energy Capture. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1812. [PMID: 37893249 PMCID: PMC10608919 DOI: 10.3390/mi14101812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
In order to reduce the energy consumption of human daily movement without providing additional power, we considered the biomechanical behavior of the knee during external impedance interactions. Based on the theory of human sports biomechanics, combined with the requirements of human-machine coupling motion consistency and coordination, an unpowered exoskeleton-assisted device for the knee joint is proposed in this paper. The effectiveness of this assisted device was verified using gait experiments and distributed plantar pressure tests with three modes: "not wearing exoskeleton" (No exo.), "wearing exoskeleton with assistance " (Exo. On), and "wearing exoskeleton without assistance" (Exo. Off). The experimental results indicate that (1) This device can effectively enhance the function of the knee, increasing the range of knee movement by 3.72% (p < 0.001). (2) In the early stages of the lower limb swing, this device reduces the activity of muscles in relation to the knee flexion, such as the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and soleus muscles. (3) For the first time, it was found that the movement length of the plantar pressure center was reduced by 6.57% (p = 0.027). This basic principle can be applied to assist the in-depth development of wearable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyao Tang
- School of Mechanical and Precision Instrument Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710048, China
- Research Center for Civil-Military Integration and Protection Equipment Design Innovation, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Xupeng Wang
- School of Mechanical and Precision Instrument Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710048, China
- Research Center for Civil-Military Integration and Protection Equipment Design Innovation, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Yanmin Xue
- School of Mechanical and Precision Instrument Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710048, China
- Research Center for Civil-Military Integration and Protection Equipment Design Innovation, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Pingping Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710043, China
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13
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Moon J, Nam K, Ryu J, Kim Y, Yun J, Yang S, Yang J, Lee G. Reducing sprint time with exosuit assistance in the real world. Sci Robot 2023; 8:eadf5611. [PMID: 37756383 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.adf5611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Hip extension assistance with the aid of exosuits can reduce sprinting time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyoung Moon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kimoon Nam
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jaewook Ryu
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yoosun Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Juseok Yun
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
- HUROTICS Inc., 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seungtae Yang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
- HUROTICS Inc., 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jaeha Yang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
| | - Giuk Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974 Seoul, South Korea
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14
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Ohtsu H, Hase K, Sakoda K, Aoi S, Kita S, Ogaya S. A powered simple walking model explains the decline in propulsive force and hip flexion torque compensation in human gait. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14770. [PMID: 37679376 PMCID: PMC10485060 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41706-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Excessive hip flexion torque to prioritize leg swings in the elderly is likely to be a factor that reduces their propulsive force and gait stability, but the mechanism is not clear. To understand the mechanism, we investigated how propulsive force, hip flexion torque, and margin of stability (MoS) change when only the hip spring stiffness is increased without changing the walking speed in the simple walking model, and verified whether the relationship holds in human walking. The results showed that at walking speeds between 0.50 and 1.75 m/s, increasing hip spring stiffness increased hip flexion torque and decreased the propulsive force and MoS in both the model and human walking. Furthermore, it was found that the increase in hip flexion torque was explained by the increase in spring stiffness, and the decreases in the propulsive force and MoS were explained by the increase in step frequency associated with the increase in spring stiffness. Therefore, the increase in hip flexion torque likely decreased the propulsive force and MoS, and this mechanism was explained by the intervening hip spring stiffness. Our findings may help in the control design of walking assistance devices, and in improving our understanding of elderly walking strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Ohtsu
- Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531, Japan.
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Kazunori Hase
- Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Faculty of Systems Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kouta Sakoda
- Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Systems Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinya Aoi
- Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Kita
- Department of Health and Social Services, Graduate School of Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
- Department of Physical Therapy, Touto Rehabilitation College, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Rehabilitation, Soka Orthopedics Internal Medicine, Saitama, Japan
| | - Shinya Ogaya
- Department of Physical Therapy, Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
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15
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Fang S, Vijayan V, Reissman ME, Kinney AL, Reissman T. Effects of Walking Speed and Added Mass on Hip Joint Quasi-Stiffness in Healthy Young and Middle-Aged Adults. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:4517. [PMID: 37177721 PMCID: PMC10181717 DOI: 10.3390/s23094517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Joint quasi-stiffness has been often used to inform exoskeleton design. Further understanding of hip quasi-stiffness is needed to design hip exoskeletons. Of interest are wearer responses to walking speed changes with added mass of the exoskeleton. This study analyzed hip quasi-stiffness at 3 walking speed levels and 9 added mass distributions among 13 young and 16 middle-aged adults during mid-stance hip extension and late-stance hip flexion. Compared to young adults, middle-aged adults maintained a higher quasi-stiffness with a smaller range. For a faster walking speed, both age groups increased extension and flexion quasi-stiffness. With mass evenly distributed on the pelvis and thighs or biased to the pelvis, both groups maintained or increased extension quasi-stiffness. With mass biased to the thighs, middle-aged adults maintained or decreased extension quasi-stiffness while young adults increased it. Young adults decreased flexion quasi-stiffness with added mass but not in any generalizable pattern with mass amounts or distributions. Conversely, middle-aged adults maintained or decreased flexion quasi-stiffness with even distribution on the pelvis and thighs or biased to the pelvis, while no change occurred if biased to the thighs. In conclusion, these results can guide the design of a hip exoskeleton's size and mass distribution according to the intended user's age.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Timothy Reissman
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH 45469, USA
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16
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Siviy C, Baker LM, Quinlivan BT, Porciuncula F, Swaminathan K, Awad LN, Walsh CJ. Opportunities and challenges in the development of exoskeletons for locomotor assistance. Nat Biomed Eng 2023; 7:456-472. [PMID: 36550303 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-022-00984-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Exoskeletons can augment the performance of unimpaired users and restore movement in individuals with gait impairments. Knowledge of how users interact with wearable devices and of the physiology of locomotion have informed the design of rigid and soft exoskeletons that can specifically target a single joint or a single activity. In this Review, we highlight the main advances of the past two decades in exoskeleton technology and in the development of lower-extremity exoskeletons for locomotor assistance, discuss research needs for such wearable robots and the clinical requirements for exoskeleton-assisted gait rehabilitation, and outline the main clinical challenges and opportunities for exoskeleton technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Siviy
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lauren M Baker
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Brendan T Quinlivan
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Franchino Porciuncula
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences: Sargent, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Krithika Swaminathan
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Louis N Awad
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences: Sargent, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Conor J Walsh
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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17
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Williamson JL, Lichtwark GA, Sawicki GS, Dick TJM. The influence of elastic ankle exoskeletons on lower limb mechanical energetics during unexpected perturbations. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:221133. [PMID: 36756059 PMCID: PMC9890106 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Passive elastic ankle exoskeletons have been used to augment locomotor performance during walking, running and hopping. In this study, we aimed to determine how these passive devices influence lower limb joint and whole-body mechanical energetics to maintain stable upright hopping during rapid, unexpected perturbations. We recorded lower limb kinematics and kinetics while participants hopped with exoskeleton assistance (0, 76 and 91 Nm rad-1) on elevated platforms (15 and 20 cm) which were rapidly removed at an unknown time. Given that springs cannot generate nor dissipate energy, we hypothesized that passive ankle exoskeletons would reduce stability during an unexpected perturbation. Our results demonstrate that passive exoskeletons lead to a brief period of instability during unexpected perturbations - characterized by increased hop height. However, users rapidly stabilize via a distal-to-proximal redistribution of joint work such that the knee performs an increased energy dissipation role and stability is regained within one hop cycle. Together, these results demonstrate that despite the inability of elastic exoskeletons to directly dissipate mechanical energy, humans can still effectively dissipate the additional energy of a perturbation, regain stability and recover from a rapid unexpected vertical perturbation to maintain upright hopping.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L. Williamson
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Glen A. Lichtwark
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Gregory S. Sawicki
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Taylor J. M. Dick
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
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18
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Zhou T, Zhou Z, Zhang H, Chen W. Modulating Multiarticular Energy during Human Walking and Running with an Unpowered Exoskeleton. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:8539. [PMID: 36366237 PMCID: PMC9653640 DOI: 10.3390/s22218539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Researchers have made advances in reducing the metabolic rate of both walking and running by modulating mono-articular energy with exoskeletons. However, how to modulate multiarticular energy with exoskeletons to improve the energy economy of both walking and running is still a challenging problem, due to the lack of understanding of energy transfer among human lower-limb joints. Based on the study of the energy recycling and energy transfer function of biarticular muscles, we proposed a hip-knee unpowered exoskeleton that emulates and reinforces the function of the hamstrings and rectus femoris in different gait phases. The biarticular exo-tendon of the exoskeleton assists hamstrings to recycle the kinetic energy of the leg swing while providing hip extension torque in the swing phase. In the following stance phase, the exo-tendon releases the stored energy to assist the co-contraction of gluteus maximus and rectus femoris for both hip extension and knee extension, thus realizing the phased modulation of hip and knee joint energy. The metabolic rate of both walking (1.5 m/s) and running (2.5 m/s) can be reduced by 6.2% and 4.0% with the multiarticular energy modulation of a hip-knee unpowered exoskeleton, compared to that of walking and running without an exoskeleton. The bio-inspired design method of this study may inspire people to develop devices that assist multiple gaits in the future.
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19
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The Effects of Unpowered Soft Exoskeletons on Preferred Gait Features and Resonant Walking. MACHINES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/machines10070585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Resonant walking with preferred gait features is a self-optimized consequence of long-term human locomotion. Minimal energy expenditure can be achieved in this resonant condition. This unpowered multi-joint soft exoskeleton is designed to test whether: (1) there is an obvious improvement in preferred speed and other gait features; (2) resonant walking still exists with exoskeleton assistance. Healthy participants (N = 7) were asked to perform the following trials: (1) walking at 1.25 m/s without assistance (normal condition); (2) walking at 1.25 m/s with assistance (general condition); (3) walking at preferred speed with assistance (preferred condition); (4) walking at the speed in trial (3) without assistance (comparison condition). Participants walked at the preferred frequency and ±10% of it. An average 21% increase in preferred speed was observed. The U-shaped oxygen consumption and lower limb muscle activity curve with the minimum at preferred frequency indicated that the resonant condition existed under the preferred condition. Average metabolic reductions of 4.53% and 7.65% were found in the preferred condition compared to the general and comparison condition, respectively. These results demonstrate that the resonant condition in assisted walking could benefit energy expenditure and provide a new perspective for exoskeleton design and evaluation.
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20
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Ben-David C, Ostraich B, Riemer R. Passive Knee Exoskeleton Increases Vertical Jump Height. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2022; 30:1796-1805. [PMID: 35776830 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2022.3187056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Most exoskeletons are designed to reduce the metabolic costs of performing aerobic tasks such as walking, running, and hopping. This study presents an exoskeleton that boosts vertical jumping-a fast, short movement during which the muscles are exerted at peak capacity. It was hypothesized that a passive exoskeleton would increase vertical jump height without requiring external energy input. The device comprises springs that work in parallel with the muscles of the quadriceps femoris. The springs store mechanical energy during knee flexion (the negative work phase) and release that energy during the subsequent knee extension (the positive work phase), augmenting the muscles. Ten healthy participants were evaluated in two experimental sessions. In the first session, the participants jumped without receiving instructions on how to use the exoskeleton, and the results showed no difference in jump height when jumping with the exoskeleton or jumping without it. In the second session, the participants were instructed to achieve deeper initial squat heights at the start of the jump. This resulted in a 6.4% increase in average jump height compared to jumping without the exoskeleton (each participant performed five jumps for each the two conditions). This is the first time that a passive exoskeleton has been shown to improve the height of a vertical jump from a dead stop.
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21
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Incorporation of Torsion Springs in a Knee Exoskeleton for Stance Phase Correction of Crouch Gait. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12147034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Crouch gait is a motor complication that is commonly associated with cerebral palsy, spastic diplegia, stroke, and motor-neurological pathologies, broadly defined as knee flexion in excess of 20° in the gait cycle. Uncorrected crouch gait results in fatigue, joint degradation, and loss of ambulation. Torsion springs have been used in cycling to store energy in the knee flexion to reduce fatigue in the quadriceps during knee extension. SolidWorks was used to design a passive exoskeleton for the knee, incorporating torsion springs of stiffnesses 20,000 N/mm and 30,000 N/mm at the knee joint, to correct four different crouch gaits. OpenSim was used to gather data from the moments produced, and knee angles from each crouch gait and the normal gait. Motion analysis of the exoskeleton was simulated using knee angles for each crouch gait and compared with the moments produced with the normal gait moments in the stance phase of the gait cycle. All crouch gait moments were significantly reduced, and the correction of peak crouch moments was achieved, corresponding to the normal gait cycle during the stance phase. These results offer significant potential for nonsurgical and less invasive options for wearable exoskeletons in crouch gait correction.
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22
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A Wearable Lower Limb Exoskeleton: Reducing the Energy Cost of Human Movement. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:mi13060900. [PMID: 35744514 PMCID: PMC9229674 DOI: 10.3390/mi13060900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Human body enhancement is an interesting branch of robotics. It focuses on wearable robots in order to improve the performance of human body, reduce energy consumption and delay fatigue, as well as increase body speed. Robot-assisted equipment, such as wearable exoskeletons, are wearable robot systems that integrate human intelligence and robot power. After careful design and adaptation, the human body has energy-saving sports, but it is an arduous task for the exoskeleton to achieve considerable reduction in metabolic rate. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the biomechanics of human sports, the body, and its weaknesses. In this study, a lower limb exoskeleton was classified according to the power source, and the working principle, design idea, wearing mode, material and performance of different types of lower limb exoskeletons were compared and analyzed. The study shows that the unpowered exoskeleton robot has inherent advantages in endurance, mass, volume, and cost, which is a new development direction of robot exoskeletons. This paper not only summarizes the existing research but also points out its shortcomings through the comparative analysis of different lower limb wearable exoskeletons. Furthermore, improvement measures suitable for practical application have been provided.
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23
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Miller DE, Tan GR, Farina EM, Sheets-Singer AL, Collins SH. Characterizing the relationship between peak assistance torque and metabolic cost reduction during running with ankle exoskeletons. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2022; 19:46. [PMID: 35549977 PMCID: PMC9096774 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-022-01023-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reducing the energy cost of running with exoskeletons could improve enjoyment, reduce fatigue, and encourage participation among novice and ageing runners. Previously, tethered ankle exoskeleton emulators with offboard motors were used to greatly reduce the energy cost of running with powered ankle plantarflexion assistance. Through a process known as "human-in-the-loop optimization", the timing and magnitude of assistance torque was optimized to maximally reduce metabolic cost. However, to achieve the maximum net benefit in energy cost outside of the laboratory environment, it is also necessary to consider the tradeoff between the magnitude of device assistance and the metabolic penalty of carrying a heavier, more powerful exoskeleton. METHODS In this study, tethered ankle exoskeleton emulators were used to characterize the effect of peak assistance torque on metabolic cost during running. Three recreational runners participated in human-in-the-loop optimization at four fixed peak assistance torque levels to obtain their energetically optimal assistance timing parameters at each level. RESULTS We found that the relationship between metabolic rate and peak assistance torque was nearly linear but with diminishing returns at higher torque magnitudes, which is well-approximated by an asymptotic exponential function. At the highest assistance torque magnitude of 0.8 Nm/kg, participants' net metabolic rate was 24.8 ± 2.3% (p = 4e-6) lower than running in the unpowered devices. Optimized timing of peak assistance torque was as late as allowed during stance (80% of stance) and optimized timing of torque removal was at toe-off (100% of stance); similar assistance timing was preferred across participants and torque magnitudes. CONCLUSIONS These results allow exoskeleton designers to predict the energy cost savings for candidate devices with different assistance torque capabilities, thus informing the design of portable ankle exoskeletons that maximize net metabolic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delaney E Miller
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Guan Rong Tan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Emily M Farina
- Sports Research Laboratory, Nike Inc., Beaverton, OR, USA
| | | | - Steven H Collins
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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24
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Miskovic L, Dezman M, Petric T. Pneumatic Quasi-Passive Variable Stiffness Mechanism for Energy Storage Applications. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3141211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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25
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Meng Q, Zeng Q, Xie Q, Fei C, Kong B, Lu X, Wang H, Yu H. Flexible lower limb exoskeleton systems: A review. NeuroRehabilitation 2022; 50:367-390. [PMID: 35147568 DOI: 10.3233/nre-210300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As an emerging exoskeleton robot technology, flexible lower limb exoskeleton (FLLE) integrates flexible drive and wearable mechanism, effectively solving many problems of traditional rigid lower limb exoskeleton (RLLE) such as higher quality, poorer compliance and relatively poor portability, and has become one of the important development directions in the field of active rehabilitation. OBJECTIVE This review focused on the development and innovation process in the field of FLLE in the past decade. METHOD Related literature published from 2010 to 2021 were searched in EI, IEEE Xplore, PubMed and Web of Science databases. Seventy target research articles were further screened and sorted through inclusion and exclusion criteria. RESULTS FLLE is classified according to different driving modes, and the advantages and disadvantages of passive flexible lower limb exoskeletons and active flexible lower limb exoskeletons are comprehensively summarized. CONCLUSION At present, FLLE's research is mainly based on cable drive, bionic pneumatic muscles followed and matured, and new exoskeleton designs based on smart material innovations also trend to diversify. In the future, the development direction of FLLE will be lightweight and drive compliance, and the multi-mode sensory feedback control theory, motion intention recognition theory and human-machine interaction theory will be combined to reduce the metabolic energy consumption of walking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoling Meng
- Institute of Rehabilitation Engineering and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Assistive Devices, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Neural-functional Information and Rehabilitation Engineeringof the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingxin Zeng
- Institute of Rehabilitation Engineering and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Assistive Devices, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Neural-functional Information and Rehabilitation Engineeringof the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiaolian Xie
- Institute of Rehabilitation Engineering and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Assistive Devices, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Neural-functional Information and Rehabilitation Engineeringof the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Shanghai, China
| | - Cuizhi Fei
- Institute of Rehabilitation Engineering and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Assistive Devices, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Neural-functional Information and Rehabilitation Engineeringof the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Shanghai, China
| | - Bolei Kong
- Institute of Rehabilitation Engineering and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Assistive Devices, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Neural-functional Information and Rehabilitation Engineeringof the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuhua Lu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Haibin Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongliu Yu
- Institute of Rehabilitation Engineering and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Assistive Devices, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Neural-functional Information and Rehabilitation Engineeringof the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Shanghai, China
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26
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Firouzi V, Bahrami F, Sharbafi MA. Human balance control in 3D running based on virtual pivot point concept. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274032. [PMID: 35040960 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Balance control is one of the crucial challenges in bipedal locomotion. Humans need to maintain their trunk upright while the body behaves like an inverted pendulum which is inherently unstable. Instead, the virtual pivot point (VPP) concept introduced a new virtual pendulum model to the human balance control paradigm by analyzing the ground reaction forces (GRF) in the body coordinate frame. This paper presents novel VPP-based analyses of the postural stability of human running in a 3D space. We demonstrate the relation between the VPP position and the gait speed. The experimental results suggest different control strategies in frontal and sagittal planes. The ground reaction forces intersect below the center of mass in the sagittal plane and above the center of mass in the frontal plane. These VPP locations are found for the sagittal and frontal planes at all running speeds, respectively. We introduced a 3D VPP-based model which can replicate the kinematic and kinetic behavior of human running. The similarity between the experimental and simulation results indicates the ability of the VPP concept in predicting human balance control in running and can support its applicability for gait assistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Firouzi
- Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fariba Bahrami
- Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maziar A Sharbafi
- Lauflabor Laboratory, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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27
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Cao W, Chen C, Wang D, Wu X, Chen L, Xu T, Liu J. A Lower Limb Exoskeleton With Rigid and Soft Structure for Loaded Walking Assistance. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2021.3125723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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28
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Lee J, Huber ME, Hogan N. Applying Hip Stiffness With an Exoskeleton to Compensate Gait Kinematics. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2021; 29:2645-2654. [PMID: 34871174 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2021.3132621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Neurological disorders and aging induce impaired gait kinematics. Despite recent advances, effective methods using lower-limb exoskeleton robots to restore gait kinematics are as yet limited. In this study, applying virtual stiffness using a hip exoskeleton was investigated as a possible method to guide users to change their gait kinematics. With a view to applications in locomotor rehabilitation, either to provide assistance or promote recovery, this study assessed whether imposed stiffness induced changes in the gait pattern during walking; and whether any changes persisted upon removal of the intervention, which would indicate changes in central neuro-motor control. Both positive and negative stiffness induced immediate and persistent changes of gait kinematics. However, the results showed little behavioral evidence of persistent changes in neuro-motor control, not even short-lived aftereffects. In addition, stride duration was little affected, suggesting that at least two dissociable layers exist in the neuro-motor control of human walking. The lack of neuro-motor adaptation suggests that, within broad limits, the central nervous system is surprisingly indifferent to the details of lower limb kinematics. The lack of neuro-motor adaptation also suggests that alternative methods may be required to implement a therapeutic technology to promote recovery. However, the immediate, significant, and reproducible changes in kinematics suggest that applying hip stiffness with an exoskeleton may be an effective assistive technology for compensation.
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29
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Haufe FL, Kober AM, Wolf P, Riener R, Xiloyannis M. Learning to walk with a wearable robot in 880 simple steps: a pilot study on motor adaptation. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2021; 18:157. [PMID: 34724940 PMCID: PMC8561899 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-021-00946-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wearable robots have been shown to improve the efficiency of walking in diverse scenarios. However, it is unclear how much practice is needed to fully adapt to robotic assistance, and which neuromotor processes underly this adaptation. Familiarization strategies for novice users, robotic optimization techniques (e.g. human-in-the-loop), and meaningful comparative assessments depend on this understanding. METHODS To better understand the process of motor adaptation to robotic assistance, we analyzed the energy expenditure, gait kinematics, stride times, and muscle activities of eight naïve unimpaired participants across three 20-min sessions of robot-assisted walking. Experimental outcomes were analyzed with linear mixed effect models and statistical parametric mapping techniques. RESULTS Most of the participants' kinematic and muscular adaptation occurred within the first minute of assisted walking. After ten minutes, or 880 steps, the energetic benefits of assistance were realized (an average of 5.1% (SD 2.4%) reduction in energy expenditure compared to unassisted walking). Motor adaptation was likely driven by the formation of an internal model for feedforward motor control as evidenced by the reduction of burst-like muscle activity at the cyclic end of robotic assistance and an increase in arm-swing asymmetry previously associated with increased cognitive load. CONCLUSION Humans appear to adapt to walking assistance from a wearable robot over 880 steps by forming an internal model for feedforward control. The observed adaptation to the wearable robot is well-described by existing three-stage models that start from a cognitive stage, continue with an associative stage, and end in autonomous task execution. Trial registration Not applicable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian L Haufe
- Sensory-Motor Systems (SMS) Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems (IRIS), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alessia M Kober
- Sensory-Motor Systems (SMS) Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems (IRIS), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Wolf
- Sensory-Motor Systems (SMS) Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems (IRIS), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Robert Riener
- Sensory-Motor Systems (SMS) Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems (IRIS), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Spinal Cord Injury Center, Medical Faculty, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michele Xiloyannis
- Sensory-Motor Systems (SMS) Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems (IRIS), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Cheng L, Xiong C, Chen W, Liang J, Huang B, Xu X. A portable exotendon assisting hip and knee joints reduces muscular burden during walking. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:211266. [PMID: 34737881 PMCID: PMC8564609 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Assistive devices are used to reduce human effort during locomotion with increasing success. More assistance strategies are worth exploring, so we aimed to design a lightweight biarticular device with well-chosen parameters to reduce muscle effort. Based on the experience of previous success, we designed an exotendon to assist in swing leg deceleration. Then we conducted experiments to test the performance of the exotendon with different spring stiffness during walking. With the assistance of the exotendon, peak activation of semitendinosus decreased, with the largest reduction of 12.3% achieved with the highest spring stiffness (p = 0.004). The peak activations of other measured muscles were not significantly different (p = 0.15-0.92). The biological hip extension and knee flexion moments likewise significantly decreased with the spring stiffness (p < 0.01). The joint angle was altered during the assisted phases with decreased hip flexion and knee extension. Meanwhile, the step frequency and the step length were also altered, while the step width remained unaffected. Gait variability changed only in the frontal plane, exhibiting lower step width variability. We conclude that passive devices assisting hip extension and knee flexion can significantly reduce the burden on the hamstring muscles, while the kinematics is easily altered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longfei Cheng
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Caihua Xiong
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenbin Chen
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiejunyi Liang
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Huang
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaowei Xu
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Conventional unpowered lower limb exoskeleton paid little attention to the metabolic cost of body during sit down (SD)/stand up (SU). The SD motion model and the motion characteristics of lower extremity are analyzed; then, a novel unpowered lower limb exoskeleton is proposed, and the contribution degree of muscles and stiffness of joints are used for determining the location and stiffness of energy storage element. The metabolic cost of relevant muscles in joints of the left leg is obtained based on Opensim software. The results show that metabolic cost of the gracilis, rectus femoris (RF), and long head of the biceps femoris decreased about 13%, 9%, and 68%, respectively. The total metabolic cost of body decreased about 14% during SD. However, the metabolic cost of the gracilis, RF, and long/short head of the biceps femoris increased about 22%, 33%, 208%, and 46%, respectively. And the metabolic cost of sartorius reduces about 39%, the total metabolic cost of body increased about 25.6% during SU, under the exoskeleton conditions. The results of this study can provide a theoretical basis for the optimal design of unpowered lower limb exoskeleton.
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Biomechanical and Physiological Evaluation of a Multi-Joint Exoskeleton with Active-Passive Assistance for Walking. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2021; 11:bios11100393. [PMID: 34677349 PMCID: PMC8534129 DOI: 10.3390/bios11100393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
How to improve the walking efficiency while ensuring the wearability is an important issue of lower limb exoskeletons. Active devices can provide greater forces, while the passive devices have advantage in weight. We presented a multi-joint exoskeleton with active hip extension assistance and passive ankle plantarflexion assistance in this work. An admittance controller based on a feedforward model was proposed to track the desired active force of the hip extension. An underfoot clutch mechanism was adapted to realize the passive ankle plantarflexion assistance. To assess the efficacy of the multi-joint exoskeleton in assisting walking, we conducted comprehensive experiments to evaluate the force tracking performance, lower limb muscle activities and metabolic cost. The results demonstrated that: (i) The average tracking error of the peak hip extension assistance force from three subjects was less than 3%. (ii) The reductions of normalized root-mean-square EMG in the lateral soleus, medial soleus and gluteus maximus of eight subjects achieved 15.33%, 11.11%, and 3.74%, respectively. (iii) The average metabolic cost of six subjects was reduced by 10.41% under exoskeleton on (EO) condition comparing to the condition of walking with no exoskeleton (NE). This work proved that the concept of the multi-joint exoskeleton with active-passive assistance can improve the walking efficiency.
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Yang J, Park J, Kim J, Park S, Lee G. Reducing the energy cost of running using a lightweight, low-profile elastic exosuit. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2021; 18:129. [PMID: 34461938 PMCID: PMC8404320 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-021-00928-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human beings can enhance their distance running performance with the help of assistive devices. Although several such devices are available, they are heavy and bulky, which limits their use in everyday activities. In this study, we developed a lightweight running assistive device with a low-profile design. The device applies a flexion moment to the hip according to the hip extension within a specific range of motion to assist running. Methods A passive exosuit was fabricated using textile materials and elastic bands. The deformation of the suit was measured and compensated for in the design. The fabricated suit was tested on eight participants (age: 24.4 ± 3.8 y; height: 1.72 ± 0.05 m; weight: 74.5 ± 6.1 kg) who were instructed to run on a treadmill at a speed of 2.5 m/s. Through indirect calorimetry, the metabolic rate was measured for the no-suit condition and three band conditions. Variations in the spatiotemporal parameters were measured using a motion capture system and force-sensing resistors (FSRs). Results When using the fabricated device, seven out of the eight participants exhibited a reduced metabolic rate in at least one of the three band conditions. An average reduction of − 4.7 ± 1.4% (mean ± standard error of the mean (s.e.m.), two-sided paired t-test, p = 0.017) was achieved when using the best-fitting bands compared to the average of the two no-suit conditions. No statistically significant changes were observed in the spatiotemporal parameters, except for the stance duration in the medium assistance force condition. Conclusions The proposed passive exosuit, which has a low weight of 609 g and small extrusion of 2.5 cm from the body in standing posture, can reduce the metabolic rate during running. The proposed device can potentially be used every day owing to its low-profile design and low weight, thereby overcoming the limitations of existing portable devices targeting the hip joints. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12984-021-00928-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaeha Yang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Junil Park
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jihun Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sungjin Park
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Giuk Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 06974, Seoul, South Korea.
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Quraishi HA, Shepherd MK, McManus L, Harlaar J, Plettenburg DH, Rouse EJ. A passive mechanism for decoupling energy storage and return in ankle-foot prostheses: A case study in recycling collision energy. WEARABLE TECHNOLOGIES 2021; 2:e9. [PMID: 38486628 PMCID: PMC10936356 DOI: 10.1017/wtc.2021.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Individuals with lower limb amputation experience reduced ankle push-off work in the absence of functional muscles spanning the joint, leading to decreased walking performance. Conventional energy storage and return (ESR) prostheses partially compensate by storing mechanical energy during midstance and returning this energy during the terminal stance phase of gait. These prostheses can provide approximately 30% of the push-off work performed by a healthy ankle-foot during walking. Novel prostheses that return more normative levels of mechanical energy may improve walking performance. In this work, we designed a Decoupled ESR (DESR) prosthesis which stores energy usually dissipated at heel-strike and loading response, and returns this energy during terminal stance, thus increasing the mechanical push-off work done by the prosthesis. This decoupling is achieved by switching between two different cam profiles that produce distinct, nonlinear torque-angle mechanics. The cams automatically interchange at key points in the gait cycle via a custom magnetic switching system. Benchtop characterization demonstrated the successful decoupling of energy storage and return. The DESR mechanism was able to capture energy at heel-strike and loading response, and return it later in the gait cycle, but this recycling was not sufficient to overcome mechanical losses. In addition to its potential for recycling energy, the DESR mechanism also enables unique mechanical customizability, such as dorsiflexion during swing phase for toe clearance, or increasing the rate of energy release at push-off.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hashim A. Quraishi
- BioMechanical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
| | - Max K. Shepherd
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Illinois, USA
| | - Leo McManus
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
| | - Jaap Harlaar
- BioMechanical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Dick H. Plettenburg
- BioMechanical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Elliott J. Rouse
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA
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Review of control strategies for lower-limb exoskeletons to assist gait. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2021; 18:119. [PMID: 34315499 PMCID: PMC8314580 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-021-00906-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Many lower-limb exoskeletons have been developed to assist gait, exhibiting a large range of control methods. The goal of this paper is to review and classify these control strategies, that determine how these devices interact with the user. Methods In addition to covering the recent publications on the control of lower-limb exoskeletons for gait assistance, an effort has been made to review the controllers independently of the hardware and implementation aspects. The common 3-level structure (high, middle, and low levels) is first used to separate the continuous behavior (mid-level) from the implementation of position/torque control (low-level) and the detection of the terrain or user’s intention (high-level). Within these levels, different approaches (functional units) have been identified and combined to describe each considered controller. Results 291 references have been considered and sorted by the proposed classification. The methods identified in the high-level are manual user input, brain interfaces, or automatic mode detection based on the terrain or user’s movements. In the mid-level, the synchronization is most often based on manual triggers by the user, discrete events (followed by state machines or time-based progression), or continuous estimations using state variables. The desired action is determined based on position/torque profiles, model-based calculations, or other custom functions of the sensory signals. In the low-level, position or torque controllers are used to carry out the desired actions. In addition to a more detailed description of these methods, the variants of implementation within each one are also compared and discussed in the paper. Conclusions By listing and comparing the features of the reviewed controllers, this work can help in understanding the numerous techniques found in the literature. The main identified trends are the use of pre-defined trajectories for full-mobilization and event-triggered (or adaptive-frequency-oscillator-synchronized) torque profiles for partial assistance. More recently, advanced methods to adapt the position/torque profiles online and automatically detect terrains or locomotion modes have become more common, but these are largely still limited to laboratory settings. An analysis of the possible underlying reasons of the identified trends is also carried out and opportunities for further studies are discussed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12984-021-00906-3.
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Shepertycky M, Burton S, Dickson A, Liu YF, Li Q. Removing energy with an exoskeleton reduces the metabolic cost of walking. Science 2021; 372:957-960. [PMID: 34045349 DOI: 10.1126/science.aba9947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary pressures have led humans to walk in a highly efficient manner that conserves energy, making it difficult for exoskeletons to reduce the metabolic cost of walking. Despite the challenge, some exoskeletons have managed to lessen the metabolic expenditure of walking, either by adding or storing and returning energy. We show that the use of an exoskeleton that strategically removes kinetic energy during the swing period of the gait cycle reduces the metabolic cost of walking by 2.5 ± 0.8% for healthy male users while converting the removed energy into 0.25 ± 0.02 watts of electrical power. By comparing two loading profiles, we demonstrate that the timing and magnitude of energy removal are vital for successful metabolic cost reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Shepertycky
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | - Sarah Burton
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Andrew Dickson
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Yan-Fei Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Qingguo Li
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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Hidayah R, Sui D, Wade KA, Chang BC, Agrawal S. Passive knee exoskeletons in functional tasks: Biomechanical effects of a SpringExo coil-spring on squats. WEARABLE TECHNOLOGIES 2021; 2:e7. [PMID: 38486637 PMCID: PMC10936368 DOI: 10.1017/wtc.2021.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Passive wearable exoskeletons are desirable as they can provide assistance during user movements while still maintaining a simple and low-profile design. These can be useful in industrial tasks where an ergonomic device could aid in load lifting without inconveniencing them and reducing fatigue and stress in the lower limbs. The SpringExo is a coil-spring design that aids in knee extension. In this paper, we describe the muscle activation of the knee flexors and extensors from seven healthy participants during repeated squats. The outcome measures are the timings of the key events during squat, flexion angle, muscle activation of rectus femoris and bicep femoris, and foot pressure characteristics of the participants. These outcome measures assess the possible effects of the device during lifting operations where reduced effort in the muscles is desired during ascent phase of the squat, without changing the knee and foot kinematics. The results show that the SpringExo significantly decreased rectus femoris activation during ascent (-2%) without significantly affecting either the bicep femoris or rectus femoris muscle activations in descent. This implies that the user could perform a descent without added effort and ascent with reduced effort. The exoskeleton showed other effects on the biomechanics of the user, increasing average squat time (+0.02 s) and maximum squat time (+0.1 s), and decreasing average knee flexion angle (-4°). The exoskeleton has no effect on foot loading or placement, that is, the user did not have to revise their stance while using the device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rand Hidayah
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Dongbao Sui
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
| | - Kennedi A. Wade
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Biing-Chwen Chang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Sunil Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York City, New York, USA
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Zhou T, Xiong C, Zhang J, Hu D, Chen W, Huang X. Reducing the metabolic energy of walking and running using an unpowered hip exoskeleton. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2021; 18:95. [PMID: 34092259 PMCID: PMC8182901 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-021-00893-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Walking and running are the most common means of locomotion in human daily life. People have made advances in developing separate exoskeletons to reduce the metabolic rate of walking or running. However, the combined requirements of overcoming the fundamental biomechanical differences between the two gaits and minimizing the metabolic penalty of the exoskeleton mass make it challenging to develop an exoskeleton that can reduce the metabolic energy during both gaits. Here we show that the metabolic energy of both walking and running can be reduced by regulating the metabolic energy of hip flexion during the common energy consumption period of the two gaits using an unpowered hip exoskeleton. METHODS We analyzed the metabolic rates, muscle activities and spatiotemporal parameters of 9 healthy subjects (mean ± s.t.d; 24.9 ± 3.7 years, 66.9 ± 8.7 kg, 1.76 ± 0.05 m) walking on a treadmill at a speed of 1.5 m s-1 and running at a speed of 2.5 m s-1 with different spring stiffnesses. After obtaining the optimal spring stiffness, we recruited the participants to walk and run with the assistance from a spring with optimal stiffness at different speeds to demonstrate the generality of the proposed approach. RESULTS We found that the common optimal exoskeleton spring stiffness for walking and running was 83 Nm Rad-1, corresponding to 7.2% ± 1.2% (mean ± s.e.m, paired t-test p < 0.01) and 6.8% ± 1.0% (p < 0.01) metabolic reductions compared to walking and running without exoskeleton. The metabolic energy within the tested speed range can be reduced with the assistance except for low-speed walking (1.0 m s-1). Participants showed different changes in muscle activities with the assistance of the proposed exoskeleton. CONCLUSIONS This paper first demonstrates that the metabolic cost of walking and running can be reduced using an unpowered hip exoskeleton to regulate the metabolic energy of hip flexion. The design method based on analyzing the common energy consumption characteristics between gaits may inspire future exoskeletons that assist multiple gaits. The results of different changes in muscle activities provide new insight into human response to the same assistive principle for different gaits (walking and running).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiancheng Zhou
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China
| | - Caihua Xiong
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China.
| | - Juanjuan Zhang
- Institute of Robotics and Automation Information System and the Tianjin Key Laboratory of Intelligent Robotics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Di Hu
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China
| | - Wenbin Chen
- Institute of Rehabilitation and Medical Robotics, State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China.
| | - Xiaolin Huang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China
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Simulation-based biomechanical assessment of unpowered exoskeletons for running. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11846. [PMID: 34088911 PMCID: PMC8178327 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89640-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the complexity and high degrees of freedom, the detailed assessment of human biomechanics is necessary for the design and optimization of an effective exoskeleton. In this paper, we present full kinematics, dynamics, and biomechanics assessment of unpowered exoskeleton augmentation for human running gait. To do so, the considered case study is the assistive torque profile of I-RUN. Our approach is using some extensive data-driven OpenSim simulation results employing a generic lower limb model with 92-muscles and 29-DOF. In the simulation, it is observed that exoskeleton augmentation leads to \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$4.62\%$$\end{document}4.62% metabolic rate reduction for the stiffness coefficient of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\alpha ^*=0.6$$\end{document}α∗=0.6. Moreover, this optimum stiffness coefficient minimizes the biological hip moment by \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$26\%$$\end{document}26%. The optimum stiffness coefficient (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\alpha ^*=0.6$$\end{document}α∗=0.6) also reduces the average force of four major hip muscles, i.e., Psoas, Gluteus Maximus, Rectus Femoris, and Semimembranosus. The effect of assistive torque profile on the muscles’ fatigue is also studied. Interestingly, it is observed that at \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\alpha ^{\#}=0.8$$\end{document}α#=0.8, both all 92 lower limb muscles’ fatigue and two hip major mono-articular muscles’ fatigue have the maximum reduction. This result re-confirm our hypothesis that ”reducing the forces of two antagonistic mono-articular muscles is sufficient for involved muscles’ total fatigue reduction.” Finally, the relation between the amount of metabolic rate reduction and kinematics of hip joint is examined carefully where for the first time, we present a reliable kinematic index for prediction of the metabolic rate reduction by I-RUN augmentation. This index not only explains individual differences in metabolic rate reduction but also provides a quantitative measure for training the subjects to maximize their benefits from I-RUN.
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40
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Affiliation(s)
- Raziel Riemer
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Richard W Nuckols
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gregory S Sawicki
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Institute for Robotics and Intelligent Machines, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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SWINNEN WANNES, MYLLE INE, HOOGKAMER WOUTER, DE GROOTE FRIEDL, VANWANSEELE BENEDICTE. Changing Stride Frequency Alters Average Joint Power and Power Distributions during Ground Contact and Leg Swing in Running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53:2111-2118. [PMID: 33935233 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Runners naturally adopt a stride frequency closely corresponding with the stride frequency that minimizes energy consumption. Although the concept of self-optimization is well recognized, we lack mechanistic insight into the association between stride frequency and energy consumption. Altering stride frequency affects lower extremity joint power; however, these alterations are different between joints, possibly with counteracting effects on the energy consumption during ground contact and swing. Here, we investigated the effects of changing stride frequency from a joint-level perspective. METHODS Seventeen experienced runners performed six running trials at five different stride frequencies (preferred stride frequency (PSF) twice, PSF ± 8%, PSF ± 15%) at 12 km·h-1. During each trial, we measured metabolic energy consumption and muscle activation, and collected kinematic and kinetic data, which allowed us to calculate average positive joint power using inverse dynamics. RESULTS With decreasing stride frequency, average positive ankle and knee power during ground contact increased (P < 0.01), whereas average positive hip power during leg swing decreased (P < 0.01). Average soleus muscle activation during ground contact also decreased with increasing stride frequency (P < 0.01). In addition, the relative contribution of positive ankle power to the total positive joint power during ground contact decreased (P = 0.01) with decreasing stride frequency, whereas the relative contribution of the hip during the full stride increased (P < 0.01) with increasing stride frequency. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide evidence for the hypothesis that the optimal stride frequency represents a trade-off between minimizing the energy consumption during ground contact, associated with higher stride frequencies, without excessively increasing the cost of leg swing or reducing the time available to produce the necessary forces.
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Dick TJM, Clemente CJ, Punith LK, Sawicki GS. Series elasticity facilitates safe plantar flexor muscle-tendon shock absorption during perturbed human hopping. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210201. [PMID: 33726594 PMCID: PMC8059679 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In our everyday lives, we negotiate complex and unpredictable environments. Yet, much of our knowledge regarding locomotion has come from studies conducted under steady-state conditions. We have previously shown that humans rely on the ankle joint to absorb energy and recover from perturbations; however, the muscle-tendon unit (MTU) behaviour and motor control strategies that accompany these joint-level responses are not yet understood. In this study, we determined how neuromuscular control and plantar flexor MTU dynamics are modulated to maintain stability during unexpected vertical perturbations. Participants performed steady-state hopping and, at an unknown time, we elicited an unexpected perturbation via rapid removal of a platform. In addition to kinematics and kinetics, we measured gastrocnemius and soleus muscle activations using electromyography and in vivo fascicle dynamics using B-mode ultrasound. Here, we show that an unexpected drop in ground height introduces an automatic phase shift in the timing of plantar flexor muscle activity relative to MTU length changes. This altered timing initiates a cascade of responses including increased MTU and fascicle length changes and increased muscle forces which, when taken together, enables the plantar flexors to effectively dissipate energy. Our results also show another mechanism, whereby increased co-activation of the plantar- and dorsiflexors enables shortening of the plantar flexor fascicles prior to ground contact. This co-activation improves the capacity of the plantar flexors to rapidly absorb energy upon ground contact, and may also aid in the avoidance of potentially damaging muscle strains. Our study provides novel insight into how humans alter their neural control to modulate in vivo muscle-tendon interaction dynamics in response to unexpected perturbations. These data provide essential insight to help guide design of lower-limb assistive devices that can perform within varied and unpredictable environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor J. M. Dick
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia
| | - Laksh K. Punith
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Gregory S. Sawicki
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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A Single Assistive Profile Applied by a Passive Hip Flexion Device Can Reduce the Energy Cost of Walking in Older Adults. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11062851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Difficulty walking in older adults affects their independence and ability to execute daily tasks in an autonomous way, which can result in a negative effect to their health status and risk of morbidity. Very often, reduced walking speed in older adults is caused by an elevated metabolic energy cost. Passive exoskeletons have been shown to offer a promising solution for lowering the energy cost of walking, and their simplicity could favor their use in real world settings. The goal of this study was to assess if a constant and consistent low torque applied by means of a passive exoskeleton to the hip flexors during walking could provide higher and more consistent metabolic cost reduction than previously achieved. Eight older adults walked on a treadmill at a constant speed of 1.1 m/s with and without the hip assistive device. Metabolic power and spatiotemporal parameters were measured during walking in these two conditions of testing. The hip assistive device was able to apply a low torque which initiates its assistive effect at mid-stance. This reduced the metabolic cost of walking across all the participants with respect to free walking (−4.2 ± 1.9%; p = 0.002). There were no differences in the spatiotemporal parameters reported. This study strengthened the evidence that passive assistive devices can be a valuable tool to reduce metabolic cost of walking in older adults. These findings highlighted the importance of investigating torque profiles to improve the performance provided by a hip assistive device. The simplicity and usability of a system of this kind can make it a suitable candidate for improving older adults’ independence.
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Zhou T, Xiong C, Zhang J, Chen W, Huang X. Regulating Metabolic Energy Among Joints During Human Walking Using a Multiarticular Unpowered Exoskeleton. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2021; 29:662-672. [PMID: 33690121 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2021.3065389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have found that the walking economy can be enhanced by recycling ankle metabolic energy using an unpowered ankle exoskeleton. However, how to regulate multiarticular energy to enhance the overall energy efficiency of humans during walking remains a challenging problem, as multiarticular passive assistance is more likely to interfere with the human body's natural biomechanics. Here we show that the metabolic energy of the hip and knee musculature can be regulated to a more energy-effective direction using a multiarticular unpowered exoskeleton that recycles negative mechanical energy of the knee joint in the late swing phase and transfers the stored energy to assist the hip extensors in performing positive mechanical work in the stance phase. The biarticular spring-clutch mechanism of the exoskeleton performs a complementary energy recycling and energy transfer function for hip and knee musculature. Through the phased regulation of the hip and knee metabolic energy, the target muscle activities decreased during the whole assistive period of the exoskeleton, which was the direct reason for 8.6 ± 1.5% (mean ± s.e.m) reduction in metabolic rate compared with that of walking without the exoskeleton. The proposed unpowered exoskeleton enhanced the user's multiarticular energy efficiency, which equals improving musculoskeletal structure by adding a complementary loop for efficient energy recycling and energy transfer.
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45
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Witte KA, Fiers P, Sheets-Singer AL, Collins SH. Improving the energy economy of human running with powered and unpowered ankle exoskeleton assistance. Sci Robot 2021; 5:5/40/eaay9108. [PMID: 33022600 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.aay9108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Exoskeletons that reduce energetic cost could make recreational running more enjoyable and improve running performance. Although there are many ways to assist runners, the best approaches remain unclear. In our study, we used a tethered ankle exoskeleton emulator to optimize both powered and spring-like exoskeleton characteristics while participants ran on a treadmill. We expected powered conditions to provide large improvements in energy economy and for spring-like patterns to provide smaller benefits achievable with simpler devices. We used human-in-the-loop optimization to attempt to identify the best exoskeleton characteristics for each device type and individual user, allowing for a well-controlled comparison. We found that optimized powered assistance improved energy economy by 24.7 ± 6.9% compared with zero torque and 14.6 ± 7.7% compared with running in normal shoes. Optimized powered torque patterns for individuals varied substantially, but all resulted in relatively high mechanical work input (0.36 ± 0.09 joule kilogram-1 per step) and late timing of peak torque (75.7 ± 5.0% stance). Unexpectedly, spring-like assistance was ineffective, improving energy economy by only 2.1 ± 2.4% compared with zero torque and increasing metabolic rate by 11.1 ± 2.8% compared with control shoes. The energy savings we observed imply that running velocity could be increased by as much as 10% with no added effort for the user and could influence the design of future products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirby A Witte
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Pieter Fiers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.,Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Steven H Collins
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA. .,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Zhang B, Liu T, Zhang B, Pecht MG. Recent Development of Unpowered Exoskeletons for Lower Extremity: A Survey. IEEE ACCESS 2021; 9:138042-138056. [DOI: 10.1109/access.2021.3115956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
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47
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Bryan GM, Franks PW, Klein SC, Peuchen RJ, Collins SH. A hip–knee–ankle exoskeleton emulator for studying gait assistance. Int J Rob Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/0278364920961452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lower-limb exoskeletons could improve the mobility of people with disabilities, older adults, workers, first responders, and military personnel. Despite recent advances, few products are commercially available and exoskeleton research is still often limited by hardware constraints. Many promising multi-joint assistance strategies, especially those with high-torque and high-power components, have yet to be tested because they are beyond the capabilities of current devices. To study these untested assistance strategies, we present a hip–knee–ankle exoskeleton emulator that can apply high torques and powers that match or exceed those observed in uphill running. The system has powerful off-board motors that actuate a 13.5 kg exoskeleton end effector worn by the user. It can apply up to 200 Nm of torque in hip flexion, hip extension, and ankle plantarflexion, 250 Nm of torque in knee extension, and 140 Nm of torque in knee flexion, with over 4.5 kW of power at each joint and a closed-loop torque bandwidth of at least 18 Hz in each direction of actuation. The exoskeleton is compliant in unactuated directions, adjustable for a wide range of users and comfortable during walking and running. When paired with human-in-the-loop optimization, we expect that this system will identify new assistance strategies to improve human mobility. A complete computer-aided design (CAD) model of the exoskeleton and a bill of materials are included and available for download.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwendolyn M Bryan
- Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, USA
- Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
| | - Patrick W Franks
- Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, USA
- Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
| | - Stefan C Klein
- Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, USA
- Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
| | - Robert J Peuchen
- BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
| | - Steven H Collins
- Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, USA
- Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
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48
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Ostraich B, Riemer R. Simulation of a Passive Knee Exoskeleton for Vertical Jump Using Optimal Control. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2020; 28:2859-2868. [PMID: 33226951 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2020.3039923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Research on exoskeletons designed to augment human activities and the attendant exoskeleton industry are both rapidly growing areas of endeavor. However, progress in the field is currently being hindered by a lack of understanding of human-exoskeleton interactions. At present, the main method applied to reach such an understanding is to build and test prototypes or end-effectors (that simulate the devices), but this is a very time-consuming and costly process. In this study, we aimed to address this problem by simulating passive exoskeleton-human interactions during a vertical jump. The simulation is based on theoretical and empirical models. Using the simulation, we performed a numerical optimization procedure to determine the muscle excitations and starting postures that would give the maximum jump height. The simulation used a planar 4-DOF dynamic model. The muscles at the joints were modeled as torque actuators, with a flexor and an extensor for each joint and passive torque representing the tendon and muscle properties. We then simulated jumps with a passive knee exoskeleton with five different values of stiffness with the aim to study their effect on the jump height. The optimal excitation for the maximum jump height was found by using a genetic algorithm (GA). To improve our optimization performance and to test the convergence of the GA, the GA optimization was performed several times. For each exoskeleton condition, the GA found the optimal jump more than 400 times, and out of these solutions the one that achieved the highest jump was chosen. The result revealed an increase in jump height as the spring became stiffer. In addition, it was found that the energy that was stored in the spring of the exoskeleton was not fully converted to jump height.
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49
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Barsotti A, Khalaf K, Gan D. Muscle fatigue evaluation with EMG and Acceleration data: a case study. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2020; 2020:3138-3141. [PMID: 33018670 DOI: 10.1109/embc44109.2020.9175315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The design of effective rehabilitation protocols relies on the ability to accurately assess the physical condition and the rehabilitative needs of the patient. Monitoring muscle fatigue can increase the usability of rehabilitative and restorative devices as it helps avoiding premature tiring and injury of patients whose resistance is already compromised. In this study, we collected EMG and accelerometer data from one healthy subject during a 30-minute walk on treadmill to determine the variations of muscle activation, and gait acceleration patterns, which, however subtle, could be interpreted as early indicators of muscle fatigue. Results show an increasing Tibialis Anterior (TA) and decreasing Soleus (SOL) and Gastrocnemius (GASL, GASM) activation towards the end of the task as compared to the beginning, as well as increasing acceleration peaks during the middle swing phase. By following the approach outlined here we can assess the efficiency and reduction of metabolic cost achieved by an exoskeleton. Furthermore, muscle fatigue may be linked to the efficacy of gait rehabilitation, where decreased muscle fatigue across sessions possibly indicates longer retention of benefits after training and increased walking capacity. This methodology can be used to benchmark novel exoskeletons, monitor fatigue to avoid premature tiring of patients, and optimize rehabilitation therapies.
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50
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Gonabadi AM, Antonellis P, Malcolm P. A System for Simple Robotic Walking Assistance With Linear Impulses at the Center of Mass. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2020; 28:1353-1362. [PMID: 32340953 PMCID: PMC7404782 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2020.2988619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Walking can be simplified as an inverted pendulum motion where both legs generate linear impulses to redirect the center of mass (COM) into every step. In this work, we describe a system to assist walking in a simpler way than exoskeletons by providing linear impulses directly at the COM instead of providing torques at the joints. We developed a novel waist end-effector and high-level controller for an existing cable-robot. The controller allows for the application of cyclic horizontal force profiles with desired magnitudes, timings, and durations based on detection of the step timing. By selecting a lightweight rubber series elastic element with optimal stiffness and carefully tuning the gains of the closed-loop proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller in a number of single-subject experiments, we were able to reduce the within-step root mean square error between desired and actual forces up to 1.21% of body weight. This level of error is similar or lower compared to the performance of other robotic tethers designed to provide variable or constant forces at the COM. The system can produce force profiles with peaks of up to 15 ± 2% of body weight within a root mean square error (RMSE) of 2.5% body weight. This system could be used to assist patient populations that require levels of assistance that are greater than current exoskeletons and in a way that does not make the user rely on vertical support.
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