Traffic Offences: Planned or Habitual? Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour and habit strength to explain frequency and magnitude of speeding and driving under the influence of alcohol

Predicting risky driving behaviours using the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis

The current meta-analysis explored the efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in predicting high-risk driving behaviours. Specifically, we examined speeding (in relation to exceeding the limit as well as speed compliance), driving under the influence, distracted driving, and seat belt use. We searched four electronic databases (i.e., PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest) and included original studies that quantitatively measured the relationships between the TPB variables (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control [PBC], intention, and prospective/objective behaviour). The study identified 80 records with 94 independent samples. Studies were assessed for risk of bias using the JBI checklist for cross-sectional studies and compliance with the TPB guidelines. Together, attitude, subjective norm and PBC explained between 30 % and 51 % of variance found in intention, with attitude showing as the strongest predictor for intention across the different driving behaviours. The findings also showed that the model explained 36 %-48 % variance found in predicting the observed and/or prospective behaviours for distracted driving, speed compliance and speeding. Understanding the varying strengths and thus relative importance of TPB constructs in predicting different risky driving behaviours is crucial for developing targeted road safety interventions.

Understanding aberrant driving intentions based on the Theory of Planned Behavior: Literature review and Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Despite deployed efforts to establish strict road safety standards, human factors is still the leading cause of road crashes. To identify determinants of driver's behavior, TPB (Theory of Planned Behavior) is widely used as a prominent theory of behavior change. However, the existence of different aberrant driving behaviors (decision errors, recognition errors, violations, and physical condition related errors) and several studies using TPB to understand driving behavior, makes it important to conduct a literature review and a meta-analysis of existing studies to use their results in effective driving behavior change interventions.

METHOD

The selection process provided 125 relevant studies that were published between 1991 and 2022, and that used TPB for the understanding of aberrant driving behavior. Five fundamental research questions were defined to identify information to be discovered from the literature review and from the meta-analysis.

RESULTS

In addition to the standard TPB constructs (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control), past behavior, moral norms, and descriptive norms were used in studies for a more comprehensive understanding of aberrant driving intention. This analysis demonstrated a significant correlation between aberrant driving intentions and past behavior. Also, moral norms construct was correlated with violations and recognition errors, whereas descriptive norms construct was correlated just with recognition errors.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study highlight the strength of TPB in the prediction of aberrant driving intention and its potential effectiveness to guide interventions aimed at changing aberrant driving behaviors. The study contributes to the comprehension of the relevant psychological factors influencing the engagement of drivers in each category of aberrant driving behaviors.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Researchers can use the results of this study to select the relevant psychological factors adapted to their interventions of driving behavior change. The results of the meta-analysis can also be used in the prediction of driver's intentions.

Low-range, mid-range and high-range speeding: The association with speeding habits, perceived legitimacy and deterrence

INTRODUCTION

Speeding is a global road safety concern contributing to an excessive number of fatal crashes and serious debilitating injuries. Research identifying amendable factors associated with speeding to inform interventions is critical.

METHOD

This study examined the association of habit, perceived legitimacy of enforcement, and deterrence elements with three levels of speeding behavior; low- (<10 km/hr over the posted speed limit), mid- (10-20 km/hr), and high-range (>20 km/hr) speeding. An online survey of 870 participants aged over 17 years (M = 37 years) was administered.

RESULTS

Approximately 80% of participants reported low-range speeding, 40% mid-range speeding, and 20% high-range speeding. Differences were found between speeding on urban and open roads with the proportion of participants greater for mid- and high-range speeding on open roads. Multiple linear regressions were run finding habit and deterrence variables to be significant predictors of all three levels of speeding. Perceived legitimacy of enforcement was a significant predictor of high-range speeding only.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

These findings suggest countermeasures that encourage good speed-related habits would be promising. It is also concluded that additional deterrence measures that reduce punishment avoidance experiences (e.g., better detection of speeding behaviors) are needed to further curb speeding behaviors. Nevertheless, the current punishment for all levels of speeding is perceived to be an effective deterrent. These recommendations inform policy, training and education, and campaigns that target engagement in speeding.

Theory of planned behaviour, psychological stressors and intention to avoid violating traffic rules: A Multi-Level modelling analysis

This study applies a multilevel model approach to test the predictive effect of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) plus moral norm, past behaviour and crash history to account for intentions to avoid traffic violations within the context of commuting to or from work. This study also extended the theory by adding psychological stressors of perceived stress and work-family conflict. In this study, we systematically tested the direct and mediated models. A sample of Malaysian drivers (N = 482; 44.6% were men and 55.4% women), with the average age of 36.7 years (SD = 10.0) was surveyed. The self-report questionnaire contained multiple observations nested within individual drivers, with respect to 3 different driving violations. As predicted, multi-level modelling showed that within-person predictor variables of all the TPB components emerged as independent predictors, with injunctive norm being the most predictive variable, followed by self-efficacy and cognitive attitude. Intention was also predicted by moral norms and crash history. Between-person variables, gender, commuting hours and work-family conflict also had direct influences on intention (i.e., men and those with longer commuting hours and higher work-family conflict reported lower intentions). Substantial support for the mediation model was found, confirming that stressors indirectly influence intentions through effects on the social cognitive components. The implications of the linkage between the social cognition and stressors for developing potential broader interventions focusing on multiple violation behaviours and designing appropriate safety policies to reduce commuting crashes are discussed.

Comparing Theoretical Models for the Understanding of Health-Risk Behaviour: Towards an Integrative Model of Adolescent Alcohol Consumption

The aim of the present manuscript is to test and compare the theory of reasoned action (TRA), theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and prototype-willingness model (PWM) in predicting risky alcohol consumption among adolescents and to build an integrative model to get a more comprehensive understanding of such risky behaviour. A total sample of 518 adolescents (55% females; 13-19 aged) recruited from Italian schools (7th to 12th grade) participated in a cross-sectional research study and completed an online questionnaire. Risky alcohol use assessed through the AUDIT-C was the dependent variable; whereas, variables from the TRA, TPB, and PWM (i.e. attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, intention, prototype favourability and similarity, and willingness to alcohol use) were used as predictors. Data were analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM). The findings show that the integrative model had greater explanatory power and provided a better fit to the data, compared to the TRA, TPB, and PWM, indicating attitudes and subjective norms as the best predictors. In conclusion, perceived social approval from significant others and the volitional component have a central role in understanding adolescents’ alcohol consumption.

Associations between psychoactive substance use and sensation seeking behavior among drivers in Norway

Background/aim

Drug use and risky driving is associated with sensation seeking. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between use of psychoactive substances and levels of the sensation seeking personality trait as measured with the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale 4 among drivers in Norway.

Method

A cross-sectional design was applied to estimate the association between psychoactive substance use and sensation seeking behavior. Drivers in normal traffic were included in two roadside surveys: one in the north (September 2014 – October 2015) and the other in the south-east of Norway (April 2016 – April 2017). Oral fluid was analyzed for alcohol and psychoactive drugs, and data on sex, age and time of participation were recorded. Participants filled in the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale 4 questionnaire.

Results

A total of 8053 drivers were included, of which 32% were women and 62% were under 40 years. The prevalence of alcohol was 0.3%, stimulants 0.6%, tetrahydrocannabinol 1.4%, benzodiazepines and/or z-hypnotics 2.0% and polydrug use 0.6%. Associations were found between the use of tetrahydrocannabinol or benzodiazepines and/or z-hypnotics and a low score on the “thrill and adventure seeking” domain of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale 4 (OR = 1.723, 95% C.I. = 1.001–2.966). Associations were also found between the use of stimulants and the highest scores on the “experience seeking” (OR = 2.085, 95% C.I. = 1.084–4.009) and “disinhibition” (OR = 4.791, 95% C.I. =1.748–13.135) domains of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale 4. No associations were found between sensation seeking behavior and alcohol or polydrug use.

Conclusion

A high degree of sensation seeking was found among drivers who had used stimulating drugs, in contrast to drives who had used tetrahydrocannabinol and benzodiazepines and/or z-hypnotics who showed a low degree of sensation seeking. The combination of sensation seeking behavior and the use of stimulants might lead to increased risky behavior and thus traffic crashes.

Canadian wildlife-vehicle collisions: An examination of knowledge and behavior for collision prevention

OBJECTIVES

This study examines drivers' responses to wildlife on Canadian roads. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that knowledge of what to do when encountering wildlife on the road does not always translate into the appropriate behavior to avoid a collision.

METHODS

Data from the Traffic Injury Research Foundation's (TIRF) 2016 Road Safety Monitor (RSM) and data from TIRF's National Fatality Database from 2000 to 2014 were analyzed to test hypotheses based on the theory of planned behavior. Logistic regression and piecewise linear regression were used.

RESULTS

Analyses of the data showed that the prevalence of fatal WVCs has remained relatively consistent, and that the majority of persons killed in WVCs died in crashes that involved large mammals. The majority of fatalities occurred in the summer (182 or 38.4%) and fall (163 or 34.4%). The RSM data revealed that 60.9% [50.5, 70.4] of respondents who previously hit an animal indicated that drivers should slow down and steer straight when confronted with wildlife, while 47.3% [37.1, 57.6] of respondents indicated this was the action they took when they hit wildlife. Comparatively, 59.5% [56.6, 62.4] of respondent who have not hit an animal indicated this was an appropriate response. Additionally, 33.2% [24, 44] of respondents who previously hit an animal indicated that drivers should swerve to avoid a collision with wildlife, while 37.5% [28.2, 47.8] of respondents indicated this was the action they took when they hit wildlife.

CONCLUSIONS

Many drivers are unaware of what the safest method of WVC prevention is. Further, while a subgroup of drivers may have the knowledge and intention to slow down and steer straight even if the animal is directly in the path, i.e., the safest possible behavior, they are not necessarily adopting this behavior. Practical applications: Recommendations are formulated to address this discrepancy, as well as practical applications.

Modeling of passengers' safety perception for buses on mountainous roads

This study had developed a passenger safety perception model specifically for buses taking into consideration the various factors, namely driver characteristics, environmental conditions, and bus characteristics using Bayesian Network. The behaviour of bus driver is observed through the bus motion profile, measured in longitudinal, lateral, and vertical accelerations. The road geometry is recorded using GPS and is computed with the aid of the Google map while the perceived bus safety is rated by the passengers in the bus in real time. A total of 13 variables were derived and used in the model development. The developed Bayesian Network model shows that the type of bus and the experience of the driver on the investigated route could have an influence on passenger's perception of their safety on buses. Road geometry is an indirect influencing factor through the driver's behavior. The findings of this model are useful for the authorities to structure an effective strategy to improve the level of perceived bus safety. A high level of bus safety will definitely boost passenger usage confidence which will subsequently increase ridership.

Prototypes reflect normative perceptions: implications for the development of reasoned action theory

The reasoned action approach is one of the most successful behavioral theories in the history of social psychology. This study outlines the theoretical principles of reasoned action and considers when it is appropriate to augment it with a new variable. To demonstrate, we use survey data collected from a 4 to 17 year old U.S. adolescents to test how the 'prototype' variables fit into reasoned action approach. Through confirmatory factor analysis, we find that the prototype measures are normative pressure measures and when treated as a separate theoretical construct, prototype identity is not completely mediated by the proximal predictors of behavioral intention. We discuss the assumptions of the two theories and finally consider the distinction between augmenting a specific theory versus combining measures derived from different theoretical perspectives.

An examination of the construct and predictive validity of the self-reported speeding behavior model

The present study deals with the problem of speeding behavior on rural roads. The purpose of the paper is to examine the construct validity and the internal consistency and reliability of a questionnaire that measures the determinants of speeding behavior. In addition, it aimed to test the predictive validity of a modified theoretical framework of a theory of planned behavior (TPB) in relation to speeding behavior. A total of 546 car drivers from five local communities in the Republic of Srpska successfully completed the questionnaire after reading the scenario. The principal component analysis revealed seven components interpreted as: personal norm, perceived behavioral control, affective attitude toward speeding, subjective norm, habit, descriptive norm, and cognitive attitude toward speeding. A speeding behavior model was developed by structural equation modeling. Personal norm, subjective norm, and affective attitudes were shown to be important variables within the modified TPB in understanding speeding behavior. Overall, the present findings provide significant support for the concept of the modified theoretical framework of TPB in relation to speeding behavior on rural roads. Implications for a speeding behavior model and interventions are discussed.

When the social discourse on violation behaviours is challenged by the perception of everyday life experiences: Effects of non-accident experiences on offending attitudes and habits

The aim of this article is to introduce the concept of the Non-Accident Experience (NAE) with regard to violations of traffic safety regulations. An NAE refers to the fact of not having been involved in an accident following the adoption of a behaviour socially recognised as promoting its occurrence. We hypothesise that this type of experiences has a strong effect on attitudes (valence and strength) and habits with regard to traffic offences such as speeding and drink-drive. An empirical study was conducted to test the relevance of this set of hypotheses. 543 French drivers participated to a survey designed to measure all these theoretical constructs. As expected, the results showed that the more frequently NAEs were experienced the more individuals had a favourable and weak (less certain, less important, more ambivalent) attitude towards violations, as well as strong habits. In addition, the more numerous NAEs experienced by others were perceived to be, the more ambivalent was the attitude. The discussion firstly concerns the methodological limitations of this study (e.g. use of cross-sectional design) as well as the integration of this concept into current research, especially in relation to the attitude strength concept and the theory of planned behaviour. Then, we discuss its practical implications (use of the experience based analysis technique, with consideration of both accident and non-accident experiences).

Teen Drivers' Perceptions of Inattention and Cell Phone Use While Driving

OBJECTIVE

Inattention to the roadway, including cell phone use while driving (cell phone calls, sending and reading texts, mobile app use, and Internet use), is a critical problem for teen drivers and increases risk for crashes. Effective behavioral interventions for teens are needed in order to decrease teen driver inattention related to cell phone use while driving. However, teens' perceptions of mobile device use while driving is a necessary component for theoretically driven behavior change interventions. The purpose of this study was to describe teen drivers' perceptions of cell phone use while driving in order to inform future interventions to reduce risky driving.

METHODS

We conducted 7 focus groups with a total of 30 teen drivers, ages 16-18, licensed for ≤ 1 year in Pennsylvania. The focus group interview guide and analysis were based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, identifying the attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and norms about inattention to the roadway. Directed descriptive content analysis was used to analyze the focus group interviews. All focus groups were coded by 2 research team members and discrepancies were reconciled. Themes were developed based on the data.

RESULTS

Teens had a mean age of 17.39 (SD = 0.52), mean length of licensure of 173.7 days (SD = 109.2; range 4-364), were 50% male and predominately white (90%) and non-Hispanic (97%). From the focus group data, 3 major themes emerged: (1) Recognizing the danger but still engaging; (2) Considering context; and (3) Formulating safer behaviors that might reduce risk. Despite recognizing that handheld cell phone use, texting, and social media app use are dangerous and distracting while driving, teens and their peers often engaged in these behaviors. Teens described how the context of the situation contributed to whether a teen would place or answer a call, write or respond to a text, or use a social media app. Teens identified ways in which they controlled their behaviors, although some still drew attention away from the roadway.

CONCLUSIONS

Cell phone use while driving is a contributor to motor vehicle crashes in teens, and effective interventions to decrease risks are needed. Teens viewed some types of cell phone use as unsafe and describe methods in which they control their behaviors. However, some of their methods still take attention off the primary task of driving. Teens could benefit from behavior change interventions that propose strategies to promote focused attention on the roadway at all times during the driving trip.