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Ross G, Radtke-Schuller S, Frohlich F. Ferret as a model system for studying the anatomy and function of the prefrontal cortex: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 162:105701. [PMID: 38718987 PMCID: PMC11162921 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
There is a lack of consensus on anatomical nomenclature, standards of documentation, and functional equivalence of the frontal cortex between species. There remains a major gap between human prefrontal function and interpretation of findings in the mouse brain that appears to lack several key prefrontal areas involved in cognition and psychiatric illnesses. The ferret is an emerging model organism that has gained traction as an intermediate model species for the study of top-down cognitive control and other higher-order brain functions. However, this research has yet to benefit from synthesis. Here, we provide a summary of all published research pertaining to the frontal and/or prefrontal cortex of the ferret across research scales. The targeted location within the ferret brain is summarized visually for each experiment, and the anatomical terminology used at time of publishing is compared to what would be the appropriate term to use presently. By doing so, we hope to improve clarity in the interpretation of both previous and future publications on the comparative study of frontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Ross
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Carolina Center for Neurostimulation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Susanne Radtke-Schuller
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Carolina Center for Neurostimulation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Flavio Frohlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Carolina Center for Neurostimulation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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2
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Kovács MV, Lages YVM, Vieira BS, Charchat-Fichman H, Landeira-Fernandez J, Krahe TE. Neuropsychological evaluation of children and adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in the Brazilian population. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2023:1-13. [PMID: 37967155 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2023.2279202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is a collective name for lifelong physical and neurodevelopmental problems caused by the gestational consumption of alcohol affecting fetal development. In Brazil, the lack of awareness among healthcare professionals, and the scarcity of suitable diagnostic tools and trained clinicians, can contribute to the underestimation of FASD prevalence and severity. The present review aims to map and analyze studies conducted in Brazil on children and adolescents with FASD or a history of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE). Additionally, it intends to report the psychometric properties of the neurodevelopmental assessment tools applied in the selected articles. Searches were carried out in the databases Scielo, LILACS, PePSIC, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science, selecting original clinical studies that have investigated the neurodevelopment of this population. From a total of 175 studies, ten articles fit the inclusion criteria in which 18 instruments were identified. The most reported deficits were related to language, general intelligence quotient (IQ), adaptive behavior, attention, and visual perception. Our results point to the need for more clinical research on FASD in Brazil, as well as for the standardization and validation of neurodevelopmental assessment tools for the accurate diagnosis of FASD in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina V Kovács
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Yury V M Lages
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Breno S Vieira
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Helenice Charchat-Fichman
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - J Landeira-Fernandez
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thomas E Krahe
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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3
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Kovács MV, Charchat-Fichman H, Landeira-Fernandez J, Medina AE, Krahe TE. Combined exposure to alcohol and cannabis during development: Mechanisms and outcomes. Alcohol 2023; 110:1-13. [PMID: 36740025 PMCID: PMC10372841 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2023.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to substances of abuse during pregnancy can have long-lasting effects on offspring. Alcohol is one of the most widely used substances of abuse that leads to the most severe consequences. Recent studies in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom showed that between 1% and 7% of all children exhibit signs and symptoms of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Despite preventive campaigns, the rate of children with FASD has not decreased during recent decades. Alcohol consumption often accompanies exposure to such drugs as tobacco, cocaine, opioids, and cannabis. These interactions can be synergistic and exacerbate the deleterious consequences of developmental alcohol exposure. The present review focuses on interactions between alcohol and cannabis exposure and the potential consequences of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina V Kovács
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Marquês de São Vicente, 225, Gávea - Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22451-900, Brazil
| | - Helenice Charchat-Fichman
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Marquês de São Vicente, 225, Gávea - Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22451-900, Brazil
| | - J Landeira-Fernandez
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Marquês de São Vicente, 225, Gávea - Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22451-900, Brazil
| | - Alexandre E Medina
- Department of Pediatrics - School of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, United States.
| | - Thomas E Krahe
- Departamento de Psicologia, Laboratório de Neurociência do Comportamento, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Marquês de São Vicente, 225, Gávea - Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22451-900, Brazil.
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4
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Keum D, Pultorak K, Meredith MA, Medina AE. Effects of developmental alcohol exposure on cortical multisensory integration. Eur J Neurosci 2023; 57:784-795. [PMID: 36610022 PMCID: PMC9991967 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is one of the most common causes of mental disabilities in the world with a prevalence of 1%-6% of all births. Sensory processing deficits and cognitive problems are a major feature in this condition. Because developmental alcohol exposure can impair neuronal plasticity, and neuronal plasticity is crucial for the establishment of neuronal circuits in sensory areas, we predicted that exposure to alcohol during the third trimester equivalent of human gestation would disrupt the development of multisensory integration (MSI) in the rostral portion of the posterior parietal cortex (PPr), an integrative visual-tactile area. We conducted in vivo electrophysiology in 17 ferrets from four groups (saline/alcohol; infancy/adolescence). A total of 1157 neurons were recorded after visual, tactile and combined visual-tactile stimulation. A multisensory (MS) enhancement or suppression is characterized by a significantly increased or decreased number of elicited spikes after combined visual-tactile stimulation compared to the strongest unimodal (visual or tactile) response. At the neuronal level, those in infant animals were more prone to show MS suppression whereas adolescents were more prone to show MS enhancement. Although alcohol-treated animals showed similar developmental changes between infancy and adolescence, they always 'lagged behind' controls showing more MS suppression and less enhancement. Our findings suggest that alcohol exposure during the last months of human gestation would stunt the development of MSI, which could underlie sensory problems seen in FASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongil Keum
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, School of Medicine. Baltimore, MD
| | - Katie Pultorak
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, School of Medicine. Baltimore, MD
| | - M. Alex Meredith
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University. Richmond VA
| | - Alexandre E. Medina
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, School of Medicine. Baltimore, MD
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Wong EL, Strohm A, Atlas J, Lamantia C, Majewska AK. Dynamics of microglia and dendritic spines in early adolescent cortex after developmental alcohol exposure. Dev Neurobiol 2021; 81:786-804. [PMID: 34228891 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder patients suffer from many cognitive disabilities. These include impaired auditory, visual, and tactile sensory information processing, making it more difficult for these patients to learn to navigate social scenarios. Rodent studies have shown that alcohol exposure during the brain growth spurt (BGS) can lead to acute neuronal apoptosis and an immunological response by microglia in the somatosensory cortex. Since microglia have critical physiological functions, including the support of excitatory synapse remodeling via interactions with dendritic spines, we sought to understand whether BGS alcohol exposure has long-term effects on microglial or dendritic spine dynamics. Using in vivo two-photon microscopy in 4-5 week old mice, we evaluated microglial functions such as process motility, the response to tissue injury, and the dynamics of physical interactions between microglial processes and dendritic spines. We also investigated potential differences in the morphology, density, or dynamics of dendritic spines in layer I/II primary sensory cortex of control and BGS alcohol exposed mice. We found that microglial process motility and contact with dendritic spines were not altered after BGS alcohol exposure. While the response of microglial processes toward tissue injury was not significantly altered by prior alcohol exposure, there was a trend suggesting that alcohol early in life may prime microglia to respond more quickly to secondary injury. Spine density, morphology, stability, and remodeling over time were not perturbed after BGS alcohol exposure. We demonstrate that after BGS alcohol exposure, the physiological functions of microglia and excitatory neurons remain intact in early adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elissa L Wong
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, US.,Department of Environmental Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, New York, US
| | - Alexandra Strohm
- Department of Environmental Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, New York, US
| | - Jason Atlas
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, US
| | - Cassandra Lamantia
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, US
| | - Ania K Majewska
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, US.,Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, US
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Eed A, Cerdán Cerdá A, Lerma J, De Santis S. Diffusion-weighted MRI in neurodegenerative and psychiatric animal models: Experimental strategies and main outcomes. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 343:108814. [PMID: 32569785 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical MRI approaches constitute a key tool to study a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric illnesses, allowing a more direct investigation of the disorder substrate and, at the same time, the possibility of back-translating such findings to human subjects. However, the lack of consensus on the optimal experimental scheme used to acquire the data has led to relatively high heterogeneity in the choice of protocols, which can potentially impact the comparison between results obtained by different groups, even using the same animal model. This is especially true for diffusion-weighted MRI data, where certain experimental choices can impact not only on the accuracy and precision of the extracted biomarkers, but also on their biological meaning. With this in mind, we extensively examined preclinical imaging studies that used diffusion-weighted MRI to investigate neurodegenerative, neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders in rodent models. In this review, we discuss the main findings for each preclinical model, with a special focus on the analysis and comparison of the different acquisition strategies used across studies and their impact on the heterogeneity of the findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amr Eed
- Instituto de Neurociencias, CSIC, UMH, San Juan de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | | | - Juan Lerma
- Instituto de Neurociencias, CSIC, UMH, San Juan de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Silvia De Santis
- Instituto de Neurociencias, CSIC, UMH, San Juan de Alicante, Alicante, Spain; CUBRIC, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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Tang S, Xu S, Zhu W, Gullapalli RP, Mooney SM. Alterations in the whole brain network organization after prenatal ethanol exposure. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 51:2110-2118. [PMID: 31855302 PMCID: PMC7211128 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND People with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) often have structural or functional alterations of the central nervous system, including changes in brain network organization. These have been associated with neuropsychological deficits, but outcomes are not consistent across studies. We used a rat model of FASD to assess brain network alterations in males and females following ethanol exposure during a prenatal period similar to the first half of gestation in humans. METHODS Pregnant Long Evans rats were given an ethanol-containing or isocaloric non-ethanol diet from gestation day 6 to 20. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging was performed on offspring in young adulthood. Graph theoretical analysis was used to assess properties associated with the whole brain network organization, with a focus on segregation, integration, and small-world organization-a feature which allows specialized local information processing (segregation) and simultaneously efficient global information sharing (integration). RESULTS Ethanol-exposed females showed a significant decrease in small-worldness compared with control females or with ethanol-exposed males. Compared to control females, the proportion of animals with atypically high path length (1 standard deviation higher than the grand average) was significantly higher in ethanol-exposed females, indicating that the alteration in small-world organization is driven by decreased network integration. No significant effects were seen in males. CONCLUSION The results revealed that prenatal ethanol exposure disrupts the balance between network segregation and integration in young adult female rats. The whole brain network is less integrated after ethanol exposure in the females, suggesting wide-spread reduction of long-range regional communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Tang
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine,
University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21201
- Center for Advanced Imaging Research (CAIR), University of
Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Su Xu
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine,
University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21201
- Center for Advanced Imaging Research (CAIR), University of
Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Wenjun Zhu
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine,
University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21201
- Center for Advanced Imaging Research (CAIR), University of
Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Rao P. Gullapalli
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine,
University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21201
- Center for Advanced Imaging Research (CAIR), University of
Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Sandra M. Mooney
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of
Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, now at UNC Nutrition Research Institute, Department
of Nutrition, UNC Chapel Hill, Kannapolis, NC 28081
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8
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Tang S, Xu S, Waddell J, Zhu W, Gullapalli RP, Mooney SM. Functional Connectivity and Metabolic Alterations in Medial Prefrontal Cortex in a Rat Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: A Resting-State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and in vivo Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Study. Dev Neurosci 2019; 41:67-78. [PMID: 30999297 DOI: 10.1159/000499183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Prenatal ethanol exposure alters brain structure, functional connectivity, and behavior in humans and rats. Behavioral changes include deficits in executive function, which requires cooperative activity between the frontal cortices and other brain regions. In this study, we analyzed the functional connectivity and neurochemical levels of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) in ethanol-exposed (Eth) and control (Ctr) rats. Pregnant Long-Evans rats were fed a liquid diet containing ethanol (2.1-6.46% v/v ethanol) from gestational days 6 to 21 (Eth). Ctr animals received an isocaloric, isonutritive liquid diet. In young adulthood, male and female offspring underwent in vivo MRI using a 7.0-Tesla system. 1H-MRS from the PFC and whole brain rsfMRI were obtained on the animals. Seed-based functional connectivity analysis was performed with seeds placed in the PFC, matching the voxel of MRS. Male, but not female, Eth rats showed less functional connectivity between PFC and dorsal striatum than Ctr animals. In Eth males glucose levels were significantly lower, and in Eth females lower levels of phosphorylcholine but an increased gamma-aminobutyric acid/glutamate ratio were observed in the PFC compared with Ctr animals. Prenatal ethanol alters brain metabolism and functional connectivity of the PFC in a sex-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Tang
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Su Xu
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jaylyn Waddell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Wenjun Zhu
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Rao P Gullapalli
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Sandra M Mooney
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA,
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Jimenez VA, Wang X, Newman N, Walter NAR, Gonzales S, Lo JO, Ford MM, Cuzon Carlson VC, Grant KA, Kroenke CD. Detecting Neurodevelopmental Effects of Early-Gestation Ethanol Exposure: A Nonhuman Primate Model of Ethanol Drinking During Pregnancy. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2019; 43:250-261. [PMID: 30549282 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gestational ethanol (EtOH) exposure is associated with multiple developmental abnormalities, collectively termed fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). While the majority of women abstain from EtOH following knowledge of pregnancy, one contributing factor to the high FASD prevalence is that pregnancy is not detected until 4 to 6 weeks. Thus, EtOH consumption continues during the initial stages of fetal development. METHODS An experimental protocol is described in which rhesus macaques self-administer 1.5 g/kg/d EtOH (or isocaloric maltose dextrin) prior to pregnancy and through the first 60 days of a 168-day gestation term. Menstrual cycles were monitored, including measurements of circulating estradiol and progesterone levels. The latency to consume 1.5 g/kg EtOH and blood EtOH concentration (BEC) was measured. RESULTS Twenty-eight fetuses (14 EtOH and 14 controls) were generated in this study. EtOH did not affect menstrual cycles or the probability of successful breeding. No EtOH-induced gross adverse effects on pregnancy were observed. Individual variability in latency to complete drinking translated into variability in BEC, measured 90 minutes following session start. Drinking latencies in controls and EtOH drinkers were longer in the second gestational month than in the first. All pregnancies reached the planned experimental time point of G85, G110, or G135, when in utero MRIs were performed, fetuses were delivered by caesarean section, and brains were evaluated with ex vivo procedures, including slice electrophysiology. Fetal tissues have been deposited to the Monkey Alcohol Tissue Research Resource. CONCLUSIONS This FASD model takes advantage of the similarities between humans and rhesus macaques in gestational length relative to brain development, as well as similarities in EtOH self-administration and metabolism. The daily 1.5 g/kg dose of EtOH through the first trimester does not influence pregnancy success rates. However, pregnancy influences drinking behavior during the second month of pregnancy. Future publications using this model will describe the effect of early-gestation EtOH exposure on anatomical and functional brain development at subsequent gestational ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A Jimenez
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Xiaojie Wang
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Natali Newman
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Nicole A R Walter
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Steven Gonzales
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Jamie O Lo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Mathew M Ford
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon.,Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Verginia C Cuzon Carlson
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon.,Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Kathleen A Grant
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon.,Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Christopher D Kroenke
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon.,Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon.,Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
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