Price elasticity of illegal versus legal cannabis: a behavioral economic substitutability analysis

Cannabis consumers' preferences for legal and illegal cannabis: evidence from a discrete choice experiment

BACKGROUND

In U.S. states that legalized and commercialized recreational cannabis, cannabis sales in illegal markets are still sizable or even larger than those in legal markets. This study aimed to assess cannabis consumers' preferences for purchasing cannabis from legal and illegal markets and estimate the trade-offs under various policy scenarios.

METHODS

963 adults were recruited, who used cannabis in the past year and lived in a state with recreational cannabis legalization. In a discrete choice experiment, participants chose purchasing cannabis from a legal dispensary or an illegal dealer with varying levels in product attributes including quality, safety, accessibility, potency, and price. Mixed logit models were used to analyze preferences.

RESULTS

The likelihood of choosing legal cannabis increased with a higher quality, the presence of lab test, a shorter distance to seller, a higher tetrahydrocannabinol level, and a lower price. The likelihood of choosing illegal cannabis increased with a higher quality, a shorter distance to seller, and a lower price. Among product attributes, quality and accessibility were perceived to be the most important for legal cannabis and price was perceived to be the most important for illegal cannabis. Policy simulations predicted that improving quality, ensuring safety, allowing delivery services, increasing dispensary density, and lowering prices/taxes of legal cannabis may reduce illegal cannabis market share.

CONCLUSIONS

In the U.S., cannabis consumers' preferences for illegal cannabis were associated with both legal and illegal cannabis product attributes. Policies regulating legal cannabis markets should consider potential spillover effects to illegal markets.

Utility of a brief measure of cannabis demand: Day-level associations with cannabis use

BACKGROUND

Cannabis demand (i.e., relative value) is usually assessed as a trait-level risk-factor for cannabis use and consequences. This study examined within-person variability in day-level intensity (i.e., amount consumed at zero cost) and Omax (i.e., maximum cannabis expenditure) and tested hypotheses that demand would be positively associated with day-level cannabis use.

METHODS

Young adults (n=85) reporting past-month simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use completed two daily surveys for 30 days. Morning surveys assessed prior-day cannabis use and evening surveys assessed day-level demand (i.e., intensity, Omax). Multilevel models tested day-level effects of intensity and Omax on any cannabis use and flower use frequency and quantity (i.e., grams).

RESULTS

Approximately 52 % and 46 % of variability in intensity and Omax, respectively, was due to within-person change. At the day-level, higher intensity and Omax were associated with higher likelihood of any cannabis use, regardless of formulation; Omax was associated with use of flower in particular; and intensity was associated with the highest quantity of use. At the person-level, only Omax was associated with flower use likelihood, and only intensity was associated with flower quantity across days.

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabis demand demonstrated day-to-day variability, conceivably in response to various internal states and external factors. Intensity and Omax were related to elevated likelihood of using any cannabis, particularly flower, at the day-level. Overall, these data illustrate the validity and utility of brief cannabis demand measures, which might be used to further understand cannabis' reinforcing value at a fine-grained level.

Lessons Learned in Developing a Behavioral Economic Measure of Cannabis Use Using a Predominantly White Sample

Behavioral economic approaches to measuring cannabis demand represent a well-validated, low-cost method of assessing risk for hazardous cannabis use. One widely used measure of cannabis demand is the Marijuana Purchase Task (MPT), which has shown good psychometric properties across multiple samples. However, preliminary data suggest that changes could improve task ecological validity and acceptability. Using a predominantly White convenience sample, this study aimed to develop a revised MPT that uses a modern dispensary scenario to better reflect national trends in cannabis use (e.g., multiple forms of cannabis consumption). Participant inattentiveness due to increased task length and difficulty estimating purchases for the next month may have impacted demand measures. Lessons learned are discussed to inform future efforts to assess cannabis demand in a manner that is more reflective of naturalistic use: including minimizing participant burden, setting higher price ceilings to increase task utility, and considering person-level factors that may influence demand.

Contextual and psychosocial factors influencing drug reward in humans: The importance of non-drug reinforcement

The reinforcing efficacy, or behavior-strengthening effect, of a substance is a critical determinant of substance use typically quantified by measuring behavioral allocation to the substance under schedules of reinforcement with escalating response requirements. Although responses on these tasks are often used to indicate stable reinforcing effects or trait-level abuse potential for an individual, task designs often demonstrate within-person variability across varying degrees of a constraint within experimental procedures. As a result, quantifying behavioral allocation is an effective approach for measuring the impact of contextual and psychosocial factors on substance reward. We review studies using laboratory self-administration, behavioral economic purchase tasks, and ambulatory assessments to quantify the impact of various contextual and psychosocial factors on behavioral allocation toward consumption of a substance. We selected these assessment approaches because they cover the translational spectrum from experimental control to ecological relevance, with consistent support across these approaches representing greater confidence in the effect. Conceptually, we organized factors that influence substance value into two broad categories: factors that influence the cost/benefit ratio of the substance (social context, stress and affect, cue exposure), and factors that influence the cost/benefit ratio of an alternative (alternative non-drug reinforcers, alternative drug reinforcers, and opportunity costs). We conclude with an overview of future research directions and considerations for clinical application.

Derived psychoactive cannabis products and 4/20 specials: An assessment of popular brands and retail price discounts in Fort Worth, Texas, 2023

BACKGROUND

Retail sales of derived psychoactive cannabis products (DPCPs) have increased in the U.S. since passing the 2018 Farm Bill and is unregulated in most states. This study investigated the types and commonly sold brands of DPCPs as well as promotional pricing on April 20th, a day associated with cannabis use.

METHODS

On April 19-20, 2023, investigators conducted telephone surveys with 98 retail stores that sold DPCPs in Fort Worth, Texas (where the market was largely unregulated).

RESULTS

Delta-8, Delta-9, and Delta-10 THC products were widely available, with 97%, 72%, and 82% of stores selling each type, respectively. Fifteen additional DPCPs were identified, and selling blends containing multiple types of THC was common. Frequently sold brands included Cake, Medusa/Modus, Torch, Urb, Kik, Tyson, 3Chi, Casper, Hidden Hills, Esco Bars, Happi, Hometown Hero, STNR, Bomb Bars, Baked, Hi On Nature, Looper, and Space God. Overall, 45% reported having 4/20 specials discounting prices on DPCPs, smoking devices/accessories, or everything in the store. Several stores also sponsored 4/20 promotional events including free THC gummies and "live delta demos where people can test cartridges and try smoking flower in the store."

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the growing complexity of the DPCP market, including numerous different intoxicating compounds and blends. Policymakers, researchers, and public health professionals should consider these complexities, as well as the commonly sold brands, when developing strategies to regulate DPCPs and protect consumer safety. Pricing policies may be an especially important form of harm reduction during events associated with heavy cannabis use, including 4/20.

Behavioral economic analysis of legal and illegal cannabis demand in Spanish young adults with hazardous and non-hazardous cannabis use

BACKGROUND

In October 2021, a legal framework that regulates cannabis for recreational purposes in Spain was proposed, but research on its potential impacts on cannabis use is currently limited. This study examined the reliability and discriminant validity of two Marijuana Purchase Tasks (MPTs) for measuring hypothetical legal and illegal cannabis demand, and to examine differences in demand of both commodities in young adults at hazardous vs. non-hazardous cannabis use risk levels.

METHODS

A total of 171 Spanish young adults [Mage = 19.82 (SD = 1.81)] with past-month cannabis use participated in a cross-sectional study from September to November 2021. Two 27-item MPTs were used to estimate hypothetical demand for legal and illegal cannabis independently. The Cannabis Use Disorder Identification Test (CUDIT-R) was used to assess hazardous cannabis use and test for discriminant validity of the MPTs. Reliability analyses were conducted using Classical Test Theory (Cronbach's alpha) and Item Response Theory (Item Information Functions).

RESULTS

The MPT was reliable for measuring legal (α = 0.94) and illegal (α = 0.90) cannabis demand. Breakpoint (price at which demand ceases), and Pmax (price associated with maximum expenditure) were the most sensitive indicators to discriminate participants with different levels of the cannabis reinforcing trait. No significant differences between legal and illegal cannabis demand in the whole sample were observed, but hazardous vs. non-hazardous users showed higher legal and illegal demand, and decreased Breakpoint and Pmax if cannabis were legal vs illegal.

CONCLUSION

The MPT exhibits robust psychometric validity and may be useful to inform on cannabis regulatory science in Spain.

Perceptions and Attitudes Related to Driving after Cannabis Use in Canadian and US Adults

BACKGROUND

This study examined the risk perceptions related to driving after cannabis use (DACU) among Canadian and US adults who used cannabis in the past six months.

METHODS

Perceptions of danger, normative beliefs, perceived likelihood of negative consequences, and other driving-related variables were collected via online surveys in Canadian (n = 158; 50.0% female, 84.8% White, mean age = 32.73 years [SD = 10.61]) and US participants (n = 678; 50.9% female, 73.6% White, mean age = 33.85 years [SD = 10.12]). Driving cognitions and DACU quantity/frequency were compared between samples using univariate analyses of variance, and Spearman's (ρ) correlations were performed to examine associations between driving cognitions and DACU quantity/frequency.

RESULTS

The two samples did not significantly differ in self-reported level of cannabis use, lifetime quantity of DACU, or the number of times they drove within two hours of cannabis use in the past three months (Ps > .12). Compared to US participants, Canadians perceived driving within two hours of cannabis use as more dangerous (P < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.013) and reported more of their friends would disapprove of DACU (P = 0.03, ηp2 = 0.006). There were no differences in the number of friends who would refuse to ride with a driver who had used cannabis (P = 0.15) or the perceived likelihood of negative consequences (Ps > 0.07). More favorable perceptions were significantly correlated with greater lifetime DACU and driving within two hours of use (ρ = 0.25-0.53, Ps < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings reveal differences in distal risk factors for DACU between Canada and the US and may inform prevention efforts focusing on perceptions of risk and social acceptance of DACU.

Reliability and validity of behavioral-economic measures: A review and synthesis of discounting and demand

This review sought to synthesize the literature on the reliability and validity of behavioral-economic measures of demand and discounting in human research, introduce behavioral-economic research methodologies for studying addictive behaviors, discuss gaps in the current literature, and review areas for future research. A total of 34 studies was included in this review. The discounting literature showed similar responding regardless of whether hypothetical or actual outcomes were used, though people tended to discount the outcome presented first more steeply, suggesting order effects. Although delay-discounting measures seem to show temporal stability, exceptions were found for probability- and experiential-discounting tasks. The demand literature also demonstrated similar responding regardless of outcome type; however, some demand indices showed exceptions. Randomized price sequences tended to show modest increases in Omax and α and modestly higher rates of inconsistent or nonsystematic responses compared with sequential price sequences. Demand indices generally showed temporal stability, although the stability was weaker the larger the time interval between test sessions. Future studies would benefit by examining addictive commodities beyond alcohol, nicotine, and money; examining temporal stability over longer time intervals; using larger delays in discounting tasks; and using larger sample sizes.

A latent profile analysis of blackout drinking behavior among young adults

BACKGROUND

Blackout drinking, or alcohol-induced memory loss during a drinking occasion, is associated with additional negative alcohol-related outcomes. Brief motivational interventions targeting higher-risk alcohol use behavior have largely ignored blackout drinking. Including personalized information on blackout drinking could maximize intervention impact. To move toward incorporating content on blackout drinking in prevention and intervention materials, it is imperative to understand individual-level differences in blackout drinking. The current study aimed to identify latent profiles of young adults based on blackout drinking experiences and to examine person-level predictors and outcomes associated with profile membership.

METHOD

Participants were 542 young adults (ages 18-30) who reported 1+ past-year blackout episodes. Fifty-three percent of participants were female and 64% identified as non-Hispanic/Latinx white.

RESULTS

Four latent profiles were identified based on blackout drinking frequency, blackout intentions, blackout expectancies, and age of first blackout: Low-Risk Blackout (35% of the sample), Experimental Blackout (23%), At-Risk Blackout (16%), and High-Risk Blackout (26%). Profiles varied by demographic, personality, and cognition- and alcohol-related behaviors. Notably, At-Risk and High-Risk Blackout profiles had the highest alcohol use disorder risk, most memory lapses and cognitive concerns, and highest levels of impulsivity traits.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings support the multifaceted nature of blackout drinking experiences and perceptions. Profiles were differentiated across person-level predictors and outcomes, which identify potential intervention targets and individuals at heightened alcohol-related risk. A more comprehensive understanding of the heterogeneity of blackout drinking characteristics may be useful for early detection and intervention of problematic alcohol use predictors and patterns among young adults.

Associations between blackout drinking and self-reported everyday cognition among young adults

INTRODUCTION

Blackout drinking, or alcohol-induced memory loss during at least some part of a drinking occasion, is common among young adults and associated with negative alcohol-related consequences. One potential unique effect of blackout drinking episodes could be prolonged, general difficulties forming new memories through impairments in encoding, storage, or retrieval. The current study examined preliminary associations between blackout drinking and self-reported everyday cognitive functioning (i.e., memory lapses, non-memory cognitive difficulties, cognitive concerns) among a sample of young adults. We also examined the moderating role of key factors linked to blackout drinking: gender and frequent simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use.

METHODS

Participants (N = 479; 53% women) were aged 18-30 who reported past-year blackout drinking. Participants completed an online survey through Qualtrics Panels.

RESULTS

More frequent blackout experiences were found to be significantly related to more memory lapses, more non-memory cognitive difficulties, and more cognitive concerns even after controlling for typical alcohol use behavior. Men and individuals reporting frequent simultaneous use indicated stronger relationships between blackout drinking frequency and cognitive outcomes.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Findings add to the growing body of literature supporting the uniquely hazardous effects of blackout drinking and identify individuals at heightened risk of harms. Given that associations between blackout drinking frequency and everyday cognitive functioning were identified even among a young adult sample suggests that blackout drinking may be a risky behavior that links to poorer cognitive functioning.

Concurrent validity of the marijuana purchase task: a meta-analysis of trait-level cannabis demand and cannabis involvement

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The Marijuana Purchase Task (MPT) is increasingly used to measure cannabis reinforcing value and has potential use for cannabis etiological and regulatory research. This meta-analysis sought to evaluate for the first time the MPT's concurrent validity in relation to cannabis involvement.

METHODS

Electronic databases and pre-print repositories were searched for MPT studies that examined the cross-sectional relationship between frequency and quantity of cannabis use, problems, dependence, and five MPT indicators: intensity (i.e. unrestricted consumption), Omax (i.e. maximum consumption), Pmax (i.e. price at which demand becomes elastic), breakpoint (i.e. first price at which consumption ceases), and elasticity (i.e. sensitivity to rising costs). Random effects meta-analyses of cross-sectional effect sizes were conducted, with Q tests for examining differences by cannabis variables, meta-regression to test quantitative moderators, and publication bias assessment. Moderators included sex, number of MPT prices, variable transformations, and year of publication. Populations included community and clinical samples.

RESULTS

The searches yielded 14 studies (n = 4077, median % females: 44.8%: weighted average age = 29.08 [SD = 6.82]), published between 2015 and 2022. Intensity, Omax , and elasticity showed the most robust concurrent validity (|r's| = 0.147-325, ps < 0.014) with the largest significant effect sizes for quantity (|r| intensity = 0.325) and cannabis dependence (|r| Omax  = 0.320, |r| intensity = 0.305, |r| elasticity = 0.303). Higher proportion of males was associated with increased estimates for elasticity-quantity and Pmax -problems. Higher number of MPT prices significantly altered magnitude of effects sizes for Pmax and problems, suggesting biased estimations if excessively low prices are considered. Methodological quality was generally good, and minimal evidence of publication bias was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The marijuana purchase task presents adequate concurrent validity to measure cannabis demand, most robustly for intensity, Omax , and elasticity. Moderating effects by sex suggest potentially meaningful sex differences in the reinforcing value of cannabis.

Harm Reduction und Cannabis: Was ändert sich durch die Legalisierung?

Zusammenfassung: Durch die Legalisierung ergeben sich zahlreiche Chancen, aber auch Unsicherheiten in Bezug auf Schadensminderung. Die Chancen liegen unter anderem in der verbesserten Aufklärung über gesundheitliche Risiken und in der Früherkennung von riskantem Cannabiskonsum. Weiterhin können die durch die Repression verursachten, umfangreichen Schäden durch die Legalisierung zu einem großen Teil reduziert bzw. verhindert werden. Schließlich sollten Instrumente wie THC-Mindestpreis und THC-gekoppelte Besteuerung, sowie Beschränkungen der Verkaufslizenzen und der Verkaufszeiten und -orte genutzt werden, um den Konsum zu steuern und Schäden zu minimieren. Größere Unsicherheiten bestehen insbesondere im Zusammenhang mit der Kommerzialisierung der Märkte sowie in der Regulierung des Eigenanbaus. Zusammenfassend ist zu erwarten, dass durch eine sorgfältige Regulierung die individuellen und gesellschaftlichen cannabisbedingten Schäden reduziert werden können.

Behavioral economic relationship between cannabis and cigarettes: Evidence from hypothetical purchase tasks

BACKGROUND

In the United States (U.S), cannabis policies have been increasingly liberalized whereas tobacco policies have been increasingly stringent. Given the high prevalence of cannabis and tobacco dual use, there are concerns that a policy regulating one substance may unintendedly influence the other. This study examined the responsiveness of the demand for cannabis joints and cigarettes when price varied.

METHODS

The study included 338 adult participants (21+) who used both cannabis and tobacco and lived in one of the U.S. states with recreational cannabis legalized by the time of interview in 2019. They completed hypothetical purchase tasks to indicate the quantity desired of cannabis joints and cigarette packs 1) when only one substance was available with escalating prices and 2) when both substances were concurrently available with escalating prices of cannabis joints and a fixed price of cigarette packs. We estimated 1) the own-price elasticity of demand for each substance using nonlinear exponential demand model, and 2) the cross-price elasticity of demand at aggregate level using nonlinear exponential demand model and at individual level using log-linear demand model.

RESULTS

The estimates for the rate of change of own-price elasticity (α) were 0.0011 (SE = 0.000039, p < 0.001) for cannabis joints and 0.00095 (SE = 0.000037, p < 0.001) for cigarette packs. The aggregate-level estimates of cross-price elasticity (I = 13.032, SE = 0.34, p < 0.001; β = 0.0029, SE = 0.0021, p > 0.05) suggest an independent relationship between the two substances. At individual level, 78.70% of the participants treated the two substances as independent, 17.46% as complements, and 3.85% as substitutes.

CONCLUSIONS

For most adults who used both cannabis and tobacco in the U.S., cannabis joints and cigarettes had an independent relationship. Policies regulating the price of cannabis may not have large unintended consequences on cigarette use.

The kids aren't alright: The effects of medical marijuana market size on adolescents

We exploit shocks to US federal enforcement policy to assess how legal medical marijuana market size affects youth marijuana use and consequences for youth traffic-related fatalities. Using hand-collected data on state medical marijuana patient rates to develop a novel measure of market size, we find that legal market growth increases youth marijuana use. Likely mechanisms are lower prices and easier access. Youth die more frequently from alcohol-involved car accidents, suggesting complementarities for youths. The consequences of marijuana legalization for youth are not immediate, but depend on how supply-side regulations affect production and prices.

How High-Frequency Users Embraced Cannabis Regulation in Uruguay

How cannabis legalization affects users’ behaviors? In this paper, we describe changes in the way users access cannabis in Uruguay before and after the implementation of cannabis regulation. We explore the differences between users that access through the legal, black, and gray markets. To do so, we rely on two face-to-face surveys of high-frequency users using the Respondent Driven Sample technique. The first survey was conducted at the beginning of the regulation implementation in 2014, and the second one in 2017. Results indicate that cannabis users gradually moved to the legal market, and most switched to the gray market. Furthermore, users kept acquiring cannabis from the black market even when using legal mechanisms. Considering these results, we argue that the strict regulations imposed in Uruguay may have operated as barriers for consumers to abandon the black market completely. These findings show that the specifics of each legalization policy matter.

Use patterns, beliefs, experiences, and behavioral economic demand of indica and sativa cannabis: A cross-sectional survey of cannabis users

Cannabis products available for retail purchase are often marketed based on purported plant species (e.g., "indica" or "sativa"). The cannabis industry frequently claims that indica versus sativa cannabis elicits unique effects and/or is useful for different therapeutic indications. Few studies have evaluated use patterns, beliefs, subjective experiences, and situations in which individuals use indica versus sativa. A convenience sample of cannabis users (n = 179) was surveyed via Amazon Mechanical Turk (mTurk). Participants were asked about their prior use of, subjective experiences with, and opinions on indica versus sativa cannabis and completed hypothetical purchasing tasks for both cannabis subtypes. Participants reported a greater preference to use indica in the evening and sativa in the morning and afternoon. Participants were more likely to perceive feeling "sleepy/tired" or "relaxed" after using indica and "alert," "energized," and "motivated" after using sativa. Respondents were more likely to endorse wanting to use indica if they were going to sleep soon but more likely to use sativa at a party. Hypothetical purchasing patterns (i.e., grams of cannabis purchased as a function of escalating price) did not differ between indica and sativa, suggesting that demand was similar. Taken together, cannabis users retrospectively report feeling different effects from indica and sativa; however, demand generally did not differ between cannabis subtypes, suggesting situational factors could influence whether someone uses indica or sativa. Placebo-controlled, blinded studies are needed to characterize the pharmacodynamics and chemical composition of indica and sativa cannabis and to determine whether user expectancies contribute to differences in perceived indica/sativa effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Do alcohol and cannabis substitute or complement each other? Analysis from behavioral economics for formulating public policy on substance use in Colombia

After alcohol and tobacco, cannabis is the third most used substance among young Colombian adults, and many consume alcohol and cannabis concomitantly. However, academics have debated whether these substances substitute or complement each other among consumers. Understanding the relationship between the price and demand for psychoactive substances can clarify consumption patterns and help to develop strategies to reduce harmful consumption. This paper summarizes worldwide evidence of both complementary and substitution relationships and discusses the most probable relationship types in Colombia based on its substance use patterns and current regulations. Like other countries, Colombia is considering legalizing recreational cannabis use. However, there is a growing concern that legalization would increase the negative impacts of cannabis and increase alcohol use among the young adult population. The lack of Colombian empirical studies about the impacts of legal changes on the cannabis market makes it difficult to predict how such changes would affect demand and price elasticities.

Behavioral economic interactions between cannabis and alcohol purchasing: Associations with disordered use

As cannabis policy changes, there is an urgent need to understand interactions between cannabis and alcohol couse. An online sample of 711 adult past-month cannabis and alcohol users completed both single-item hypothetical purchasing tasks for cannabis and alcohol and cross-commodity purchasing tasks assessing adjusting-price cannabis with concurrently available, fixed-price alcohol, and vice versa. Participants provided information about cannabis and alcohol use patterns, and completed the Alcohol and Cannabis Use Disorder Identification Tests (AUDIT and CUDIT, respectively). Group data showed that cannabis and alcohol served as complements (as the price of the adjusting-price commodity increased, consumption of both commodities decreased). However, individual data showed substantial variability with nontrivial proportions showing patterns of complementarity, substitution, and independence. More negative slopes (greater complementarity) for fixed-price cannabis and alcohol were both associated with greater self-reported drug consumption and CUDIT and AUDIT scores. The negative relation between cross-price slope and CUDIT/AUDIT score indicates that individuals who treat cannabis and alcohol more as complements are more likely to experience disordered use. Based on these cross-commodity purchasing data, when both cannabis and alcohol are concurrently available at low prices, both may be used at high levels, whereas limiting consumption of one commodity (e.g., through increased price) may reduce consumption of the other. These data show the importance of examining individual participant analyses of behavioral economic drug interactions and suggest that manipulation of cost (e.g., through taxes) or cosale restrictions are potential public health regulatory mechanisms for reducing alcohol and cannabis use and couse behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Cannabis flower prices and transitions to legal sources after legalization in Canada, 2019-2020

BACKGROUND

The post-tax price of legal cannabis has the potential to influence whether consumers transition from the illegal to legal cannabis market. The aims of the study were to: 1) estimate the percentage who report purchasing dried flower at different sources; 2) estimate the unit price of dried flower; and 3) examine the association between price and legality of purchase source.

METHODS

Repeat cross-sectional survey data come from Canadian respondents from the International Cannabis Policy Study conducted in 2019 and 2020. Respondents were recruited through online commercial panels, of legal age to purchase cannabis (up to 65 years), and purchased dried flower in the past 12-months (n = 4923). Weighted binary logistic regression models examined the association between price and legality of source.

RESULTS

The proportion of consumers last purchasing dried flower from legal sources increased from 2019 to 2020 (45.7% vs 58.1%) and in the past 12-months, the average percent of dried flower consumers reported purchasing from legal sources increased from 2019 to 2020 (55.7% vs 67.5%). The mean price of legal dried flower decreased in 2020 ($12.63 vs $11.16; p < 0.001), but remained more expensive than illegal dried flower in both years ($12.63 vs $9.04 in 2019; p < 0.001, $11.16 vs $9.41 in 2020; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Two years after legalization in Canada, the price of dried flower from legal sources decreased, along with a greater percentage of consumers purchasing from legal sources than after one year. Price and retail policies must continue to encourage the transition to the legal market in Canada.

Characteristics that influence purchase choice for cannabis products: a systematic review

Introduction

When non-medical cannabis use became legal, government regulators implemented policies to encourage safer consumption through access to a regulated market. While this market is growing, sales still occur through unregulated channels. This systematic review identifies factors influencing cannabis purchasing to help policymakers understand why consumers still purchase illicit market cannabis (registered with PROSPERO CRD42020176079).

Methods

A comprehensive search strategy included databases in health, business, and social science fields (inception to June 2020). Studies were eligible for inclusion if they were conducted with persons who purchase cannabis and examine at least one attribute that would influence purchase choice and were published in the English language. Studies could be of any methodological design. Two independent reviewers completed two levels of screening, and all extraction was verified by a second reviewer. A qualitative synthesis of the findings was completed. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool.

Results

Of the 4839 citations screened, 96 were eligible for full-text review and 35 were included in the final synthesis. Aspects of price were the most common factors (27 studies). Twenty studies measured price elasticity; most studies found that demand was price inelastic. Many other attributes were identified (e.g., product quality, route of administration, product recommendations, packaging), but none were explored in depth. Eleven studies addressed aspects of product quality including demand elasticity based on quality, potency, and aroma. Studies also explored consumer-perceived “quality” but provided no definition; differences in quality appeared to impact consumer choice. Smoking cannabis appeared to be the preferred route of administration but was only examined in three studies. There was insufficient data to understand in the impact of other attributes on choice. There appeared to be preference heterogeneity for different attributes based on the consumer’s experience, reason for use, and gender.

Conclusion

While price influences choices, demand is relatively inelastic. This suggests that consumers may be seeking lowest-cost, unregulated cannabis to avoid reducing consumption. Beyond price, there is a significant gap in our understanding of consumer choices. Perceived quality does appear to impact choice; however, more research is needed due to the lack of a recognized definition for cannabis quality.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42238-022-00117-0.

The language of subjective alcohol effects: Do young adults vary in their feelings of intoxication?

Among young adults, subjective feelings of alcohol's effects often guide risky decision making. The majority of studies measuring subjective effects have used singular indices ("How drunk do you feel?") which limits our understanding of young adults' full range of subjective states and their individual differences in subjective effects language. Toward a more in-depth understanding of the heterogeneity among alcohol users based on their subjective experiences of alcohol's effects, we identified latent classes of individuals based on their self-generated language describing feelings after drinking and compared these classes across demographic and drinking characteristics. Participants (N = 323, 54% women, 68% White, Ages 18-25 years) were recruited using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Participants listed words they would use to describe how they feel after drinking low, moderate, and heavy amounts of alcohol. Four latent classes of young adults emerged: "happy drinkers" (31%) primarily reported feeling "happy" when drinking; "relaxed drinkers" (24%) reported feeling happy, relaxed, and buzzed; "buzzed drinkers" (18%) reported feeling buzzed and dizzy; and "multiexperience drinkers" (27%) reported feeling buzzed, tipsy, drunk, and wasted. Relaxed drinkers indicated heavier alcohol use and buzzed drinkers reported lower drinking frequency. Classes did not differ by demographic characteristics. Young adult alcohol users can be distinguished based on the language they use to describe their feelings of intoxication. To continue to advance our understanding of subjective effects, it is necessary to take into account the full range of language used and how this language differs by young adult drinking behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Behavioral economics of substance use: Understanding and reducing harmful use during the COVID-19 pandemic

Behavioral economic research demonstrates that alcohol and drug consumption is (a) an inverse function of constraints on access to the substance and (b) a direct function of constraints on access to alternative rewards. Physical distancing interventions and economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in unprecedented reductions in many of the constraints on substance use and in critical evolutionarily salient sources of alternative reward, such as social interaction, physical activity, leisure activities and hobbies, and academic and occupational pursuits. Thus, behavioral economics suggests that the pandemic and necessary public health response have created a "perfect storm" for exacerbation of individual-level and population-level substance use problems and also points to multilevel intervention strategies. We summarize this perspective and research by highlighting 3 critical behavioral processes that will influence drug and alcohol consumption. First, the sudden absence of many effective constraints on substance use (work, school, community, or service obligations) will reduce the actual and perceived cost of use. Second, physical distancing measures will reduce the availability, and increase the cost, of many rewarding substance-free activities and commodities. Third, increased uncertainty around current and future events increases discounting of delayed rewards. These effects will be especially pernicious among populations with existing health disparities. Next, we outline interventions suggested by behavioral economics to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on substance use that are aimed at increasing perceived costs of use; increasing access to substance-free activities, including treatment; and lengthening the timeframe for behavioral allocation and altering environmental contexts to promote healthy choices. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A systematic review and meta-analysis of delay discounting and cannabis use

Delay discounting reflects the systematic reduction in the value of a consequence by delay to delivery. Theoretical and empirical work suggests that delay discounting is a key behavioral mechanism underlying substance use disorder. Existing work on cannabis use, however, is mixed with many studies reporting null results. The purpose of this review was to provide an in-depth assessment of the association between delay discounting and cannabis use. We conducted metaregression analyses to determine the omnibus correlation between delay discounting and cannabis use, and to evaluate task-based and sample-based moderators. Studies included evaluated an association between delay discounting and cannabis quantity-frequency or severity measures in human participants (27 studies, 61 effect sizes, 24,782 participants). A robust variance estimation method was used to account for dependence among effect sizes. A significant, but small, omnibus effect was observed (r = .082) in which greater cannabis use frequency or severity was associated with greater discounting. Incentive structure and outcome type were each significant moderators in a multiple moderator model such that incentivized tasks correlated with severity measures showed stronger associations (r = .234) than hypothetical tasks correlated with quantity-frequency measures (r = .029). Comparisons to historic effect size data supported the hypothesis that, at present, the relationship between cannabis use and delay discounting appears empirically smaller than for other substances. Future work should explore theoretical rationales explaining this modest relationship involving cannabis use and delay discounting, such as reflecting the smaller magnitude of perceived long-term clinical outcomes associated with cannabis compared to other substances. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The effect of next day responsibilities and an adaptive purchase task on cannabis demand

BACKGROUND

The marijuana purchase task (MPT) is a commonly used behavioral economic measure of relative cannabis value (i.e. demand) that presents specific methodological concerns due to non-standardized measurement, variability in modality of use, and evolving legalization policies. Refinement of the task is critical to improve task ecological validity and accurate measurement of cannabis demand. The present study examined the construct validity of an adaptive MPT that allowed for participant selection of their preferred cannabis-based product and unit of measurement and the effect of next-day responsibilities on demand.

METHODS

Participants reporting at least monthly cannabis use (N = 186, 40.3 % women, Mage = 33.59) were recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk and completed the original MPT and our adaptive form with 2 next-day responsibilities scenarios (no responsibilities vs. morning job interview) for each MPT. Cannabis use motives, problems, and risk for cannabis use disorder were also assessed.

RESULTS

Cannabis demand was sensitive to next-day responsibility, with higher hypothetical consumption observed in the no responsibilities condition. Responsibility-related decreases in Omax (F(1,185) = 4.83, p = .029, η2p = .03) were significantly greater on the adaptive MPT than the original MPT. Demand indices derived from the adaptive MPT were significantly correlated with cannabis problems (rbreakpoint = .19, rPmax = 0.18, relasticity=-0.18) and motives (rrange=-.32-.25), and demand metrics from the original MPT.

CONCLUSIONS

Results provide preliminary support for the construct validity of an adaptive MPT and suggest that early-morning work responsibilities may reduce cannabis demand. Continued research is needed to further refine this task and determine implications for cannabis use disorder intervention and prevention approaches.

The Potential Impact of Legalization of Recreational Cannabis among Current Users: A Qualitative Inquiry

Given legislative initiatives in Rhode Island pertaining to consideration of cannabis legalization for recreational purpose, a qualitative inquiry was conducted regarding anticipated changes in use among recreational cannabis users in Rhode Island. Five focus groups were conducted with recreational cannabis users (N = 31; 6-7 per group). Participants were queried about anticipated impact of legalization on their use patterns. Themes were identified using applied thematic analysis. Participants discussed (1) a desire to maintain the status quo due to satisfaction with local cannabis regulations and their current use behaviors, (2) how and why cannabis use may change, including pros and cons of legalization, and (3) anticipated changes in purchasing behavior given display and legitimacy of legal dispensaries. While participants anticipate use levels and prevalence may remain relatively stable following legislation changes, findings suggest possible changes related to mode of administration and location of use. Public health concerns exist related to high-risk potencies and use of cannabis in edible form; therefore, trialing of new cannabis products has important clinical implications should legalization occur in Rhode Island.

Consistent evidence of indirect effects of impulsive delay discounting and negative urgency between childhood adversity and adult substance use in two samples

RATIONALE

Exposure to adverse life experiences (ACEs) is robustly associated with problematic alcohol and other drug use. In addition, both ACEs and substance use have been independently associated with impulsivity.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether impulsivity is implicated in the link between ACE and adult substance use in two samples.

METHODS

The primary sample was a cohort of community adults (N = 1431) who completed a one-time in-person assessment. A second sample was crowdsourced using Amazon Mechanical Turk (N = 3021). All participants were assessed for ACEs using the Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire and for current alcohol and other drug use. Given its multidimensional nature, impulsivity was assessed using the UPPS-P measure of impulsive personality traits, Go/NoGo (GNG) task (in-person community adult sample only), and delay discounting (Monetary Choice Questionnaire [MCQ] in the community adults and Effective Delay-50 [ED₅₀] in the crowdsourced sample. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the hypothesized indirect effects for the measures of impulsivity between ACEs and substance use.

RESULTS

In the community adults, significant indirect effects were observed from ACEs to substance use via UPPS-Negative Urgency (β = 0.07, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.04, 0.10]), and the MCQ (β = 0.02 SE = .01, 95% CI [0.01, 0.03]). In the crowdsourced sample, significant indirect effects were observed from ACEs to substance use via UPPS-Negative Urgency (β = 0.05, SE = .01, 95% CI [0.04, 0.07]), UPPS-Premeditation (β = 0.04, SE = .01, 95% CI [0.02, 0.05), and the ED₅₀ (β = 0.02, SE = .01; 95% CI [0.01, 0.03]).

CONCLUSION

These findings provide consistent evidence that decrements in regulation of negative emotions and overvaluation of immediate rewards indirectly link ACE and substance use. These robust cross-sectional findings support the need for elucidating the underlying neural substrates implicated and for longitudinal evaluations.

Demand curve analysis of marijuana use among persons living with HIV

BACKGROUND

Despite medicalization and legalization of marijuana use, factors influencing demand for marijuana among persons living with HIV (PLWH) are incompletely understood. This knowledge gap undermines effective clinical management and policies. This study used demand curve simulation methods to address these issues.

METHODS

Marijuana-using PLWH (N = 119) completed experimental tasks to simulate amount of marijuana purchasing/use across different costs (money or time), and likelihood of reselling marijuana or marijuana therapeutic-use registration card in relation to profits. Additional simulations assessed purchasing of marijuana relative to other drug and non-drug goods.

RESULTS

Simulated marijuana use decreased as money and time costs increased. Consumption was greater for participants with more severe Cannabis Use Disorder (CUD) and anxiety, intermediate pain levels, and past 90-day opioid use. Whereas few participants chose to sell their registration card, marijuana resale (diversion) steeply increased with profit. Likelihood of seeking marijuana therapeutic-use certification decreased in relation to registration card money cost, having to visit more physicians to get a signature, and delay to receiving the card, and increased with duration of certification. Participants who reported recent opioid use were more likely to seek certification. Consumption of several commodities assessed was independent of marijuana.

CONCLUSIONS

Simulated marijuana use was related to participants' clinical profile (CUD, anxiety and pain symptoms, recent opioid use), and unrelated to purchasing other goods. Likelihood of seeking marijuana therapeutic-use registration was affected by several types of costs and recent opioid use. Participants were unlikely to divert registration cards. We discuss clinical and policy implications of these findings.

The importance of psychology for shaping legal cannabis regulation

Different patterns of cannabis use can be traced directly back to different interactions between 2 types of variables: pharmacological and environmental. As legal cannabis expands in the U.S. and around the world, state and national regulatory agencies are gaining control over these variables. Specifically, regulatory agencies are increasingly capable of altering (a) the pharmacological properties of cannabis products and (b) the way these products are distributed to the population. Consequently, cannabis regulatory agencies are in a unique position to use evidence from psychological science to alter cannabis consumption patterns in ways that mitigate potential harm to public health. However, most state-level legal cannabis regulatory systems in the U.S. are not yet evidence-based or public health-oriented. This applied review and commentary draws on evidence from the psychological science literature to help regulators better understand the types of behaviors they must address and guide empirically supported regulation of THC-laden cannabis, whether used putatively for medical or recreational reasons. This review is organized into 3 parts that correspond to the 3 primary agents within the cannabis regulation ecosystem: (a) the cannabis consumer, (b) the cannabis industry, and (c) the cannabis regulatory agency. Within this structure, the review addresses critical psychological variables that drive cannabis consumer and industry behaviors and discusses how regulatory agencies can use this information to protect public health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Consumer perceptions of 'legal' and 'illegal' cannabis in US states with legal cannabis sales

INTRODUCTION

In jurisdictions that have legalized recreational cannabis, perceptions of the 'legal' market may influence whether consumers transition from illegal retail sources. The current study examined consumer perceptions of legal versus illegal retail sources in 6 US states with legal retail sales as of 2018: Alaska, California, Colorado, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington State.

METHODS

Data are from Wave 1 of the International Cannabis Policy Study, an online survey conducted in 2018 among 16-65-year-olds. US respondents were asked about cannabis consumption and perceptions of legal cannabis (n = 5530). Multinomial regression models were fitted for each of five consumer perception outcomes.

RESULTS

Compared to illegal sources, at least one third of respondents perceived legal cannabis to be higher quality (37.6%) and safer to use (40.3%). More than half reported legal cannabis was more convenient to buy (59.2%) and safer to purchase (56.1%), whereas 30.6% of respondents perceived legal cannabis as more expensive. Perceptions varied according to the length of time since legal cannabis sales began: respondents living in more 'mature' legal markets were more likely to perceive legal cannabis as higher quality (AOR = 1.25, 99%CI = 1.07-1.46, p = 0.0003), less expensive (AOR = 1.20, 99%CI = 1.07-1.35, p < 0.0001), more convenient to buy (AOR = 1.36, 99%CI = 1.13-1.62, p < 0.0001) and safer to purchase (AOR = 1.21, 99%CI = 1.02-1.44, p = 0.0047).

CONCLUSIONS

With the notable exception of price, consumers reported generally positive perceptions of the legal cannabis market, with more positive perceptions in US states with more 'mature' legal markets.

Illicit drug prices and quantity discounts: A comparison between a cryptomarket, social media, and police data

BACKGROUND

Illicit drugs are increasingly sold on cryptomarkets and on social media. Buyers and sellers perceive these online transactions as less risky than conventional street-level exchanges. Following the Risks & Prices framework, law enforcement is the largest cost component of illicit drug distribution. We examine whether prices on cryptomarkets are lower than prices on social media and prices reported by law enforcement on primarily offline markets.

METHODS

Data consists of online advertisements for illicit drugs in Sweden in 2018, scraped from the cryptomarket Flugsvamp 2.0 (n = 826) and collected with digital ethnography on Facebook (n = 446). Observations are advertisements for herbal cannabis (n = 421), cannabis resin, hash (n = 594), and cocaine (n = 257) from 156 sellers. Prices are compared with estimates from Swedish police districts (n = 53). Three multilevel linear regression models are estimated, one for each drug type, comparing price levels and discount elasticities for each platform and between sellers on each platform.

RESULTS

Price levels are similar on the two online platforms, but cocaine is slightly more expensive on social media. There are quantity discounts for all three drug types on both platforms with coefficients between -0.10 and -0.21. Despite the higher competition between sellers on cryptomarkets, prices are not lower compared to social media. Online price levels for hash and cocaine are similar to those reported by police at the 1 g level.

CONCLUSION

Mean prices and quantity discounts are similar in the two online markets. This provides support for the notion that research on cryptomarkets can also inform drug market analysis in a broader sense. Online advertisements for drugs constitute a new detailed transaction-level data source for supply-side price information for research.

Social Learning and Addiction

Social learning theory, as originally proposed by Albert Bandura, followed 2000 years of intellectual inquiry into the determinants of human behavior. Reciprocal determinism is a central component of this theory and proposes that human behavior is determined by functional relationships between (1) personal factors, (2) the external environment, and (3) the behavior itself. Using this model, drug addiction can be viewed as resulting from the functional relationships between an individual's personal characteristics, social environment, and drug-centric behaviors. In other words, addiction can be viewed as a chronically evolving biopsychosocial disorder, encompassing dimensions that are both internal and external to the individual. Effective treatment interventions should thus target all nodes of the model and the functional relationships between them, and they must constantly evolve with the progression of the disorder. An argument is thus constructed that emphasizes the need for an organized structure of metacontingencies, operating within an individual's social environment, that targets the functional relationships between the factors that drive drug use. Optimally, these metacontingencies would operate within socially connected individuals who have the power to control the functional relationships that influence drug use, the vested interest to monitor individual and collective outcomes, the skills to determine what moment-to-moment decisions are needed to influence behavioral change, and the relative permanence necessary to carry through with the implementation of new strategies to produce outcomes that are cumulatively significant.

Latent Profile Analysis of Heavy Episodic Drinking in Emerging Adults: A Reinforcer Pathology Approach

BACKGROUND

Heavy episodic drinking (HED) is a major public health problem among emerging adults (individuals 18 to 25), but with considerable heterogeneity in concurrent substance use and psychopathology. The current study used latent profile analysis (LPA) to detect discrete subgroups of HED based on alcohol, other drug severity, and concurrent psychopathology. A reinforcer pathology approach was used to understand motivational differences among the latent subgroups.

METHODS

Participants were 2 samples of emerging adults reporting regular HED, 1 Canadian (n = 730) and 1 American (n = 602). Indicators for the LPA were validated dimensional self-report assessments of alcohol severity, cannabis severity, other drug severity, nicotine dependence, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Reinforcer pathology indicators were measures of alcohol demand, proportionate substance-related reinforcement, and discounting of future rewards.

RESULTS

The LPA yielded parallel 3-class solutions in both samples. The largest subgroup was characterized by comparatively low substance severity and psychopathology (Low overall severity). The second largest subgroup was characterized by comparatively high alcohol and other drug severity (excluding tobacco) and high levels of psychopathology (Heavy alcohol & high psychiatric severity). The third subgroup exhibited high alcohol, smoking and intermediate levels of other substance use and psychopathology (Heavy alcohol, smoking, & intermediate psychiatric severity). The Heavy alcohol & high psychiatric severity and Heavy alcohol, smoking, & intermediate psychiatric severity subgroups exhibited significantly higher alcohol demand, greater proportionate substance-related reinforcement, and steeper delay discounting.

CONCLUSIONS

Parallel latent subgroups of emerging adults engaging in HED were present in both samples, and the high-risk subgroups were significantly differentiated by the reinforcer pathology indicators. These latent profiles may ultimately inform heterogeneity in the longitudinal course of HED in emerging adults.

Behavioral economic demand as a unifying language for addiction science: Promoting collaboration and integration of animal and human models

The intersection of pharmacological, psychological, and economic theory within behavioral economics has helped advance an understanding of substance use disorder. A notable contribution of this approach is the conceptualization of reinforcement from a behavioral economic demand perspective. Demand analyses provide a multidimensional view of reinforcement in which distinct behavioral mechanisms are measured that impact decision making and drug consumption. This review describes the state of research on behavioral economic demand as a common language for addiction science researchers across varied model systems and stages of a translational continuum. We first provide an overview of the theoretical concepts and procedures used to evaluate demand in animal and human models. The potential for demand to serve as a common language for diverse research groups in psychopharmacology and addiction science (e.g., those evaluating neurobehavioral outcomes, medications development, clinical practice) is then described. An overview is also provided of existing empirical studies that, while small in number, suggest good linguistic and conceptual overlap between animal and human demand models when studying biological, environmental, and pharmacological individual difference vulnerabilities underlying drug-taking behavior. Refinement of methodological procedures and incorporation of more nuanced environmental features should help improve correspondence between animal and human demand studies as well as clinical translation of such findings. Our hope is that this review and commentary ultimately serves as inspiration for new collaborative efforts involving behavioral economic demand between animal and human researchers who share a common goal of improving substance use treatment outcomes and broader psychological wellbeing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Evaluating the co-use of opioids and cannabis for pain among current users using hypothetical purchase tasks

BACKGROUND

Cannabinoids may potentiate opioid analgesia and therefore could be used to reduce reliance on opioids for analgesia.

AIMS

The current study evaluated whether the concurrent availability of cannabis influences opioid consumption using a behavioral economic demand framework.

METHODS

An online survey assessed cannabis and opioid use frequency and dependence measures, pain severity, and demand for both cannabis and opioids alone and when concurrently available using hypothetical purchase tasks. Adults reporting current use of opioids for pain management and past 30-day cannabis exposure (N=155) completed two hypothetical purchase tasks in which only grams of cannabis or units of participants' index opioids were available for purchase, and two hypothetical tasks in which both were concurrently available and the price of one drug increased whereas the other was kept constant. Paired-sample t-tests compared the demand of each drug alone with when it was available concurrently with an alternative.

RESULTS

Demand intensity was significantly reduced and demand elasticity was significantly increased for both cannabis and opioids when the alternate commodity was available, although the reductions in cannabis consumption were more pronounced than they were for opioid consumption in the presence of the alternate commodity.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide behavioral economic evidence that cannabis access may modestly reduce demand for opioids in persons who have pain. Additional clinical studies that evaluate the analgesic effects of cannabis and cannabis-opioid effects on pain are warranted.

Utilizing the commodity purchase task to evaluate behavioral economic demand for illicit substances: a review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND ANDAIMS

The commodity purchase task is a simulated demand procedure that is easy and quick to complete (< 5 minutes) as well as adaptable for remote delivery and use with varied study populations. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to synthesize research using the commodity purchase task with illicit substances to evaluate the magnitude of omnibus effects sizes and moderators of the correlation of demand indices with quantity-frequency (QF) and severity measures.

DESIGN

Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions involving studies with cross-sectional correlational designs.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Eleven studies, 10 outcomes and 2146 participants from two countries (USA and UK) published up to 1 October 2018.

MEASUREMENTS

Omnibus effect sizes (correlation coefficients) of five demand indices from the commodity purchase task [intensity (unconstrained consumption), elasticity (price sensitivity), O_max (maximum expenditure), P_max (price at maximum expenditure) and breakpoint (first price of zero consumption)] with QF and severity measures. Meta-regression models tested moderators of effect sizes (i.e. sample age and sex composition, commodity type and number of prices used in the commodity purchase task).

FINDINGS

Significant omnibus effect sizes were observed with QF and severity measures for intensity (r = 0.32/0.28, QF/severity, respectively), elasticity (r = -0.14/-0.18), O_max (r = 0.30/0.29) and breakpoint (r = 0.17/0.22) values. P_max was only significantly associated with severity measures (r = 0.15). The percentage of female participants and number of prices used in the purchase task significantly moderated P_max and breakpoint effect-size estimates in that stronger associations were observed in samples with a greater percentage of women and in studies using tasks with more price points. Commodity type (cannabis versus cocaine) did not significantly moderate associations involving any demand index.

CONCLUSIONS

Behavioral economic demand as measured by the commodity purchase task is consistently correlated with measures of illicit substance use quantity-frequency and severity.

"Buzzwords": Crowd-sourcing and quantifying U.S. young adult terminology for subjective effects of alcohol and marijuana use

Prevalence of heavy alcohol use remain high, and daily marijuana use is at an all-time high in young adults. As perceptions of drug effects may guide risky decision making, understanding subjective feelings for alcohol and marijuana use is critical. Existing laboratory-based and diary metrics (0-100 rating of "how drunk/high do you feel?") may be problematic in differentiating levels of subjective effects. Measures incorporating contemporary language may better capture subjective feelings in experimental and ambulatory assessment designs. We developed 2 sliding scales based on crowd-sourced and rank-ordered feelings of subjective alcohol and marijuana effects. Two U.S. young adult (18-25 years) samples were drawn from Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). In the first study, 323 (53.6% women, 68.4% White, M age = 23.0 years) alcohol and marijuana users provided words to describe subjective effects from alcohol use and from marijuana use. In a second study, 289 (46.4% female, 66.4% White, M age = 23.0 years) users rank-ordered the most common terms to correspond with subjective levels. The sliding scale for alcohol effects resulted in 4 anchors ranging from 0 to 100: slightly buzzed, tipsy/"happy," drunk, and wasted. The sliding scale for marijuana effects also had 4 anchors: relaxed, calm/chill, high, and stoned/baked. By incorporating broader and more contemporary subjective effects language, our metrics may better capture variability in young adults' perceived subjective effects from alcohol and marijuana use. Future work could build upon these findings by pairing sliding scales with measures of actual intoxication to understand within- and between-person covariation in subjective effects, actual impairment, and consequences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Leveraging crowdsourcing methods to collect qualitative data in addiction science: Narratives of non-medical prescription opioid, heroin, and fentanyl use

BACKGROUND

Online crowdsourcing methods have proved useful for studies of diverse designs in the behavioral and addiction sciences. The remote and online setting of crowdsourcing research may provide easier access to unique participant populations and improved comfort for these participants in sharing sensitive health or behavioral information. To date, few studies have evaluated the use of qualitative research methods on crowdsourcing platforms and even fewer have evaluated the quality of data gathered. The purpose of the present analysis was to document the feasibility and validity of using crowdsourcing techniques for collecting qualitative data among people who use drugs.

METHODS

Participants (N = 60) with a history of non-medical prescription opioid use with transition to heroin or fentanyl use were recruited using Amazon Mechanical Turk (mTurk). A battery of qualitative questions was included indexing beliefs and behaviors surrounding opioid use, transition pathways to heroin and/or fentanyl use, and drug-related contacts with structural institutions (e.g., health care, criminal justice).

RESULTS

Qualitative data recruitment was feasible as evidenced by the rapid sampling of a relatively large number of participants from diverse geographic regions. Computerized text analysis indicated high ratings of authenticity for the provided narratives. These authenticity percentiles were higher than the average of general normative writing samples as well as than those collected in experimental settings.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the feasibility and quality of qualitative data collected in online settings, broadly, and crowdsourced settings, specifically. Future work among people who use drugs may leverage crowdsourcing methods and the access to hard-to-sample populations to complement existing studies in the human laboratory and clinic as well as those using other digital technology methods.

Assessing Cannabis Demand: A Comprehensive Review of the Marijuana Purchase Task

The marijuana purchase task (MPT) is a behavioral economic measure of individualized cannabis value (i.e., demand). The MPT follows purchase tasks for other substances (e.g., alcohol, tobacco), though presents with unique caveats due to its mixed illicit status, non-uniform units of purchase and use, and substantial within substance variability in strain, potency, and quality. As the regulatory climate surrounding purchase and use of cannabis continues to evolve in the USA and globally, rigorous assessment of cannabis use and value are of the utmost importance. This study represents the first comprehensive review of investigations utilizing the MPT. Searches through PubMed and Web of Science databases by two independent coders identified 15 empirical articles referencing the use of an MPT and were published through the year 2019. Articles were coded for demographic and procedural characteristics, structural characteristics of the MPT itself, data analytic characteristics, and relationships with cannabis-related outcomes. Rigorous assessment of demand for cannabis is essential with respect to the broad public health issues surrounding cannabis legalization. We have synthesized the research presented herein and comment on vital considerations for subsequent MPT work, including recommendations for a unified approach to using the MPT in subsequent research.

Behavioral economic demand assessments in the addictions

Behavioral economics in the addictions is the application of both economics and psychology to study multifaceted components of substance use decision-making behavior. One such component is demand: the relative value of a substance for a user (i.e., the association between drug use and cost). The degree to which a user values a substance can be measured via performance on hypothetical purchase tasks which replicate drug purchase and consumption. Demand has been evaluated across substances, including alcohol, marijuana, tobacco, and alternative tobacco products. Recent advances in the study of demand have greatly improved the assessment of drug value, including application to novel products, selection of optimal task unit, assessment of demand in naïve or potential future users, and the importance of instructional set specificity.

The Behavioral Economics of Alcohol Demand in French and American University Students

BACKGROUND

Behavioral economic approaches have revealed several characteristics of alcohol demand (e.g., intensity, elasticity, and essential value) in university students; however, these approaches have not yet examined alcohol demand among students outside of the United States. The current study examined alcohol demand among student samples in the United States and France using a hypothetical alcohol purchase task (APT) and a novel APT Choice task, in which nonalcoholic beverages were concurrently available at a fixed low price.

METHODS

Participants at each site (United States, n = 132; France, n = 132) were asked to complete an Internet-based survey including the APT, APT Choice, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, Daily Drinking Questionnaire, and Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised Short Form. Group demand functions were produced for each of the 2 samples in both country-specific and standardized drink units, and the exponential demand equation was fitted to each of the APT and APT Choice demand curves. Slope analyses were performed on the Non-Alcoholic Cross-Price demand to assess substitutability.

RESULTS

APT data revealed that in both samples, alcohol price and consumption were inversely related and demand measures were significantly associated with other alcohol measures. In addition, the availability of a nonalcoholic alternative reduced alcohol demand in both samples, with evidence of substitutability revealed by increases in cross-price consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Low-cost alcohol is associated with increased alcohol consumption in both French and U.S. university students, and concurrent availability of a nonalcoholic beverage within the APT both reduces alcohol demand and demonstrates behavioral economic substitutability. These findings will inform future studies investigating behavioral and environmental factors underlying transcultural differences and specific prevention efforts.

Availability of legalized cannabis reduces demand for illegal cannabis among Canadian cannabis users: evidence from a behavioural economic substitution paradigm

In the context of cannabis legalization, an important question among clinicians, policymakers, and the public is whether availability of legal cannabis will significantly reduce consumption (demand) of illegal cannabis. Using paradigms from behavioural economics, we tested the prediction that legal cannabis would be an asymmetrical substitute for illegal cannabis, with legal cannabis operating as a superior commodity based on its regulated status. In a sample of 289 adult cannabis users in Ontario, we found evidence of substitutability for both legal and illegal cannabis, but significantly lower substitutability of illegal for legal cannabis, a pattern that was also present for price elasticity (α) and P_max. Thus, the data indicated asymmetric substitution such that the availability of legal cannabis substantially decreased demand for illegal cannabis, but a significantly smaller effect in reverse. These results suggest that the introduction of legal cannabis into the market may disrupt and reduce illegal purchases, contributing to the reduction of the potential harms associated with the illegal market. However, in revealing price windows in which legal cannabis is preferred over the contraband alternative, these data also have significant implications for pricing policies.