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Almaiman L, Alamir J, Albuhayjan F, Akamsiei R, Alessa N, Alhuthiel M, Bin Eid M. Preliminary risk assessment of exposure to 3-monochloropropanediol and glycidyl fatty acid esters from infant formula and baby food products on the Saudi market. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2024:1-13. [PMID: 39361892 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2024.2399303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2024] [Revised: 08/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/25/2024] [Indexed: 10/05/2024]
Abstract
3-Monochloropropanediol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) are well-identified processing-induced chemical toxicants detected in infant formula and baby foods worldwide. We analysed the levels of 3-MCPDE and GE in infant formula and baby food products available in Saudi Arabia, followed by a dietary risk assessment for exposure to these contaminants in infants and young children from birth to 3 years. Eighty-five commercial infant formulas (n = 35) and baby foods (n = 50) available for consumption by infants and babies purchased from the Saudi market during 2022 were analysed for these contaminants using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. 3-MCPDE and GE were detected in 100 and 80% of the samples, with a mean concentration of 57 µg/kg (range: 2-285 µg/kg) and 30 µg/kg (range: not detected-217 µg/kg), respectively. The highest concentration was found in milk-based formula for infants 0-6 months (285 µg/kg) and the lowest was found in fruit purees (2 µg/kg). Preliminary exposure and risk assessment showed increased exposure to 3-MCPDE for infants exclusively fed infant formula with exposure declining with age due to the introduction of solid foods. GE exposure levels reached 0.8 µg/kg body weight per day, which declined over time with margin of exposure values below 25,000. These results indicate that the levels of 3-MCPDE and GE in infant formula may pose potential risks to infants exclusively fed formula; therefore, adopting EU regulations should reduce the presence of these processing contaminants in essential infant foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lama Almaiman
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jumanah Alamir
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faisal Albuhayjan
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rawdah Akamsiei
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nujood Alessa
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Alhuthiel
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Bin Eid
- Executive Department of Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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2
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Alhaji AM, Almeida ES, Carneiro CR, da Silva CAS, Monteiro S, Coimbra JSDR. Palm Oil ( Elaeis guineensis): A Journey through Sustainability, Processing, and Utilization. Foods 2024; 13:2814. [PMID: 39272579 PMCID: PMC11394976 DOI: 10.3390/foods13172814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Palm oil, derived from Elaeis guineensis, is a critical component of the global edible oil and industrial fat market. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the sustainability of the palm oil chain, focusing on industrial applications, environmental implications, and economic sustainability. The processing of palm oil, from fruit pulp to refined oil, is detailed, highlighting the importance of refining in maintaining quality and extending application ranges. While palm oil offers health benefits because of its rich fatty acid composition and antioxidant properties, its production poses significant environmental challenges. This review underscores ongoing efforts to balance technological and culinary demands with environmental stewardship and sustainable economic growth. Emerging trends, including interspecific hybrids such as E. guineensis and E. oleifera, are discussed for their potential to increase sustainability and productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamu Muhammad Alhaji
- Department of Food Technology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida PH Rolfs, s/n, Viçosa 36570-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Aliko Dangote University of Science and Technology, Wudil P.O. Box 3244, Nigeria
| | - Erislene S Almeida
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of Brasilia, Brasília 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Camila Rodrigues Carneiro
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida PH Rolfs, s/n, Viçosa 36570-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - César Augusto Sodré da Silva
- Department of Food Technology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida PH Rolfs, s/n, Viçosa 36570-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Simone Monteiro
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of Brasilia, Brasília 70910-900, Brazil
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Jane Sélia Dos Reis Coimbra
- Department of Food Technology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida PH Rolfs, s/n, Viçosa 36570-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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3
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Makarenko MA, Malinkin AD, Bessonov VV. Change in Sunflower Oil Quality and Safety Depending on Number of Deodorisation Cycles Used. Foods 2024; 13:2555. [PMID: 39200481 PMCID: PMC11353703 DOI: 10.3390/foods13162555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Revised: 08/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/10/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Deodorisation remains a beneficial aspect of the processing of edible oils and fats and is required during the first refining and after transportation, storage, and/or further processing, such as interesterification. While there is awareness among the scientific community that repeated deodorisation may negatively impact product quality, according to some technical and processing requirements, oils, fats, and their blends can still be treated with up to 3-4 cycles of deodorisation. However, the precise changes caused by sequential deodorising processes remain unknown. This study analysed fatty acid compositions, peroxide values, anisidine values, volatile profiles, and monochloropropanediol (MCPDEs) and glycidyl (GEs) fatty acid ester contents in pressed and repeatedly deodorised sunflower oils (SFOs). The latter had higher levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs); monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs); and trans fatty acids (TFAs); as well as volatile aldehydes, such as pentanal, hexanal, (E)-2-hexenal, and (E)-2-heptenal, and MCPDE contents with each successive deodorisation. Most of these compounds have the potential to cause harmful health effects. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the number of edible oil deodorisation cycles in order to maintain their quality and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariia Andreevna Makarenko
- Food Chemistry Laboratory, Federal Research Centre of Nutrition and Biotechnology, 109240 Moscow, Russia; (A.D.M.); (V.V.B.)
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Zhou W, Peng Y, Wu Z, Zhang W, Cong Y. Study on the Frying Performance Evaluation of Refined Soybean Oil after PLC Enzymatic Degumming. Foods 2024; 13:275. [PMID: 38254576 PMCID: PMC10815329 DOI: 10.3390/foods13020275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
It is known that phospholipase C (PLC) enzymatic degumming can hydrolyze phospholipids into diacylglycerol (DAG), which improves the efficiency of oil processing. However, it is unclear whether the presence of DAG and the use of enzymes affect the performance of the oil. This paper evaluated the frying performance of PLC-degummed refined soybean oil. Following the chicken wings and potato chips frying trials, results revealed that after 30 cycles of frying, free fatty acid (FFA) levels were 0.22% and 0.21%, with total polar compounds (TPC) at 23.75% and 24.00%, and peroxide value (PV) levels were 5.90 meq/kg and 6.45 meq/kg, respectively. Overall, PLC-degummed refined soybean oil showed almost the same frying properties as traditional water-degummed refined oil in terms of FFA, PV, TPC, polymer content, viscosity, color, foaming of frying oils, and appearance of foods. Moreover, FFA, TPC, polymer content, foaming, and color showed significant positive correlations with each other (p < 0.05) in soybean oil intermittent frying processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenting Zhou
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China; (W.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.W.); (W.Z.)
| | - Yuxin Peng
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China; (W.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.W.); (W.Z.)
| | - Zongyuan Wu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China; (W.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.W.); (W.Z.)
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil, Ministry of Education, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Processing and Transformation of Agricultural Products, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Weinong Zhang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China; (W.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.W.); (W.Z.)
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil, Ministry of Education, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Processing and Transformation of Agricultural Products, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Yanxia Cong
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China; (W.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.W.); (W.Z.)
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil, Ministry of Education, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Processing and Transformation of Agricultural Products, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
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5
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Yung YL, Lakshmanan S, Kumaresan S, Chu CM, Tham HJ. Mitigation of 3-monochloropropane 1,2 diol ester and glycidyl ester in refined oil - A review. Food Chem 2023; 429:136913. [PMID: 37506659 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
The 3-Monochloropropane-1, 2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) are formed at high processing temperatures with the presence of respective precursors. Both are potentially harmful to humans, causing adverse health impacts including kidney damage, reproductive problems, and increased risk of cancer. The presence of 3-MCPDE and GE in palm oil is of particular concern because of its widespread use by the food industry. There are a variety of methods for reducing 3-MCPDE and GE. For example, water washing eliminates mostly inorganic chlorides that, in turn, reduce the formation of 3-MCPDE. 3-MCPDE has also been reduced by up to 99% using combinations of methods and replacing stripping steam with alcohol-based media. Activated carbon, clay, antioxidants, potassium-based salts, and other post-refining steps have positively lowered GE, ranging from 10 to 99%. Several approaches have been successful in reducing these process contaminants without affecting other quality metrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen Li Yung
- Research & Development Department, IOI Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd., KM 12, Sg. Mowtas, Jalan Jaya Chip, off Jalan Batu Sapi, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia; Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
| | - Shyam Lakshmanan
- Research & Development Department, IOI Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd., KM 12, Sg. Mowtas, Jalan Jaya Chip, off Jalan Batu Sapi, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Sivakumar Kumaresan
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Chi Ming Chu
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Heng Jin Tham
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
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6
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Shi RRS, Shen P, Yu WZ, Cai M, Tay AJ, Lim I, Chin YS, Ang WM, Er JC, Lim GS, Wu Y, Li A, Aung KT, Chan SH. Occurrence and Dietary Exposure of 3-MCPD Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Domestically and Commercially Prepared Food in Singapore. Foods 2023; 12:4331. [PMID: 38231853 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the prevalence and occurrence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) in domestically and commercially prepared food in Singapore and assessed the total dietary exposure for the Singaporean population. Minimal impact on the formation of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was observed from the domestic cooking methods commonly practiced in Singapore such as deep frying and stir frying. The estimated total dietary exposure to 3-MCPDEs for the Singaporean population (aged 15 to 92) was 0.982 µg/kg bw/day for general consumers and 2.212 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers (95th percentile), which accounted for 49.1% and 110.6% of the tolerable dietary intake (TDI) at 2 µg/kg bw/day by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The calculated margins of exposure (MOE) for GEs based on the dietary exposure for general consumers at 0.882 µg/kg bw/day and 2.209 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers were below 10,000, indicating a potential health concern. Our study showed that the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs varied among vegetable oils, and domestic cooking methods did not significantly impact the levels of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in prepared food. The critical factor influencing the prevalence and occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was the choice of oil used for cooking, which absorbed into the cooked food. It is essential to encourage the food industry to continue its innovation on mitigation measures to control and reduce 3-MCPDEs and GEs in vegetable oil production. Consumers are advised to make informed choices on food consumption and cooking oil for food preparation to reduce their exposure to 3-MCPDEs and GEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Rong Sheng Shi
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Ping Shen
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Wesley Zongrong Yu
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Miaohua Cai
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Ai Jin Tay
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Ignatius Lim
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Yee Soon Chin
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Wei Min Ang
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Jun Cheng Er
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Geraldine Songlen Lim
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Yuansheng Wu
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Angela Li
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
| | - Kyaw Thu Aung
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Sheot Harn Chan
- National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore 609919, Singapore
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 2 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543, Singapore
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Zhang Y, Sun S. Tiger nut ( Cyperus esculentus L.) oil: A review of bioactive compounds, extraction technologies, potential hazards and applications. Food Chem X 2023; 19:100868. [PMID: 37780245 PMCID: PMC10534246 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Tiger nut is a tuber of a plant native in the Mediterranean coastal countries, which is of great interest in food industry due to its richness in carbohydrates, lipids, starches, minerals, etc. Recent studies have focused on the analysis of the phytochemical composition of tiger nut, including six essential nutrients, polyphenols, and the extraction of proteins, starches, and phenolic compounds from the by-products of tiger nut milk 'horchata'. Few works were focused on the possibility of using tiger nut oil, a nutritious oil comparable to olive oil, as an edible oil. Therefore, this review discussed some extraction technologies of tiger nut oil, and their effects on the properties of oil, such as bioactive compounds, oxidative stability and potential hazards. The information on the emerging applications of tiger nut oil was summarized and an outlook on the utilization of tiger nut oil by-products were also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China
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8
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Mihalache OA, Dall'Asta C. Food processing contaminants: Dietary exposure to 3-MCPD and glycidol and associated burden of disease for Italian consumers. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 234:116559. [PMID: 37419202 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study we assessed Italian consumers' dietary exposure to 3-MCPD and glycidol followed by risk characterization, potential cancer risk and the associated burden of disease. Consumption data was retrieved from the most recent Italian Food Consumption Survey (2017-2020), while contamination data was obtained from the European Food Safety Authority. The level of risk due to exposure to 3-MCPD was negligible, below the tolerable daily intake (TDI), except for high consumption of infant formulas. For infants, the intake level was higher than the TDI (139-141% of TDI), indicating a potential health risk. Exposure to glycidol indicated a health concern for infants, toddlers, other children, and adolescents consuming infant formulas, plain cakes, chocolate spreads, processed cereals, biscuits, rusks, and cookies (margin of exposure (MOE) < 25,000). The risk of cancer due to exposure to glycidol was estimated and the overall health impact was quantified in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). The risk of cancer due to chronic dietary exposure to glycidol was estimated at 0.08-0.52 cancer cases/year/100,000 individuals depending on the life stage and dietary habits in Italy. The burden of disease quantified in DALYs varied from 0.7 to 5.37 DALYs/year/100,000 individuals. It is crucial to continuously gather consumption and occurrence data for glycidol over time to track patterns, assess potential health risks, identify exposure sources, and develop effective countermeasures, as long-term exposure to chemical contaminants can lead to an increased risk for human health. This data is critical for protecting public health and reducing the likelihood of cancer and other health issues related to glycidol exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area Delle Scienze 17/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
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9
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Yung YL, Lakshmanan S, Chu CM, Kumaresan S, Tham HJ. Simultaneous mitigation of 3-monochloropropane 1,2 diol ester and glycidyl ester in edible oils: a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2023; 40:1164-1182. [PMID: 37549246 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2023.2235608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
The rising concern about the presence of 3-monochloropropane 1,2 diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) in food has prompted much research to be conducted. Some process modifications and the use of specific chemicals have been employed to mitigate both 3-MCPDE and GE. Alkalisation using NaOH, KOH, alkali metals or alkaline earth metals and post sparging with steam or ethanol and short path distillation have shown simultaneous mitigation of 51-91% in 3-MCPDE and of 13-99% in GE, both contaminants achieved below 1000 µg/kg. Some of the mitigation methods have resulted in undesirable deterioration in other parameters of the refined oil. When the processed oil is used in food processing, it results in changes to 3-MCPDE and GE. Repeated deep frying above 170 °C in the presence of NaCl and baking at 200 °C with flavouring (dried garlic and onion), resulted in increased 3-MCPDE. Repeated frying in the presence of antioxidants (TBHQ, rosemary and phenolics) decreased 3-MCPDE in processed food. The GE content in foods tends to decline with time, indicating instability of GE's epoxide ring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen Li Yung
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
- Research & Development Department, IOI Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd, off Jalan Batu Sapi, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Shyam Lakshmanan
- Research & Development Department, IOI Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd, off Jalan Batu Sapi, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Chi Ming Chu
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Sivakumar Kumaresan
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Heng Jin Tham
- Chemical Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
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10
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Quek WP, Ong YH, Yap MKK, Lee YY, Karim NAA, Chan ES. A comparative study of the oxidative stability and the formation of monochloropropanediol esters (MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) between physically and chemically refined palm olein during repeated deep-frying. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
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11
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Shen Z, Ma X, Mujahid Ali M, Liang J, Sui H, Du Z. Study of the evolution of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in the infant formula production chain employing a modified indirect method based on magnetic solid phase extraction. Food Chem 2023; 399:134018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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12
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Lee YJ, Khor YP, Kadir NSA, Lan D, Wang Y, Tan CP. Deep-fat Frying Using Soybean Oil-based Diacylglycerol-Palm Olein Oil Blends: Thermo-oxidative Stability, 3-MCPDE and Glycidyl Ester Formation. J Oleo Sci 2023; 72:533-541. [PMID: 37121678 DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess22361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Diacylglycerol (DAG) is commonly known as one of the precursors for the 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) formation. However, due to its health-promoting effects, its potential as alternative frying medium was examined. This study aimed to assess the frying performance of soybean oil-based diacylglycerol oil (DO) and its oil blends with palm olein (PO), in comparison with PO. Four different oil types (DO, PO, OB I (DO:PO, 1:1, w/w) and OB II (DO:PO, 1:2, w/w)) were used to fry potato chips for five consecutive days at 180℃. The formation of oxidation compounds, acylglycerol composition, 3-MCPDE and GE changes throughout the frying study were investigated. Both OB I and OB II exhibited lower oxidation compounds' formation rates than PO. Besides, significant (p < 0.05) reductions of 3-MCPDE and increments of GE levels were observed in all frying systems throughout the frying study. After 25 frying cycles, the 3-MCPDE levels in all frying oils were below 0.13 mg/kg, while the GE levels ranged from 1.51 mg/kg to 1.89 mg/kg. Despite the poorer oxidative stability of DO, its 3-MCPDE and GE levels were much lower compared to PO. In comparison to DO, the 3-MCPDE degradation and GE formation rates were enhanced and reduced, respectively with the blending of PO and DO. This study showed the potential of DO:PO oil blend in deep-fat frying application. With appropriate blending ratio of DO and PO, an alternative frying medium with enhanced nutritional value and oxidative stability could be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Jane Lee
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Yih Phing Khor
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia
| | | | - Dongming Lan
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Yonghua Wang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Chin Ping Tan
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia
- School of Biological Science and Food Engineering, Chuzhou University
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13
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Wei T, Liu W, Zheng Z, Chen Y, Shen M, Li C. Bibliometric Analysis of Research Trends on 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Esters in Foods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:15347-15359. [PMID: 36468534 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) are common food contaminants mainly formed in the edible oil refining process. Due to their potential hazards, 3-MCPDE has become a widespread food safety concern. In this study, CiteSpace and VOSviewer were used to conduct a bibliometric analysis on the 3-MCPDE research papers collected in the Web of Science Core Collection from 1998 to 2022. The results showed that the number of research publications on 3-MCPDE has increased rapidly since 2010. Analysis of the hotspots in 3-MCPDE studies showed that more attention has been paid to the exposure assessment, formation mechanism, detection methods, mitigation methods and toxicity, and toxicology of 3-MCPDE. Finally, the future trends of research on 3-MCPDE were analyzed and proposed. The mitigation methods and toxicology studies of 3-MCPDE are still the research hotspots in the future. In addition, nutritional intervention for 3-MCPDE toxicity will be an emerging trend.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Laboratory of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330047, China
| | - Wenting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Laboratory of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330047, China
| | - Zhe Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Laboratory of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330047, China
| | - Yi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Laboratory of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330047, China
| | - Mingyue Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Laboratory of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330047, China
| | - Chang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Laboratory of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330047, China
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14
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Revealing the heat-induced cis-trans isomerization of unsaturated fatty acids in camellia oil. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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15
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Maher A, Nowak A. Chemical Contamination in Bread from Food Processing and Its Environmental Origin. Molecules 2022; 27:5406. [PMID: 36080171 PMCID: PMC9457569 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27175406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA), furan and furan derivatives, polycyclic aromatic amines (PAHs), monochloropropanediols (MCPDs), glycidol, and their esters are carcinogens that are being formed in starchy and high-protein foodstuffs, including bread, through baking, roasting, steaming, and frying due to the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction mechanism has also been described as the source of food processing contaminants. The above-mentioned carcinogens, especially AA and furan compounds, are crucial substances responsible for the aroma of bread. The other groups of bread contaminants are mycotoxins (MTs), toxic metals (TMs), and pesticides. All these contaminants can be differentiated depending on many factors such as source, the concentration of toxicant in the different wheat types, formation mechanism, metabolism in the human body, and hazardous exposure effects to humans. The following paper characterizes the most often occurring contaminants in the bread from each group. The human exposure to bread contaminants and their safe ranges, along with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classification (if available), also have been analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Maher
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Wolczanska 171/173, 90-530 Lodz, Poland
| | - Adriana Nowak
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Wolczanska 171/173, 90-530 Lodz, Poland
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16
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Oey SB, van der Fels-Klerx H, Fogliano V, van Leeuwen SP. Chemical refining methods effectively mitigate 2-MCPD esters, 3-MCPD esters, and glycidyl esters formation in refined vegetable oils. Food Res Int 2022; 156:111137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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17
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Jia W, Zhuang P, Wang Q, Wan X, Mao L, Chen X, Miao H, Chen D, Ren Y, Zhang Y. Urinary non-targeted toxicokinetics and metabolic fingerprinting of exposure to 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol and glycidol from refined edible oils. Food Res Int 2022; 152:110898. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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18
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Beekmann K, Sloot S, Oey S, van Leeuwen S. MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in food supplements of fish oils, algae oils, and krill oils. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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19
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House KL, Hao Z, Liu Y, Pan L, O'Carroll DM, Xu S. The integrity of synthetic magnesium silicate in charged compounds. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23717. [PMID: 34887472 PMCID: PMC8660837 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02930-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnesium silicate is an inorganic compound used as an ingredient in product formulations for many different purposes. Since its compatibility with other components is critical for product quality and stability, it is essential to characterize the integrity of magnesium silicate in different solutions used for formulations. In this paper, we have determined the magnitude of dissociation of synthetic magnesium silicate in solution with positively charged, neutral, and negatively charged compounds using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), and Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The EDS results were verified through Monte Carlo simulations of electron-sample interactions. The compounds chosen for this study were positively charged cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), neutral lauryl glucoside, and negatively charged sodium cocoyl glutamate and sodium cocoyl glycinate since these are common compounds used in personal care and oral care formulations. Negatively charged compounds significantly impacted magnesium silicate dissociation, resulting in physio-chemical separation between magnesium and silicate ions. In contrast, the positively charged compound had a minor effect on dissociation due to ion competition, and the neutral compound did not have such an impact on magnesium silicate dissociation. Further, when the magnesium ions are dissociated from the synthetic magnesium silicate, the morphology is changed accordingly, and the structural integrity of the synthetic magnesium silicate is damaged. The results provide scientific confidence and guidance for product development using synthetic magnesium silicate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystal L House
- Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center, 909 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, 123 Bevier Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Zhigang Hao
- Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center, 909 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Yuxin Liu
- Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center, 909 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers University, 98 Brett Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Long Pan
- Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center, 909 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Deirdre M O'Carroll
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, 123 Bevier Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rutgers University, 607 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Shiyou Xu
- Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center, 909 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.
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20
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Xie Y, van der Fels-Klerx HJ, van Leeuwen SPJ, Fogliano V. Dietary advanced glycation end-products, 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters and glycidyl esters in infant formulas: Occurrence, formulation and processing effects, mitigation strategies. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:5489-5515. [PMID: 34626078 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Infant formula contains thermal processing contaminants, such as dietary advanced glycation end-products (dAGEs), glycidyl esters (GEs), 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (MCPDEs). This systematic review aimed to gain insights into the occurrence of these contaminants in different types of infant formula, to understand potential effects of the formulation and processing of infant formulas on these contaminants, as well as into possible mitigation strategies. The occurrence of dAGEs in infant formula depends on the recipes and processing conditions. Hydrolyzed protein formulations promote dAGEs formation in infant formula since peptides are more prone to glycation than intact proteins, which is reflected in high dAGEs concentration in hypoallergenic infant formula. Different carbohydrates in recipes result into different glycation extents of infant formula: maltodextrin containing formulas contained less dAGEs than those with lactose. Concerning mitigation strategies, applying ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment during milk processing leads to less dAGEs formation than using in-bottle sterilization. Although data are limited, evidence showed that encapsulation of raw ingredients or the use of antioxidants or enzymes in recipes is promising. The occurrence of MCPDEs and GEs in infant formula fully depends on the vegetable oils used in the recipe. High levels of these contaminants can be found when relatively high amounts of palm oils or fats are used. The mitigation of MCPDEs and GEs should therefore be performed on fats and oils before their application to infant formula recipes. Data and knowledge gaps identified in this review can be useful to guide future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajing Xie
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Vincenzo Fogliano
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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21
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Oxidative Quality of Acid Oils and Fatty Acid Distillates Used in Animal Feeding. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11092559. [PMID: 34573526 PMCID: PMC8467598 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Feed producers and farmers seek alternative and economical fat ingredients to supply animals with energy and beneficial components, such as natural antioxidants. Some byproducts from the edible oil refining industry, such as acid oils (AO) and fatty acid distillates (FAD), fulfil these requirements, but differences in the animal performance have been reported as their main drawback, which might be due to their high variable composition, including their oxidation status. Therefore, the valorization of these byproducts as feed ingredients requires ensuring standardized products with adequate quality in terms of oxidation parameters. In this study, 92 AO and FAD were characterized, finding a huge variability in their oxidation status and stability. They all showed low primary oxidation values (peroxide values). The content of secondary oxidation compounds was higher in FAD (which are released from physical refining processes) than in AO (which originate from chemical refining), while polymeric compounds were higher in the latter. The fatty acid and tocol compositions that were related with the botanical origin influenced their oxidative stability. Thus, in the quality control of these products, apart from the compositional parameters, it is recommended to include the evaluation of the oxidation status, both by primary and secondary oxidation parameters. Abstract Acid oils (AO) and fatty acid distillates (FAD) are byproducts from chemical and physical refining of edible oils and fats, respectively. Their high energy value makes their upcycling interesting as alternatives to conventional fats in animal feeding. The objective of this study is to characterize their oxidative quality and to provide recommendations about their evaluation for animal feeding purposes. The oxidation status (peroxide value (PV), p-Anisidine value (p-AnV), % polymeric compounds (POL)), the oxidative stability (induction time by the Rancimat at 120 °C (IT)), the fatty acid composition (FA), and tocopherol and tocotrienol content of 92 AO and FAD samples from the Spanish market were analyzed. Both AO and FAD showed low PV (0.8 and 1 meq O2/kg); however, p-AnV was higher in FAD (36.4 vs. 16.4 in AO) and POL was higher in AO (2.5% vs. not detected in FAD) as a consequence of the type of refining process. The botanical origin of AO and FAD influenced FA and tocol composition, and they influenced IT. A high variability was observed for most analyzed parameters, reinforcing the need for standardizing AO and FAD to obtain reliable feed ingredients and to include primary and secondary oxidative parameters within their quality control.
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22
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Chew CL, Ab Karim NA, Quek WP, Wong SK, Lee YY, Chan ES. Aerobic-liquor treatment improves the quality and deep-frying performance of refined palm oil. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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23
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Chew CL, Kong PS, Chan E. Aerobic Liquor Washing Improves the Quality of Crude Palm Oil by Reducing Free Fatty Acids and Chloride Contents. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.202000347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chien Lye Chew
- Sime Darby Plantation Research R&D Centre – Carey Island Lot 2664 Jalan Pulau Carey Pulau Carey Selangor 42960 Malaysia
- Chemical Engineering Discipline School of Engineering Monash University Malaysia Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway Subang Jaya Selangor 47500 Malaysia
- Monash‐Industry Palm Oil Education and Research Platform (MIPO) Monash University Malaysia Jalan Lagoon Selatan Bandar Sunway Selangor 47500 Malaysia
| | - Pei San Kong
- Sime Darby Plantation Research R&D Centre – Carey Island Lot 2664 Jalan Pulau Carey Pulau Carey Selangor 42960 Malaysia
| | - Eng‐Seng Chan
- Chemical Engineering Discipline School of Engineering Monash University Malaysia Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway Subang Jaya Selangor 47500 Malaysia
- Monash‐Industry Palm Oil Education and Research Platform (MIPO) Monash University Malaysia Jalan Lagoon Selatan Bandar Sunway Selangor 47500 Malaysia
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24
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Beekman JK, Popol S, Granvogl M, MacMahon S. Occurrence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters in infant formulas from Germany. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:1656-1671. [PMID: 34237243 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1940308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), 2-monochloropropanediol-1,3-diol (2-MCPD), and glycidol are heat-induced processing contaminants formed during the deodorisation step of edible oil refining. Because these compounds are potentially carcinogenic and/or genotoxic, their presence in refined oils and fats and foods containing these oils/fats poses possible health concerns. In particular, formula-fed infants may be exposed to these compounds due to their presence in commercial infant formulas. For this reason, in 2018, the European Union established maximum limits for glycidyl esters in oils/fats and infant formulas and recently, as of January 2021, implemented regulations for the sum of free 3-MCPD and 3-MCPD fatty acid esters as well. This work involved the analysis of 3-MCPD and glycidyl ester contents in 45 infant formula products purchased from German supermarkets in 2019. The data produced in this study showed that average contaminant concentrations across all manufacturers were exceptionally low, with 100% of the products analysed falling below the current EU regulation for glycidyl esters in powdered formulas and 96% of the products analysed meeting the recently implemented regulation for the sum of free and bound 3-MCPD. In addition, a comparison of the 2019 data set to occurrence data collected for German formulas purchased in 2015 showed that average bound 3-MCPD and glycidol concentrations have decreased (from 0.094 to 0.054 µg g-1 and from 0.010 to 0.006 µg g-1, respectively), likely indicating that additional/improved mitigation measures for reducing contaminant concentrations in infant formulas have been implemented over the 4-year period. The data collected in this occurrence study are suitable for estimating levels of exposure to these compounds for German infants.Abbreviations: 2-MCPD: 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol; 3-MCPD: 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol; ARA: arachidonic acid; CE: collision energy; CXP: collision cell exit potential; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; DP: declustering potential; EP: entrance potential; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; EtOAc: ethyl acetate; IPA: isopropanol; LC-MS/MS: liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; MeOH: methanol; MTBE: methyl tert-butyl ether; SPE: solid-phase extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica K Beekman
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Maryland, United States
| | - Samanta Popol
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Maryland, United States
| | - Michael Granvogl
- Department of Food Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry (170a), Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Shaun MacMahon
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Maryland, United States
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25
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Han L, Li J, Wang S, Cheng W, Ma L, Liu G, Han D, Niu L. The inhibitory effects of sesamol and sesamolin on the glycidyl esters formation during deodorization of vegetables oils. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2021; 101:3605-3612. [PMID: 33275282 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glycidyl esters (GEs) have attracted worldwide attention for their potential harm to human health. The GEs in edible oils mainly form during the deodorization of the oil refining processes. We used sesamol and sesamolin to inhibit the formation of GEs in model corn oil (MCO), model palm oil (MPO) and model rice bran oil (MRO) during a deodorization process. RESULTS The results showed that, in the three model oils, the total GE content was in the following order from highest to lowest: MRO (1437.98 μg kg-1 ) > MPO (388.64 μg kg-1 ) > MCO (314.81 μg kg-1 ). The inhibitory effect of the three antioxidants on the formation of GEs in the MCO was in the following order from strongest to weakest: tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) > sesamol > sesamolin. CONCLUSION When the mass percentage of sesamol was 0.05%, its inhibition percentage on GEs was close to the inhibition percentage of 0.02% added TBHQ. The present study provides a foundation for understanding how to inhibit the formation of GEs in oils by adding sesamol during the deodorization process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lipeng Han
- Center for Advanced Analytical Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiahui Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shujie Wang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weiwei Cheng
- Institute for Advanced Study, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Lukai Ma
- College of Light Industry and Food, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guoqin Liu
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongxue Han
- Center for Advanced Analytical Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Niu
- Center for Advanced Analytical Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
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26
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Ma CG, Ma JX, Li LJ, Chen XW. Evaluation of 3-monochloropropanol esters and glycidyl esters during the production and concentration of diacylglycerol by two-stage short-path molecular distillation. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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27
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Chen H, Tsao CH, Chang YH, Lee WJ. Occurrence of thermally induced glycidyl esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters in refined oils and pressed oils manufactured by different processes and associated with human health risks in Taiwan. Food Chem 2021; 360:130053. [PMID: 34022517 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Glycidyl esters (GEs) and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDEs) are heat-induced contaminants mainly formed during oil refining. Information on the occurrence of these contaminants in pressed oils is still limited. In this study, 16 oilseeds pressed with a screw press and a hydraulic press had extremely low concentrations of GEs and 3-MCPDEs. Seed-roasting at high temperatures was the principal factor that significantly increased contents of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in pressed oils, in which higher precursor levels were observed. Occurrence data of GE and 3-MCPDE concentrations in refined oils (n = 25) and pressed oils (n = 26) marketed in Taiwan showed that hot-pressed oils had higher concentrations than their cold-pressed counterparts, and average concentrations of refined oils were > 10-fold higher than those of pressed oils. Risk assessment using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach indicated the presence of GEs in edible oils was of concern for food safety, especially for people who frequently use refined oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsuan Chen
- Master Program in Food Safety, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chieh-Hsi Tsao
- School of Food Safety, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsuan Chang
- Master Program in Food Safety, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ju Lee
- School of Food Safety, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Research Center of Food Safety Inspection and Function Development, College of Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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28
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Chew CL, Low LE, Chia WY, Chew KW, Liew ZK, Chan ES, Chan YJ, Kong PS, Show PL. Prospects of Palm Fruit Extraction Technology: Palm Oil Recovery Processes and Quality Enhancement. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2021.1890117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chien Lye Chew
- Chemical Engineering Discipline, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
- Monash-Industry Palm Oil Education and Research Platform, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sime Darby Plantation Research, R&D Centre – Carey Island, Pulau Carey, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Liang Ee Low
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Wen Yi Chia
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Darul Ehsan, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kit Wayne Chew
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Selangor, Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Zhen Kang Liew
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Darul Ehsan, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Eng-Seng Chan
- Monash-Industry Palm Oil Education and Research Platform, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sime Darby Plantation Research, R&D Centre – Carey Island, Pulau Carey, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Yi Jing Chan
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Darul Ehsan, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Pei San Kong
- Chemical Engineering Discipline, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Pau Loke Show
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Darul Ehsan, Selangor, Malaysia
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29
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Santiago JK, Silva WC, Capristo MF, Ferreira MC, Ferrari RA, Vicente E, Meirelles AJA, Arisseto AP, Sampaio KA. Organic, conventional and sustainable palm oil (RSPO): Formation of 2- and 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters and influence of aqueous washing on their reduction. Food Res Int 2021; 140:109998. [PMID: 33648232 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Palm oil is a type of vegetable oil which presents a variety of applications including food, energy, and international trading. However, one of the major concerns associated with palm oil uses as a food ingredient is the significant amount of processing contaminants, such as monochloropropanediol esters (MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) which are formed during the refining process. These contaminants may pose a health risk to consumers due to their carcinogenicity. Thus, mitigation strategies have been studied to reduce these substances in palm oil. In this study, we investigated the effect of the application of an aqueous washing step, as a mitigation strategy, prior to deodorization in three different palm oil cultivation systems: organic, conventional and certified palm oil by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). In addition, we evaluated the quality parameters after the application of the washing step. For the organic, conventional and RSPO palm oil samples, the aqueous washing step reduced approximately 41%, 34% and 36% of the 3-MCPDE, respectively. The levels of 2-MCPDE for the organic, conventional and RSPO palm oil presented a reduction of 55%, 41% and 32%, respectively. The GE levels are considerably low for all the deodorized palm oils, and presented no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05). Besides, the quality parameters such as free fatty acids, color, and OSI met the recommended limits. Therefore, the aqueous washing could be used as a supplementary strategy to reduce these contaminants from palm oil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssika Karolline Santiago
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato 80, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Willian Cruzeiro Silva
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato 80, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Maisa Freitas Capristo
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato 80, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcela Cravo Ferreira
- Faculty of Technology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Pascoal Marmo, 1888, 13484-332 Limeira, SP, Brazil
| | - Roseli Aparecida Ferrari
- Institute of Food Technology (ITAL), Avenida Brasil 2880, C. P. 139, 13070-178 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Vicente
- Institute of Food Technology (ITAL), Avenida Brasil 2880, C. P. 139, 13070-178 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Antônio José A Meirelles
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato 80, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Adriana Pavesi Arisseto
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato 80, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Klicia Araujo Sampaio
- School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato 80, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
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30
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Hori K, Hashimoto Y, Itani A, Okada T, Tsumura K. Effects of neutralization combined with steam distillation on the formation of monochloropropanediol esters and glycidyl esters in palm oil under laboratory-scale conditions. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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31
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Lakshmanan S, Yung YL. Chloride reduction by water washing of crude palm oil to assist in 3-monochloropropane-1, 2 diol ester (3-MCPDE) mitigation. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:371-387. [PMID: 33596165 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1842516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Chloride reduction in crude palm oil (CPO) of greater than 80% was achieved with water washing conducted at 90°C. Inorganic chloride content in CPO was largely removed through washing, with no significant reduction in the organic chloride. Phosphorous content of CPO reduced by 20%, while trace elements such as calcium, magnesium and iron were also reduced in the washing operation. The 3-MCPDE formed in the refined, bleached and deodorised palm oil displayed (RBDPO) a linear relationship with the chloride level in washed CPO, which could be represented by the equation y = 0.91x, where y is 3-MCPDE and x represents the chloride in RBDPO refined from washed CPO. In plant scale trials using 5% water at 90°C, mild acidification of the wash water at 0.05% reduced chloride by average 76% in washed CPO. Utilising selected bleaching earths, controlled wash water temperature and wash water volume produced low chloride levels in RBDPO. Chloride content less than 1.4 mg kg-1 in plant RBDPO production was achieved, through physical refining of washed CPO containing less than 2 mg kg-1 chloride and would correspond to 3-MCPDE levels of 1.25 mg kg-1 in RBDPO. The 3-MCPDE reduced further to 1.1 mg kg-1 as the chloride level of washed CPO decreased below 1.8 mg kg-1. Chloride has been shown to facilitate the 3-MCPDE formation and its removal in lab scale washing study has yielded lower 3-MCPDE levels formed in RBDPO. In actual plant operations using washed CPO, 3-MCPDE levels below 1.25 mg kg-1 were achieved consistently in RBDPO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Lakshmanan
- Research & Development Department, IOI Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd., Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Yen Li Yung
- Research & Development Department, IOI Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd., Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
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32
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A Sustainable In situ Treatment Method to Improve the Quality of Crude Palm Oil by Repurposing Treated Aerobic Liquor. FOOD BIOPROCESS TECH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11947-021-02582-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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33
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Magnesium in Aging, Health and Diseases. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13020463. [PMID: 33573164 PMCID: PMC7912123 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Several changes of magnesium (Mg) metabolism have been reported with aging, including diminished Mg intake, impaired intestinal Mg absorption and renal Mg wasting. Mild Mg deficits are generally asymptomatic and clinical signs are usually non-specific or absent. Asthenia, sleep disorders, hyperemotionality, and cognitive disorders are common in the elderly with mild Mg deficit, and may be often confused with age-related symptoms. Chronic Mg deficits increase the production of free radicals which have been implicated in the development of several chronic age-related disorders. Numerous human diseases have been associated with Mg deficits, including cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and stroke, cardio-metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus, airways constrictive syndromes and asthma, depression, stress-related conditions and psychiatric disorders, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementia syndromes, muscular diseases (muscle pain, chronic fatigue, and fibromyalgia), bone fragility, and cancer. Dietary Mg and/or Mg consumed in drinking water (generally more bioavailable than Mg contained in food) or in alternative Mg supplements should be taken into consideration in the correction of Mg deficits. Maintaining an optimal Mg balance all through life may help in the prevention of oxidative stress and chronic conditions associated with aging. This needs to be demonstrated by future studies.
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34
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Improving Sustainability of Palm Oil Production by Increasing Oil Extraction Rate: a Review. FOOD BIOPROCESS TECH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11947-020-02555-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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35
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Oey SB, van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Fogliano V, van Leeuwen SPJ. Effective physical refining for the mitigation of processing contaminants in palm oil at pilot scale. Food Res Int 2020; 138:109748. [PMID: 33292933 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to develop a mitigation strategy for the formation of 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters (2-MCPDE), 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE), and glycidol fatty acid esters (GE) during palm oil refining. Single physical refining was the starting point (the control) for this study. Experimental treatments including a double refining repeating the entire single refining process (T1), double refining with a high-low deodorization temperature (T2), and double deodorization (T3) with similar temperature settings as T2 were performed. Compared with the control experiment, T2 successfully reduced the formation of GE by 87%; in particular, the second degumming and bleaching were crucial for eliminating GE. Both 2- and 3-MCPDE were formed prior to the deodorization process in all treatments. MCPDE concentrations remained stable throughout the refining process and, hence, they require a different mitigation approach as compared to GE. These results provide useful insights which can directly be implemented by the oil industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio B Oey
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - H J van der Fels-Klerx
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wageningen University, Business Economics Group, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Vincenzo Fogliano
- Department of Food Quality and Design, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Stefan P J van Leeuwen
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands.
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Santoso SP, Angkawijaya AE, Yuliana M, Bundjaja V, Soetaredjo FE, Ismadji S, Go AW, Tran-Nguyen PL, Kurniawan A, Ju YH. Saponin-intercalated organoclays for adsorptive removal of β-carotene: Equilibrium, reusability, and phytotoxicity assessment. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2020.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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37
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Arris FA, Thai VTS, Manan WN, Sajab MS. A Revisit to the Formation and Mitigation of 3-Chloropropane-1,2-Diol in Palm Oil Production. Foods 2020; 9:foods9121769. [PMID: 33260330 PMCID: PMC7760931 DOI: 10.3390/foods9121769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Process-based contaminants in food—particularly in vegetable oils—have been a topic of interest due to their potential health risk on humans. Oral consumption above the tolerable daily intake might result in health risks. Therefore, it is critical to correctly address the food contaminant issues with a proper mitigation plan, in order to reduce and subsequently remove the occurrence of the contaminant. 3-monochloropropane-1,3-diol (3-MCPD), an organic chemical compound, is one of the heat- and process-induced food contaminants, belonging to a group called chloropropanols. This review paper discusses the occurrence of the 3-MCPD food contaminant in different types of vegetable oils, possible 3-MCPD formation routes, and also methods of reduction or removal of 3-MCPD in its free and bound esterified forms in vegetable oils, mostly in palm oil due to its highest 3-MCPD content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farrah Aida Arris
- Research Center for Sustainable Process Technology (CESPRO), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.); (V.T.S.T.); (W.N.M.)
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia
| | - Vincent Tiang Soon Thai
- Research Center for Sustainable Process Technology (CESPRO), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.); (V.T.S.T.); (W.N.M.)
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia
| | - Wan Nabilah Manan
- Research Center for Sustainable Process Technology (CESPRO), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.); (V.T.S.T.); (W.N.M.)
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Shaiful Sajab
- Research Center for Sustainable Process Technology (CESPRO), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.); (V.T.S.T.); (W.N.M.)
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor 43600, Malaysia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +60-3-8921-6425
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Gao B, Jin M, Zheng W, Zhang Y, Yu LL. Current Progresses on Monochloropropane Diol Esters in 2018-2019 and Their Future Research Trends. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:12984-12992. [PMID: 32182057 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The fatty acid esters of monochloropropane diol (MCPD) are a group of food source contaminants formed during thermal processing. These components were recognized as potential food source toxicants in the past few decades, and growing evidence has proven their toxic effects, especially to kidneys and testes. Therefore, increasing research articles reported their results about MCPD esters in recent years. In this perspective, a total of 35 research articles/reviews about MCPD esters, including the studies concerning the analytical methods, occurrences, toxicity, formation mechanism, and mitigation strategies of MCPD esters in 2018-2019 have been summarized and discussed. Updating the latest research results about MCPD esters could improve our understandings about these components, especially on the toxic effects and the mitigation approaches in both academia and industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyan Gao
- Institute of Food and Nutraceutical Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
- China-Canada Joint Lab of Food Nutrition and Health (Beijing), Beijing Technology and Business University (BTBU), Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengchu Jin
- Institute of Food and Nutraceutical Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenhao Zheng
- Institute of Food and Nutraceutical Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaqiong Zhang
- Institute of Food and Nutraceutical Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Liangli Lucy Yu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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Nguyen KH, Fromberg A. Occurrence of MCPD and glycidyl fatty acid esters in standard and specialised infant formula in Denmark. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1847-1853. [PMID: 32990507 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1817572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Standard infant formula and specialised infant formula for medical purposes in Denmark (n = 42) were assessed for the levels of 2-MCPDEs, 3-MCPDEs, and GEs. Similar concentrations of GEs were observed in both standard and specialised powder infant formula at around 11.5 µg/kg. For 2-MCPDEs and 3-MCPDEs, significantly higher concentrations were observed in specialised products (18.0 and 49.8 µg/kg, respectively) in comparison with the standard ones (11.8 and 31.0 µg/kg, respectively). The concentration profiles also revealed discrepancies in MCPDEs and GEs concentrations not only between different manufacturers but also in terms of infant formula variety. For instance, the hypoallergenic powder formula showed twice as much MCPDEs as the normal formula variety. Exposure estimation using average contaminant concentrations in each variety suggested no potential risk of 3-MCPDEs and GEs intake for Danish infants via infant formula consumption. However, special attention is required for a few specific products where risks might occur in terms of 3-MCPDEs and/or GEs consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanh Hoang Nguyen
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark , Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Arvid Fromberg
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark , Lyngby, Denmark
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Abraham K, Hielscher J, Kuhlmann J, Monien BH. Urinary Excretion of 2/3-Monochloropropanediol (2/3-MCPD) and 2,3-Dihydroxypropylmercapturic Acid (DHPMA) after a Single High dose of Fatty Acid Esters of 2/3-MCPD and Glycidol: A Controlled Exposure Study in Humans. Mol Nutr Food Res 2020; 65:e2000735. [PMID: 33079463 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202000735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE 2- and 3-monochloropropanediol (2/3-MCPD) and glycidol are absorbed in the intestine after lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of their fatty acid esters. METHODS AND RESULTS In an exposure study with 12 non-smoking participants, the complete urinary excretion of the metabolite 2,3-dihydroxypropylmercapturic acid (DHPMA) and of 2/3-MCPD is measured on four consecutive days before and after consumption of 50 g glycidyl ester-rich palm fat or 12 g 2/3-MCPD ester-rich hazelnut oil. After controlled exposure, urinary excretion rates of 2/3-MCPD per hour strongly increase, followed by a decrease with average half-lives of 5.8 h (2-MCPD) and 3.6 h (3-MCPD). After consumption of hazelnut oil, mean excretion rates are 14.3% (2-MCPD) and 3.7% (3-MCPD) of the study doses. The latter rate is significantly higher (4.6%) after consumption of palm fat, indicating partial conversion (about 5%) of glycidol to 3-MCPD under the acidic conditions in the stomach. The average daily "background" exposure is estimated to be 0.12 and 0.32 µg per kg body weight (BW) for 2-MCPD and 3-MCPD, respectively. The relatively high and constant urinary excretion of DHPMA does not reflect the controlled exposure. CONCLUSION Urinary excretion of 2- and 3-MCPD is suitable as biomarker for the external exposure to the respective fatty acid esters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Abraham
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, 10589, Germany
| | - Jan Hielscher
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, 10589, Germany
| | - Jan Kuhlmann
- SGS Germany GmbH, Weidenbaumsweg 137, Hamburg, 21035, Germany
| | - Bernhard H Monien
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, 10589, Germany
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41
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Sim BI, Khor YP, Lai OM, Yeoh CB, Wang Y, Liu Y, Nehdi IA, Tan CP. Mitigation of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters during the physical refining process of palm oil by micro and macro laboratory scale refining. Food Chem 2020; 328:127147. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Viriato RLS, Queirós MDS, Macedo GA, Ribeiro APB, Gigante ML. Design of new lipids from bovine milk fat for baby nutrition. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 62:145-159. [PMID: 32876475 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1813073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The lipid phase of infant formulas is generally composed of plant-based lipids structured with a high concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0) esterified at the sn-2 position of triacylglycerol since this structure favors the absorption and metabolism of fatty acids. Palm oil is commonly used to make up the lipid phase of infant formulas due to its high concentration of palmitic acid and solids profile and melting point similar to human milk fat. However, the addition of palm oil to infant formulas has been associated with the presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters, a group of glycerol-derived chemical contaminants (1,2,3-propanotriol), potentially toxic, formed during the refining process of vegetable oil. Bovine milk fat obtained from the complex biosynthesis in the mammary gland has potential as a technological alternative to replace palm oil and its fractions for the production of structured lipids to be used in infant formulas. Its application as a substitute is due to its composition and structure, which resembles breast milk fat, and essentially to the preferential distribution pattern of palmitic acids (C16:0) with approximately 85% distributed at the sn-1 and sn-2 position of triacylglycerol. This review will address the relationship between the chemical composition and structure of lipids in infant nutrition, as well as the potential of bovine milk fat as a basis for the production of structured lipids in substitution for the lipid phase of vegetable origin currently used in infant formulas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo Lázaro Soares Viriato
- Department of Food Technology, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mayara de Souza Queirós
- Department of Food Technology, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Alves Macedo
- Department of Food and Nutrition, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro
- Department of Food Technology, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mirna Lúcia Gigante
- Department of Food Technology, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Monochloropropanediol and glycidyl esters in infant formula and baby food products on the Danish market: Occurrence and preliminary risk assessment. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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