Electrolyzed Water as a Novel Sanitizer in the Food Industry: Current Trends and Future Perspectives

Advances in antimicrobial techniques to reduce postharvest loss of fresh fruit by microbial reduction

This review will provide new ideas for preserving fruits and decreasing fruit waste. This review outlines and evaluates research concerning postharvest fruit preservation employing antimicrobial strategies, which involve the integration of biological control alongside physical or chemical methods. The concurrent deployment of two or three of these techniques, particularly biological approaches, has demonstrated enhanced and synergistic antimicrobial outcomes in practical scenarios.

Aflatoxins in cereal based products-an overview of occurrence, detection and health implication

Aflatoxins are naturally produced toxins by specific molds, namely Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These toxins can be found in various agricultural products, including crops like maize, peanuts, cottonseed, and tree nuts. They have the potential to contaminate the food supply during different stages of production, processing, and storage. Aflatoxin is a very poisonous substance that has been linked to adverse health effects in both humans and animals. It is essential to detect and monitor aflatoxins to ensure the safety of food. Efficient and precise analytical techniques, such as chromatography and immunoassays, have been used to accurately measure the levels of aflatoxins in different substances. Regulatory bodies and worldwide associations have determined maximum permissible limits for aflatoxins in food and nourishment products to protect the well-being of the general public. Effectively addressing aflatoxin contamination necessitates a comprehensive approach that encompasses various strategies in agriculture, post-harvest practices, and regulatory measures. Continuous research and collaborative endeavors are crucial in order to minimize aflatoxin exposure and mitigate the associated risks. This review offers a comprehensive examination of the presence, health consequences, and elimination techniques associated with aflatoxins.

Advanced application of slightly acidic electrolyzed water for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables preservation

Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (F&V) play a pivotal role in modern diets due to their convenience and nutritional value. However, their perishable nature renders them susceptible to rapid spoilage, causing quality deterioration, safety risks, and economic losses along the supply chain. Traditional preservation methods, while effective to some extent, often fall short in maintaining the quality and safety of fresh-cut F&V. This comprehensive review examines the utilization of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) as a novel preservation technique for fresh-cut F&V. The review encompasses the production mechanisms, sterilization principles, classifications and application of SAEW. It explores the effects of SAEW on microbial inactivation, quality parameters, and metabolic pathways in fresh-cut F&V. Additionally, it assesses the synergistic effects of SAEW when combined with other preservation methods. SAEW demonstrates remarkable potential in extending the shelf life of fresh-cut F&V by effectively inhibiting microbial growth, suppressing browning, preserving chemical content, and influencing various metabolic processes. Moreover, its synergy with different treatments enhances its overall efficacy in maintaining fresh-cut F&V quality. The review highlights the promising role of SAEW as an innovative preservation approach for fresh-cut F&V. However, challenges regarding its widespread implementation and potential limitations require further exploration. Overall, SAEW stands as a significant contender in ensuring the safety and quality of fresh-cut F&V paving the way for future research and application in the food industry.

Anise essential oil immobilized in chitosan microparticles: a novel bactericidal material for food protection

Foodborne infections in humans are one of the major concerns of the food industries, especially for minimally processed foods (MPF). Thereby, the packaging industry applies free chlorine in the sanitization process, ensuring the elimination of any fecal coliforms or pathogenic microorganisms. However, free chlorine's propensity to react with organic matter, forming toxic compounds such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acid. Therefore, the present work aimed to synthesize a novel organic biomaterial as an alternative to free chlorine. Chitosan microparticles were produced, with Pimpinella anisum (anise) essential oil immobilized in the biopolymer matrix (MPsQTO). The characterization of this biomaterial was done through GC-MS/MS, FT-IR, and SEM. Antimicrobial assays proved that the MPsQTO presented antibacterial activity for Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Bacillus subtilis at 300 µL mL-1 of concentration. The fluorescence microscope also showed the MPsQTO targets the cytoplasmatic membrane, which is responsible for cell death in the first minutes of contact. Studies with the mutant B. subtilis (amy::pspac-ftsZ-gfpmut1) and the Saccharomyces cerevisiae D7 also proved that the biomaterial did not affect the genetic material and did not have any mutagenic/carcinogenic effect on the cells. The sanitization assays with pumpkin MPF proved that the MPsQTO is more effective than free chlorine, increasing the shelf-life of the MPF. Consequently, the novel biomaterial proposed in this work is a promising alternative to traditional chemical sanitizers.

Physicochemical and microbiological evaluation of treated Gastrodia elata with combination of slightly acidic electrolyzed water and lithium magnesium silicate under certain temperatures and different storage periods

This study aimed to investigate the impact of slightly acidic electrolyzed water combined with lithium magnesium silicate hydrosol on the quality of fresh slices of Gastrodia elata under varying storage temperatures, including room temperature fresh slices of Gastrodia elata 25 °C and 37 °C. Fresh slices of Gastrodia elata 25 and 37 samples were stored for 13 days and extensively analyzed for color, weight loss, decay index, bacterial count, vitamin C, and polysaccharide contents during different storage periods. The findings revealed that the slightly acidic electrolyzed water + hydrosol treatment notably decreased weight loss and decay index compared to distilled water and slightly acidic electrolyzed water treatments. Moreover, fresh slices of Gastrodia elata treated with slightly acidic electrolyzed water  + hydrosol exhibited untraceable bacterial counts after 3 days, with counts starting to increase after 7 days of storage. The bacterial counts rose from 3.25 to 5.36 and from 4.13 to 5.79 log CFU/g under both storage conditions. The application of slightly acidic electrolyzed water + hydrosol resulted in reduced chromaticity values of L*, a*, and b* on the Gastrodia elata surface, along with a lower percentage loss of polysaccharide contents and vitamin C compared to distilled water and slightly acidic electrolyzed water treatments. These results suggested that Gastrodia elata treated with slightly acidic electrolyzed water + hydrosol maintained its quality characteristics and nutritional attributes, exhibiting greater stability during storage.

Effects of different types of electrolyzed waters on rheological characteristics of dough and quality properties of bread

Water is an ingredient of considerable importance in bread dough. Effects of four different types of electrolyzed water (Anolyte NaCl, Catholyte NaCl, Anolyte Na2CO3, Catholyte Na2CO3) on quality characteristics of bread were investigated. For this aim, rheological and textural analysis of bread doughs and color, physical properties, water activity, moisture content, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, texture profile analysis, and micrographic analysis of bread samples were performed. Electrolyzed water affected quality characteristics of dough and bread samples significantly (p < 0.05). Anolyte Na2CO3 increased the water-holding capacity of the dough from 60 ± 0.05 to 66 ± 0.07. The bread samples prepared with Anolyte Na2CO3 (363 ± 1.70) and Catholyte Na2CO3 (346 ± 1.61) electrolyzed water has higher loaf volume than the bread samples prepared with Anolyte NaCl (320 ± 1.00) and Catholyte NaCl (310 ± 1.52) electrolyzed water and control bread (270 ± 1.04) (p < 0.05). Electrolyzed water also increased the antioxidant activity (23.62 ± 0.05% inhibition) and total phenolic content (460.61 ± 2.12 GAE/100 g) of bread samples. The results of this study may be evidence that using electrolyzed water can improve the quality characteristics of bread.

Effect of different types of electrolyzed water on drying characteristics and quality of Spondias dulcis in oven drying

Due to its less adverse impact on the environment as well as human health, electrolyzed water, a non-thermal method, has been recognized to be a promising alternative as a new disinfectant for the food industry, which does not change odor, texture, and flavor of foods. Spondias dulcis fruit is rich in bioactive compounds, vitamins and minerals, which are known to have many beneficial effects on health. Fresh S. dulcis has a short shelf life and drying is an option to preserve the fruit. In this study, the effects of electrolyzed water treatment on the quality characteristics of dried S. dulcis were investigated. Slices of fruit treated with four different electrolyzed waters (Anolyte NaCl, Catholyte NaCl, Anolyte Na2CO3, and Catholyte Na2CO3) were dried in a conventional oven at 70 °C. Color, Browning index, antioxidant characteristics, texture profile, rehydration capacity, pH, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyzes of dried S. dulcis were performed. The samples treated with electrolyzed water prior to drying showed higher antioxidant activity (59.46 ± 0.09), total phenolic content (287.00 ± 1.76), and rehydration capacity (4.52 ± 0.05) compared to the control samples. The findings of the current study showed that electrolyzed water treatment could prevent the browning of dried S. dulcis fruits and preserve bioactive compounds as well as chemical properties.

Electrolyzed Salt Solutions Used against Major Postharvest Diseases of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables

Alternative means of control are becoming increasingly relevant to the improvement of safety and the reduction of postharvest losses and waste of fruit and vegetables, especially in view of the application of the EU Greed Deal. A previous study from our research group that focused on the electrolysis process of water and was conducted using NaCl and NaHCO3 as electrolytes proved to efficiently reduce pathogen inoculum in packinghouse washing water. In the present study, we examined the effect of the electrolyzed salt solutions (eNaCl and eNaHCO3) produced in the same experimental conditions previously reported to be used as postharvest treatments during handling and commercialization, and/or at the consumer's site. We tested the electrolyzed solutions, obtained in the presence or absence of the salts, against five relevant fungal pathogens in terms of conidia viability, and on various hosts in terms of rot incidence/severity. Chemical parameters of electrolyzed and non-electrolyzed solutions were also assessed. Although a different susceptibility to treatments was observed among pathogens, electrolyzed sodium chloride (eNaCl) was the most efficient treatment for preventing spore germination, as well as for minimizing fruit rot. However, a consistent control of fungal viability and consequent rot was also achieved using electrolyzed tap water (eW). The eNaHCO3, although less efficient on fungal viability, provided a significant effect against fruit rot. The investigated electrolyzed solutions seem promising for reducing the waste of fresh fruit and vegetables.

Effects of slightly acidic electrolyzed water on the quality and antioxidant capacity of fresh red waxy corn during postharvest cold storage

Fresh red waxy corn is consumed worldwide because of its unique flavor and rich nutrients, but it is susceptible to deterioration with a short shelf life. This study explored the effect of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) treatment on the quality and antioxidant capacity of fresh red waxy corn during postharvest cold storage up to 40 d. The SAEW treatment exhibited lower weight loss, softer firmness, and higher total soluble solids (TSS) and moisture content than the control group. Correspondingly, the SAEW maintained the microstructure of endosperm cell wall and starch granules of fresh red waxy corn kernels well, contributing to good sensory quality. Furthermore, SAEW effectively reduced the accumulation of H2O2 content, elevated the O2 -· scavenging ability, maintained higher CAT and APX activities, and decreased the decline of the flavonoids and anthocyanin during the storage. These results revealed that the SAEW treatment could be a promising preservation method to maintain higher-quality attributes and the antioxidant capacity of fresh red waxy corn during postharvest cold storage.

Acidic Electrolyzed Water Maintains the Storage Quality of Postharvest Wampee Fruit by Activating the Disease Resistance

Harvested wampee fruit is susceptible to disease, resulting in postharvest losses. Acidic electrolyzed water (AEW), a safe and innovative sterilization technology, plays a role in enhancing disease resistance in harvested produce. In this study, the efficacy of AEW in delaying wampee disease development was assessed, along with its association with disease resistance metabolism. Wampee fruit was treated with AEW (pH 2.5) at different available chlorine concentrations (ACCs) (20, 40, 60, and 80 mg/L) and subsequently stored at 25 °C for 8 days. Results revealed that 40 mg/L ACC in AEW (pH 2.5) was most effective in improving the postharvest quality of wampee fruit. Compared with control wampee fruit, those treated with 40 mg/L ACC in AEW exhibited lower incidence of fruit disease, higher pericarp lignin content, and higher activities of pericarp disease resistance enzymes (DREs), such as cinnamate-4-hydroxylase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase, polyphenol oxidase, 4-coumarate CoA ligase, and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase. These results suggested that AEW elevated DRE activities, promoted lignin accumulation, and ultimately enhanced disease resistance, suppressed disease development, and improved storage quality in harvested wampee fruit. Consequently, AEW emerged as a safe technology to mitigate the disease development and enhance the storage quality of harvested wampee fruit.

Different electrolytic treatments for food sanitation and conservation simulating a wash process at the packinghouse

Microorganisms are predominantly responsible for food deterioration, necessitating the sanitization and removal of these entities from food surfaces. The packinghouse employs free chlorine in the sanitization process; however, free chlorine's propensity to react with organic matter, forming potentially toxic compounds, has led to its restriction or outright prohibition in several European countries. Therefore, this study aims to assess various washing methods, emulating packinghouse conditions, utilizing diverse forms of electrolyzed water to impede microbial proliferation and significantly enhance the food's shelf life. The subject of investigation was cherry tomatoes. The findings revealed that electrolyzed water containing NaCl exhibited superior efficacy compared to electrolysis with Na2SO4. Both forms of electrolyzed water demonstrated noteworthy effectiveness in inhibiting microorganisms, resulting in a reduction of 2.0 Log CFU mL-1 for bacteria and 1.5 Log CFU mL-1 for fungi. The electrolyzed water also exhibited a comparable capability to free chlorine in removing fecal coliforms from the tomato surfaces. Notably, both electrolyzed water treatments extended the shelf life of cherry tomatoes by at least three days, accompanied by minimal or negligible residues of free chlorine. Consequently, the electrolyzed water formulations proposed in this study present themselves as promising alternatives to traditional packinghouse sanitizers.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05882-1.

Energy-Efficient Electrosynthesis of High Value-Added Active Chlorine Coupled with H2 Generation from Direct Seawater Electrolysis through Decoupling Electrolytes

Direct saline (seawater) electrolysis is a well-recognized system to generate active chlorine species for the chloride-mediated electrosynthesis, environmental remediation and sterilization over the past few decades. However, the large energy consumption originated from the high cell voltage of traditional direct saline electrolysis system, greatly restricts its practical application. Here, we report an acid-saline hybrid electrolysis system for energy-saving co-electrosynthesis of active chlorine and H2. We demonstrate that this system just requires a low cell voltage of 1.59 V to attain 10 mA cm-2 with a large energy consumption decrease of 27.7 % compared to direct saline electrolysis system (2.20 V). We further demonstrate that such acid-saline hybrid electrolysis system could be extended to realize energy-saving and sustainable seawater electrolysis. The acidified seawater in this system can absolutely avoid the formation of Ca/Mg-based sediments that always form in the seawater electrolysis system. We also prove that this system in the half-flow mode can realize real-time preparation of active chlorine used for sterilization and pea sprout production.

Evaluation of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes during chlorine and peroxyacetic acid interventions in simulated apple dump tank water

Sanitizers are widely incorporated in commercial apple dump tank systems to mitigate the cross-contamination of foodborne pathogens. This study validated the suitability of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes during sanitizer interventions in dump tank water systems. E. faecium NRRL B-2354 inoculated on apples exhibited statistically equivalent susceptibility to L. monocytogenes when exposed to chlorine-based sanitizers (25-100 ppm free chlorine (FC)) and peroxyacetic acid (PAA, 20-80 ppm) in simulated dump tank water (SDTW) with 1000 ppm chemical oxygen demand (COD), resulting in 0.2-0.9 and 1.1-1.7 log CFU/apple reduction, respectively. Increasing the contact time did not affect sanitizer efficacies against E. faecium NRRL B-2354 and L. monocytogenes on apples. Chlorine and PAA interventions demonstrated statistically similar efficacies against both bacteria inoculated in SDTW. Chlorine at 25 and 100 ppm FC for 0.5-5 min contact yielded ~37.68-78.25 % and > 99.85 % inactivation, respectively, in water with 1000-4000 ppm COD, while ~51.55-99.86 % and > 99.97 % inactivation was observed for PAA at 20 and 80 ppm, respectively. No statistically significant difference was observed between the transference of E. faecium NRRL B-2354 and L. monocytogenes from inoculated apples to uninoculated apples and water, and from water to uninoculated apples during chlorine- or PAA-treated SDTW exposure. The data suggest E. faecium NRRL B-2354 is a viable surrogate for L. monocytogenes in dump tank washing systems, which could be used to predict the anti-Listeria efficacy of chlorine and PAA interventions during commercial apple processing. Further investigations are recommended to assess the suitability of E. faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for L. monocytogenes, when using different sanitizers and different types of produce to ensure reliable and comprehensive results.

Recent advances and role of melatonin in post-harvest quality preservation of shiitake (Lentinula edodes)

Shiitake mushrooms are renowned for their popularity and robust nutritional value, are susceptible to spoilage due to their inherent biodegradability. Nevertheless, because of their lack of protection, these mushrooms have a short shelf life. Throughout the post-harvest phase, mushrooms experience a persistent decline in quality. This is evidenced by changes such as discoloration, reduced moisture content, texture changes, an increase in microbial count, and the depletion of nutrients and flavor. Ensuring postharvest quality preservation and prolonging mushroom shelf life necessitates the utilization of post-harvest preservation techniques, including physical, chemical, and thermal processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the deterioration processes affecting mushroom quality, covering elements such as moisture loss, discoloration, texture alterations, increased microbial count, and the depletion of nutrients and flavor. It also explores the key factors influencing these processes, such as temperature, relative humidity, water activity, and respiration rate. Furthermore, the review delves into recent progress in preserving mushrooms through techniques such as drying, cooling, packaging, irradiation, washing, and coating.

Plasmonic filter paper for preconcentration, separation and SERS detection harmful chemicals in chili product by fluid flow

We proposed a triple functional SERS substrate by immobilized Ag nanoparticles on the surface of filter paper. The high dense Ag nanoparticles were distributed on the SERS substrate via in-situ growth process. By optimizing the parameter in preparation process, the optimal filter paper SERS substrate was fabricated by using 30 mM of AgNO3 with 20 S growth time. Due to capillary-effect wicking of cellulose fiber, the paper SERS substrate provide simple, fast and pump-free function for transferring analyte onto sharp tip through development of fluid. The fluid flow also brings target concentrate effect within the tip area. Furthermore, the separation feasibility was obtained during the development process of fluid. The preconcentrated effects not only enhanced the SERS signal of analyte, but also improve the fluorescence visible effect. The filter paper SERS substrate was successfully used for separating, concentrating and detecting Sudan dye from chili product, the detection limit could achieve 10-6 M. This study developed a portable, cost-effective and eco-friendly SERS substrate for separating and detecting trace chemical in food.

Recent advances in activated water systems for the postharvest management of quality and safety of fresh fruits and vegetables

Over the last three decades, decontamination management of fresh fruits and vegetables (FFVs) in the packhouses and along the supply chains has been heavily dependent on chemical-based wash. This has resulted in the emergence of resistant foodborne pathogens and often the deposition of disinfectant byproducts on FFVs, rendering them unacceptable to consumers. The management of foodborne pathogens, microbial contaminants, and quality of FFVs are a major concern for the horticultural industries and public health. Activated water systems (AWS), such as electrolyzed water, plasma-activated water, and micro-nano bubbles, have gained significant attention from researchers over the last decade due to their nonthermal and nontoxic mode of action for microbial inactivation and preservation of FFVs quality. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of recent progress on the application of AWS and their effects on quality attributes and microbial safety of FFVs. An overview of the different types of AWS and their properties is provided. Furthermore, the review highlights the chemistry behind generation of reactive species and the impact of AWS on the quality attributes of FFVs and on the inactivation/reduction of spoilage and pathogenic microbes (in vivo or in vitro). The mechanisms of action of microorganism inactivation are discussed. Finally, this work highlights challenges and limitations for commercialization and safety and regulation issues of AWS. The synergistic prospect on combining AWS for maximum microorganism inactivation effectiveness is also considered. AWS offers a potential alternative as nonchemical interventions to maintain quality attributes, inactivate spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, and extend the shelf-life for FFVs.

Slightly acidic electrolyzed water inhibits inflammation induced by membrane vesicles of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus grows in the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis and the associated symptoms are induced by membrane vesicles (MVs). This study explored the effects of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) on the expression of virulence factors of S. aureus and MV-induced inflammation to uncover the potential of SAEW as a new treatment method for atopic dermatitis. Expression levels of genes related to virulence factors in S. aureus was assessed and S. aureus-derived MVs were characterized. Moreover, expression level of MV-induced Type I allergic reaction-related genes in RBL2H3 cells was also assessed. Significantly decreased staphylococcal enterotoxin A production and decreased virulence factor-related gene expression were observed after culturing S. aureus in broth supplemented with SAEW at ratios of 1, 2, and 5 per broth. MVs prepared by culturing S. aureus in SAEW-supplemented broth exhibited altered particle size and markedly reduced staphylococcal enterotoxin A content under all addition conditions; moreover, those obtained at a ratio of 1:5 (broth:SAEW) exhibited a reduction in the expression of several proteins associated with hemolytic activity and free iron uptake. The MVs prepared in SAEW-supplemented broth also exhibited remarkably reduced allergy-related gene expression levels in rat cell lines derived from basophilic leukemia-2H3 cells. Overall, SAEW is expected to suppress atopic dermatitis symptoms through the alteration of the properties of S. aureus-derived MVs.

Synergistic effect of electrolyzed water generated by sodium chloride combined with dimethyl dicarbonate for inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes on lettuce

BACKGROUND

Electrolyzed water (EW) is recognized as an effective way to control and reduce pathogens in vegetables. However, the disinfection efficacy of EW alone is limited. In this work, the bactericidal activity and biofilm removal capability of EW, generated by adding NaCl to a portable EW generator, were investigated with special reference to Listeria monocytogenes. Furthermore, the impact of EW in combination with dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC) in reducing the microbial load and improving the overall quality of lettuce during refrigerated storage was evaluated.

RESULTS

EW with 0.3% NaCl (SEW) had the highest bactericidal activity against L. monocytogenes. The pathogen treated with SEW exhibited lower superoxide dismutase activity and more leakage of proteins and nucleic acids than in the case of EW. Furthermore, the use of SEW resulted in changes in the cell permeability and morphology of L. monocytogenes. A decrease in adhesion and collapse of the biofilm architecture were also observed, indicating that SEW was more effective for inactivating L. monocytogenes cells compared to EW. For untreated lettuce, the populations of the total plate count and inoculated L. monocytogenes decreased by 2.47 and 2.35 log CFU g-1 , respectively, after the combined SEW/DMDC treatment for 3 min. The use of SEW alone or combined with DMDC did not negatively impact the lettuce color values, titratable acid, ascorbic acid and soluble solids compared to the control group.

CONCLUSION

SEW in combination with DMDC can be used as a novel and potentially effective disinfection strategy for ensuring the safety of vegetable consumption. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Electrolysed oxidising water as a multi-purpose biocide in dental healthcare-A scoping review

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this scoping review was to map evidence of electrolysed oxidising water (EOW) as a biocide for dental applications of relevance to older people and identify research gaps.

BACKGROUND

EOW is an emerging, "green," and cost-effective biocide. There are no reviews on the landscape of EOW research as either an antiseptic or disinfectant in dental healthcare or its suitability for the oral healthcare of older people.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The review follows the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. Database searches (Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, Ovid, Scopus and Science Direct) were undertaken using MESH terms and Boolean operators with no date restrictions, to identify full-text, original reports published in English-language peer-reviewed journals.

RESULTS

The search yielded 114 papers that met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Dental applications of EOW include its use as an endodontic irrigant (39%); mouth rinse/surgical irrigant (21%); disinfectant for dental unit water lines (19%) and dental biomaterials (17%); and for antimicrobial efficacy, effects on oral tissues and on dental material properties. Most studies (83%) evaluated a single EOW formulation (acidic, moderately acidic or neutral) that was either generated at 'point-of-use' (POU; 72%), bottled ('ready-to-use', RTU; 24%) or from unspecified (3%) sources. Six reports evaluated storage-related parameters and 25 evaluated clinical applications; 89 were in vitro studies and one investigated the cost-effectiveness of POU EOW.

CONCLUSIONS

Neutral-pH, EOW is effective as an antimicrobial agent without deleterious effects on oral tissues. However, research on the impact of storage conditions, anti-Candida biofilm efficacy and mechanism of action against yeasts, long-term effects on denture materials and cost-effectiveness is required to establish the suitability of EOW as a multipurpose biocide for dental healthcare, including infection-control requirements relating to older people.

Antimicrobial Efficiency of Hypochlorous Acid and Its Effect on Some Properties of Alginate Impression Material

Dental clinicians and professionals need an affordable, nontoxic, and effective disinfectant against infectious microorganisms when dealing with the contaminated dental impressions. This study evaluated the efficiency of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as an antimicrobial disinfectant by spraying technique for the alginate impression materials, compared with sodium hypochlorite, and its effect on dimensional stability and reproduction of details. HOCl with a concentration of 200 ppm for 5 and 10 min was compared with the control group (no treatment) as a negative control and with sodium hypochlorite (% 0.5) as a positive control. Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were selected to assess the antimicrobial activity with the colony forming unit test in addition to the dimensional stability and reproduction of details tests. The results revealed that HOCl had significant antimicrobial activity against all tested microorganisms and experimental time. Interestingly, HOCl showed no impact on the dimensional stability of alginate impression material. HOCl could be an effective antimicrobial agent for alginate impression material without interfering with their surface details and dimensional stability.

Antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation of Escherichia coli in a Vietnamese Pangasius fish processing facility

This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, antibiotic resistance, and biofilm formation of Escherichia coli in the Vietnamese Pangasius fish processing facility. Among 144 samples including Pangasius fish, wash water, food contact surfaces, and personnel gloves, 18 E. coli isolates was detected and characterized. The E. coli was detected most frequently in wash water samples (22%, 8/36), followed by Pangasius fish (18%, 8/45). According to the antibiotic susceptibility test by the disc diffusion method, isolates showed the highest resistance against sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (45%), followed by tetracycline (39%), whereas all the E. coli isolates were susceptible to meropenem and fosfomycin. Notably, 39% of the isolates (7/18) were found to be multidrug resistant while no E. coli isolates were confirmed as extended-spectrum β-lactamase producers by the double-disk synergy test. The potency to form biofilm on the polystyrene surface of E. coli isolates indicated that 44% of the isolates (8/18) were classified as weak, 39% (7/18) as moderate, and 17% (3/18) as strong biofilm formers. Interestingly, multidrug resistant E. coli isolates were observed in moderate and strong biofilm producers. Additionally, either slightly acidic hypochlorous water with 40 mg/L of available chlorine or sodium hypochlorite with 100 mg/L of available chlorine exhibited a significant reduction in biofilm mass and biofilm cells of E. coli isolates. This study may provide helpful information about the actual state of E. coli isolates for effective control in the fish processing plant.

Technological innovations enhance postharvest fresh food resilience from a supply chain perspective

Fresh food is rich in nutrients but is usually seasonal, perishable, and challenging to store without degradation of quality. The inherent limitations of various preservation technologies can result in losses in all stages of the supply chain. As consumers of fresh foods have become more health-conscious, new technologies for intelligent, energy-efficient, and nondestructive preservation and processing have emerged as a research priority in recent years. This review aims to summarize the quality change characteristics of postharvest fruits, vegetables, meats, and aquatic products. It critically analyzes research progress and applications of various emerging technologies, which include: the application of high-voltage electric field, magnetic field, electromagnetic field, plasma, electrolytic water, nanotechnology, modified atmosphere packaging, and composite bio-coated film preservation technologies. An evaluation is presented of the benefits and drawbacks of these technologies, as well as future development trends. Moreover, this review provides guidance for design of the food supply chain to take advantage of various technologies used to process food, reduce losses and waste of fresh food, and this improve the overall resilience of the supply chain.

Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel by synergistic effects of tap water-based neutral electrolyzed water and lactic acid

Contaminated food contact surface is one of the most important transmission routes for foodborne pathogens. Stainless steel is one such food-contact surface that is widely used in food-processing environments. The present study aimed to evaluate the synergistic antimicrobial efficacy of a combination of tap water-based neutral electrolyzed water (TNEW) and lactic acid (LA) against the foodborne pathogens Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel. The results revealed that simultaneous treatment with TNEW (ACC of 4.60 mg/L) and 0.1% LA (TNEW-LA) for 5 min resulted in 4.99-, 4.34-, and >5.4- log CFU/cm² reductions in E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes on stainless steel, respectively. Of these, 4.00-, 3.57-, and >4.76-log CFU/cm² reductions in E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes, respectively were exclusively attributed to the synergistic action of the combined treatments after factoring out the reductions due to individual treatments. Furthermore, five mechanistic investigations revealed that the key mechanisms underlying the synergistic antibacterial effect of TNEW-LA were reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cell membrane damage resulting from membrane lipid oxidation, DNA damage, and inactivation of intracellular enzymes. Overall, our findings suggest that the TNEW-LA combination treatment could be effectively used in the sanitization of food processing environments, especially the food contact surfaces, to control major pathogens and enhance food safety.

Proposal and Verification of the Theory of Layer-by-Layer Elimination of Biofilm in Listeria monocytogenes

Biofilms are microbial communities that represent a high abundance of microbial life forms on Earth. Within biofilms, structural changes during clearance processes occur in three spatial and temporal dimensions; therefore, microscopy and quantitative image analysis are essential in elucidating their function. Here, we present confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) in conjunction with ISA-2 software analysis for the automated and high-throughput quantification, analysis, and visualisation of biofilm interiors and overall biofilm properties in three spatial and temporal dimensions. This paper discusses the removal process of Listeria monocytogenes (LM) biofilms using slightly acidic electrolytic water, non-electrolytic hypochlorite water, and alternating the use of strongly acidic and strongly alkaline electrolytic water. The results show that the biofilm gradually thins and gutters from the initial viscous dense and thick morphology under the action of either biocide. This process is consistent with first-level kinetics. After CLSM filming to observe the biofilm structure, analysis software was used to process and quantify the biovolume, average biofilm thickness, biofilm roughness and other indicators; fluorescence enzyme markers were used to verify the remaining amount of extracellular nucleic acid. In this study, we proposed and validated the theory of layer-by-layer elimination of LM biofilm.

Development of novel green methods for preparation of lead-free preserved pidan (duck egg)

Pidan, a pickled duck egg, is a traditional Chinese cuisine and generally produced by soaking in metal ion containing strong alkaline solution such as NaOH solution. However, nowadays consumers possess negative perception for using strong alkali in food processing. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to determine the potential of incinerated eggshell powder and alkaline electrolyzed oxidized (EO) water for pidan production rather than harmful NaOH use. This study aims to obtain the optimal physicochemical and sensory qualities of pidan. Various dosing (1-5%) of the incinerated eggshell powder solution or alkaline EO water was used as a basic pickling solution. Duck eggs were pickled at 25-27 °C for 15-30 days with 3 days of an observation interval. Actual commercial process commonly undergoes for 14 days of ripening, after 25 days of picking process with incinerated eggshell powder or EO water. Results showed that physicochemical and sensory attributes of pidan obtained by incinerated eggshell powder solution and alkaline EO water were not significantly different (P < 0.05) from the commercial product. This study reports a cost-effective and green alternative method for pidan processing by replacing costly NaOH without compromising their physico-chemical and sensory attributes.

Biofilm Formation From Listeria monocytogenes Isolated From Pangasius Fish-processing Plants

Biofilm formation of Listeria monocytogenes in food processing environments cause potential source of cross-contamination to foodstuffs; hence, the control of biofilm is currently addressed to find effective solutions for preventing biofilm formation or eliminating the established one. Forty-five strains of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from Pangasius fish-processing plants were studied for their capability to form a biofilm on 96-well microtiter plate by using the conventional crystal violet staining. Additionally, the inhibitory effect of biofilm formation by food additives including monascus pigment and ε-polylysine was examined. The average OD value showing biofilm mass of all 45 strains L. monocytogenes increased with an increasing temperature and time (p < 0.05). Monascus pigment and ε-polylysine significantly decreased biofilm formation by 80 ± 5.5% and 20 ± 5.9%, respectively, at the tested concentration (p < 0.05) Further, the effects of lysozyme (0.1 mg/mL) alone or in combination with slightly acidic hypochlorous water (SAHW) with 40 mg/L available chlorine or sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) with 100 mg/L available chlorine against 7-d established biofilm of L. monocytogenes were investigated. The results indicated that slightly acidic hypochlorous water alone exhibited significant antibacterial activity (p < 0.05), decreasing the viable count by 5.2 ± 0.5 log CFU/mL. It seems that sequential treatment of lysozyme and SAHW showed an additional efficacy against biofilm of L. monocytogenes on polystyrene plate surface, reducing 70% of biomass of biofilm and 7.6 ± 0.3 log of biofilm viable cells (p < 0.05). Additionally, SAHW exhibited greater bactericidal activity against viable biofilm cells than NaOCl did. This result reveals that SAHW is a promising disinfectant agent against L. monocytogenes and the potential alternative to NaOCl in practice.

The influences of acidic electrolyzed water on quality and bacteria community of fresh-cut jackfruit in storage

This study evaluated the effects of acidic electrolyzed oxidizing water (AEW) on the quality and bacterial communities of fresh-cut jackfruit during storage. The result showed that AEW treatment, as compared to the CK group (without AEW treatment), could effectively inhibit the browning, maintain higher firmness and higher amounts of total titratable acidity (TTA) (0.21%), sugars (58.30 g/kg), ascorbic acids (28.72 mg/kg) and total phenolics (35.47 mg/kg) of fresh-cut jackfruits, and suppress the decrease of antioxidant ability during 4–8 days of storage. Additionally, the bacterial communities were significantly affected by AEW during storage. In particular, the AEW treated samples showed lower abundance of Pseudomonas and Lactobacillus than the CK group after storage of 8 day. And energy metabolism, nucleotide metabolism has the significantly lower (p < 0.05) relative abundance in the AEW group than in CK group. These results suggested that AEW (pH: 4.2–4.5, ACC: 35–38 mg/L) treatment could maintain the quality of fresh-cut jackfruit during storage. It could be attributed to that AEW treatment affect the growth and metabolism of bacterial communities, resulting in the decrease of nutrients consumption.

Applications of water activated by ozone, electrolysis, or gas plasma for microbial decontamination of raw and processed meat

A raw or processed meat product can be a breeding ground for spoilage bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., etc.). Failure of decontamination results in food quality loss and foodborne illnesses caused by pathogens such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes. Often, meat processors decontaminate the carcass using cheap chemicals or artificial antimicrobial agents not listed on the ingredient list, which is discouraged by health-conscious consumers. Foods with clean labels became more popular during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led consumers to choose healthier ingredients. Novel methods of controlling or improving meat safety are constantly being discovered. This review focuses on novel means of electrochemically activate water that is being investigated as a sanitizing agent for carcasses and processing area decontamination during production or at the end. Water can be activated by using non-thermal techniques such as ozonation, electrolysis, and cold plasma technologies. Recent studies showed that these activated liquids are powerful tools for reducing microbial activity in raw and processed meat. For instance, plasma-activated water can be used to enhance microbiological safety and avoid the negative effects of direct gaseous plasma on the organoleptic aspects of food products. In addition, electrolyzed water technology offers hurdle enhancement by combining with non-thermal strategies that have great potential. Ozonation is another way of activating water which provides a very convenient way to control microbiological safety and finds several recent applications as aqueous ozone for meat decontamination. These solutions are highly reactive and convenient for non-conventional applications in the meat industry related to food safety because of their antimicrobial or antiviral impact. The present review highlights the efficacy of activated-water decontamination of raw and processed meat via non-thermal solutions.

Seed Disinfestation Practices to Control Seed-Borne Fungi and Bacteria in Home Production of Sprouts

Concern over microbial contamination limits the adoption of home production of sprouts as a nutritious and sustainable food. Simple, accessible approaches to seed disinfection could support safe home seed sprouting. Here, we quantify bacterial and fungal contamination of seeds of 14 plant cultivars sold for home sprout production and test a range of chemical and physical methods for seed disinfestation appropriate for home use. Most seeds are contaminated with a variety of bacteria and fungi, and those microbes are usually limited to the seed surface. Heat treatments are not effective for seed disinfection because the high temperatures needed to effectively reduce microbial contamination also reduce seed germination. Two chlorine-based chemical disinfectants-dilute household bleach (0.6% sodium hypochlorite) and freshly generated hypochlorous acid (800 ppm chlorine)-were the most effective disinfection agents tested (up to a 5-log reduction in bacteria) that also did not harm seed germination.

Slightly acidic electrolyzed water treatment improves the quality and storage properties of carambola fruit

This study aimed to explore the impacts of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) treatment on the physiology, quality, and storage properties of postharvest carambola. The carambolas were immersed in SAEW with a pH value of 6.0, ORP of 1340 mV and ACC of 80 mg/L. Results demonstrated that SAEW could significantly reduce the respiration rate, inhibit the increase in cell membrane permeability, and delay apparent color change. Relatively higher contents of bioactive compounds and nutritional components, such as flavonoids, polyphenols, reducing sugars, sucrose, vitamin C, total soluble sugar, and total soluble solid, as well as higher titratable acidity were maintained in SAEW-treated carambola. In addition, SAEW-treated carambola exhibited a higher commercial acceptability rate and a higher firmness, but lower weight loss and peel browning index than control fruits. Our results indicated that SAEW treatment achieved high fruit quality and nutritional values, potentially contributing to improve storage properties of harvested carambola.

Ultrasound-Assisted Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water in Aquatic Product Sterilization: A Review

Ultrasound has been confirmed as the propagation process of mechanical vibrations in a medium, with a frequency significantly higher than 20 kHz. Moreover, it has an effect of sterilization on foods. In general, ultrasonic sterilization medium is manifested as a liquid. Ultrasonic treatment technology has certain advantages in aquatic product processing. It is noteworthy that this technology will have better effects of sterilization if used in combination with other treatment methods. Slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) is characterized by high-efficiency broad-spectrum sterilization operation, low cost, and environmental protection, among other properties, and has a positive effect on aquatic product sterilization and preservation. Selecting acidic electrolyzed water with a low concentration coupled with low-power ultrasonic waves for combined sterilization exerts a more potent sterilization effect, and acidic electrolyzed water combined with ultrasonic sterilization is expected to be a potentially environment-friendly alternative. In this study, the sterilization mechanisms of ultrasonic and SAEW methods used both individually and as a synergistic treatment, the effect on microbial growth, and the research progress of the application of the combined effect in the sterilization and refrigeration of aquatic products are reviewed. Furthermore, this study looks forward to the future development trend, with a view to its application in aquatic products, while providing a reference for research and application in the field of processing and safety.

Natural Inhibitors Targeting the Localization of Lipoprotein System in Vibrio parahaemolyticus

The localization of lipoprotein (Lol) system is responsible for the transport of lipoproteins in the outer membrane (OM) of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. LolB catalyzes the last step in the Lol system, where lipoproteins are inserted into the OM. If the function of LolB is impeded, growth of V. parahaemolyticus is inhibited, due to lack of an intact OM barrier for protection against the external environment. Additionally, it becomes progressively harder to generate antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In this study, LolB was employed as the receptor for a high-throughput virtual screening from a natural compounds database. Compounds with higher glide score were selected for an inhibition assay against V. parahaemolyticus. It was found that procyanidin, stevioside, troxerutin and rutin had both exciting binding affinity with LolB in the micromolar range and preferable antibacterial activity in a concentration-dependent manner. The inhibition rates of 100 ppm were 87.89%, 86.2%, 91.39% and 83.71%, respectively. The bacteriostatic mechanisms of the four active compounds were explored further via fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular docking, illustrating that each molecule formed a stable complex with LolB via hydrogen bonds and pi-pi stacking interactions. Additionally, the critical sites for interaction with V. parahaemolyticus LolB, Tyr108 and Gln68, were also illustrated. This paper demonstrates the inhibition of LolB, thus, leading to antibacterial activity, and identifies LolB as a promising drug target for the first time. These compounds could be the basis for potential antibacterial agents against V. parahaemolyticus.

Antimicrobial activity effects of electrolytically generated hypochlorous acid-treated pathogenic microorganisms by isothermal kinetic simulation

This study involves isothermal kinetic simulation to evaluate the parameters of inhibition conditions for Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) of high-risk pathogens. This is because the new type of the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) is continuously spreading and the importance of public health issues. Environmental disinfection and personal wearing of masks have become important epidemic prevention measures. Selection of concentration kinetics could be estimated best for E. coli and S. aureus of pathogens, 2.74 × 10⁴ and 10⁵ and 2.44 × 10⁴ and 10⁵ colony-forming units (CFU mL^-1), by isothermal micro-calorimeter (TAM Air) tests, respectively. Comparisons were made of different doses of 0-70 ppm (in 20 mL test ampoule) hypochlorous acid treatment for conducting nth-order and autocatalytic reaction simulation to evaluate the inhibition reaction parameters, which determined the autocatalytic kinetic model that was beneficially applied on the E. coli and S. aureus. We developed the inhibition reaction parameters of the pathogens, which included the activation energy (E _a), the natural logarithm of pre-exponential factor (lnk ₀), the enthalpy of inhibition microbial growth reaction (∆H), inhibition microbial growth, and the inhibition growth analysis. Overall, we conducted isothermal kinetic simulation to understand the antimicrobial activity effects of electrolytically generated hypochlorous acid-treated pathogenic microorganisms, which will provide reference for public health and medical-related fields for SDG3, and can contribute to ensuring human health and hygiene.

The Effect of Hypochlorous Acid Disinfectant on the Reproduction of Details and Surface Hardness of Type III Dental Stone

Introduction Gypsum products have been used for many years in dentistry. They are used to make casts that are used in different dental laboratory procedures. It is considered a source of contamination because it comes in contact with blood and saliva that are found on dental impressions. Because it is difficult to make sure that every impression brought to the dental laboratory has been cleaned and because cleaning impressions is a complicated process that can lead to problems because of the way impression materials are made, cleaning the cast has become a key part of preventing infections. For this study, we used two ways (immersion and spray) to apply a hypochlorous acid (HOCl) disinfectant solution to type III dental stone to see how they affected the stone's surface hardness and its ability to show surface details accurately. Materials and methods A total of 100 samples of type III dental stone, 50 samples for each test, which include the reproduction of detail test and surface hardness test, were prepared and randomly divided into five groups, 10 samples for each test group, which include group A (control), group B (immersion in 200 ppm HOCl disinfectant for five minutes), group C (spraying with 200 ppm HOCl disinfectant for five minutes), group D (immersion in 0.6% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) disinfectant for five minutes), and group E (spraying with 0.6% NaOCl disinfectant for five minutes). Results The results showed that all the samples had met the reproduction of detail test requirement after disinfection with HOCl, while a significant reduction in the surface hardness of type III stone samples was also shown. Conclusion The less undesirable effects of HOCl disinfectant solution on the surface hardness of type III dental stone when compared to sodium hypochlorite, as well as the absence of adverse effects on detail reproduction, made the HOCl disinfectant solution a good choice for dentists and dental laboratory personnel for cast disinfection and contamination control.

Efficacy of Acidified Oils against Salmonella in Low-Moisture Environments

When processing low-moisture, high-fat foods such as peanut butter and nuts, water-based sanitization is unsuitable due to the immiscible nature of water and fats. Dry sanitization mainly uses flammable compounds such as isopropanol, requiring equipment cooling before application. The use of oils to deliver antimicrobials against foodborne pathogens enables the use of elevated temperatures, thus eliminating processing downtimes associated with dry sanitization. This study delivered organic acids and medium-chain fatty acids (100, 250, and 500 mM) in peanut oil against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis desiccated at 75% relative humidity (RH). Acetic acid in peanut oil (AO) at 45°C was the most effective food-grade acid, causing a 4.4-log reduction in S. Enteritidis at 500 mM. AO caused cellular injury and was effective against a variety of S. Enteritidis strains. Confocal microscopy demonstrated that cells treated with 50 mM and 250 mM AO had significant membrane damage and reduced cellular respiration compared to untreated controls. Treatment efficacy increased with the increase in acid concentration, treatment duration, and treatment temperature from 20 to 45°C. Transmission electron microscopy after treatment with 100 and 250 mM AO revealed membrane ruffling and leakage in cell membranes, especially at 45°C. Reduction of the RH to 33% during desiccation of S. Enteritidis caused a decrease in AO efficacy compared to that at 75% RH, while at a higher RH of 90%, there was an increase in the efficacy of AO. Acidified oils can serve as robust, cost-effective replacements for dry-sanitation methods and improve safety of low moisture foods. IMPORTANCE Currently, dry sanitization products used during food processing often contain flammable compounds which require processing to stop and equipment to cool before application. This leads to processing downtimes and consequently, economic losses. This challenge is compounded by exposure to dryness which frequently renders Salmonella resistant to heat and different antimicrobials. Thus, the development of heat-tolerant oil-based antimicrobial compounds is a novel approach for sanitizing in low-moisture (dry) environments such as those found in peanut butter, tree nuts, and chocolate manufacturing. This study shows that acidified oils, especially acetic acid in peanut oil at elevated temperatures (45°C), was highly effective against desiccated Salmonella. Acidified oils have the potential to replace dry sanitizers, increasing the frequency of sanitization, leading to an improvement in food safety.

Sterilizer of Knives in the Meat Industry, Working by Activating Aqueous Solutions with Glow Discharge Plasma

The development of approaches for the non-thermal sterilization of instruments is an urgent task to ensure the safety of meat industry products, where the use of hot water leads to the formation of condensates and a deterioration in the hygienic condition of the premises. In this study, an installation for sterilizing knives was created, which works by activating aqueous salt solutions with a glow discharge. The power consumption of the installation reactor is only 125–150 Wh. The temperature rise of the sterilizing agent used is about 1.1 ± 0.2 °C/min/L. The effectiveness of the installation for plasma-activation of aqueous solutions of chloride and sodium sulfate by glow discharge (PAW) in relation to the inactivation of microorganisms, including Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas gessardii and L. monocytogenes, on steel surfaces was evaluated. Samples of stainless steel (parts of knives) were used in two versions (new and artificially aged). Mono- and polyspecies bacterial biofilms were grown on the surface of the samples. The treatment was carried out by immersing samples of steel plates in plasma-activated aqueous solutions. It was found that the treatment of plates in a knife sterilizer for 1 min had an effective effect on the inhibition of all types of studied bacteria.

Preparation of Acidic Electrolyzed Water by a RuO2@TiO2 Electrode with High Selectivity for Chlorine Evolution and Its Sterilization Effect

The food hygiene problems caused by bacterial biofilms in food processing equipment are directly related to human life safety and health. Therefore, it is of great strategic significance to study new food sterilization technology. An acidic electrolyzed water (AEW) disinfectant is an electrochemical sterilization technology which has the characteristics of wide adaptability, high efficiency, and environmental friendliness. However, since the sterilization efficiency of AEW for biofilms is not ideal, it is necessary to increase the available chlorine content (ACC) in AEW. A feasible method to increase the ACC is by increasing the chlorine evolution reaction (CER) selectivity of the electrode for AEW preparation. In this paper, the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode was prepared by thermal decomposition combined with high-vacuum magnetron sputtering. Compared with the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity of an ordinary RuO₂ electrode, the OER activity of the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode is significantly reduced. However, the CER activity of the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode is close to the OER activity of RuO₂. The CER mechanism of the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode is the second electron transfer, and the OER mechanism is the formation and transformation of OH_ads. The potential difference between the CER and OER of the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode is 174 mV, which is 65 mV higher than that of the RuO₂ electrode, so the selectivity of the CER of the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode is remarkably improved. During the preparation of AEW, the ACC obtained with the RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode is 1.7 times that obtained with the RuO₂ electrode. In the sterilization experiments on Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis biofilms, the logarithmic killing values of AEW prepared the by RuO₂@TiO₂ electrode are higher than those of AEW prepared by the RuO₂ electrode.

Application of Electrolyzed Water in the Food Industry: A Review

Electrolyzed water is a novel disinfectant and cleaner that has been widely utilized in the food sector for several years to ensure that surfaces are sterilized, and that food is safe. It is produced by the electrolysis of a dilute salt solution, and the reaction products include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hypochlorous acid. In comparison to conventional cleaning agents, electrolyzed water is economical and eco-friendly, easy to use, and strongly effective. Electrolyzed water is also used in its acidic form, but it is non-corrosive to the human epithelium and other organic matter. The electrolyzed water can be utilized in a diverse range of foods; thus, it is an appropriate choice for synergistic microbial control in the food industry to ensure food safety and quality without damaging the organoleptic parameters of the food. The present review article highlights the latest information on the factors responsible for food spoilage and the antimicrobial potential of electrolyzed water in fresh or processed plant and animal products.