Carbon nanomaterials combined with metal nanoparticles for theranostic applications

Fe3O4-Coated CNTs-Gum Arabic Nano-Hybrid Composites Exhibit Enhanced Anti-Leukemia Potency Against AML Cells via ROS-Mediated Signaling

Background

Prior studies on magnetite (Fe3O4) NPs and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) cytotoxic effects against acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are inconclusive rather than definitive.

Purpose

Investigation of the effects of Gum Arabic (GA)-stabilized/destabilized Fe3O4 NPs and CNTs, alone or in combination, on AML cell proliferation.

Methods

Hybrid NPs were synthesized, characterized, and assessed for their cytotoxicity against Kasumi-1, HL-60, and THP-1 in comparison to normal primary bone marrow CD34+ cells. The molecular pathways of nanostructures' cytotoxicity were also investigated.

Results

The Fe3O4 NPs were effectively synthesized and attached to the surface of the CNTs, resulting in the formation of a novel hybrid through their interaction with the GA colloidal solution in an aqueous media. Although the evaluated nanostructured nanoparticles had significant growth suppression ability against the leukemia cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 42.437 to 189.842 μg/mL, they exhibited comparatively modest toxicity towards normal hematopoietic cells (IC50: 113.529‒162.656 μg/mL). The incorporation of Fe3O4 NPs with CNTs in a hybrid nanocomposite significantly improved their effectiveness against leukemia cells, with the extent of improvement varying depending on the specific cell type. The nanostructured particles were stabilized by GA, which enhances their ability to inhibit cell proliferation in a manner that depends on the specific cell type. Also, nanoparticles exhibit cytotoxicity due to their capacity to stimulate the production of intracellular ROS, halt the cell cycle at the G1 phase, and induce apoptosis. This is supported by the activation of p53, BAX, cytochrome C, and caspase-3, which are triggered by ROS. The nanostructures lead to an increase in the expression of genes encoding proteins related to oxidative stress (SIRT1, FOXO3, NFE2L2, and MAP3K5) and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKN1A and CDKN1B) in response to ROS.

Conclusion

We provide an effective Fe3O4 NPs/CNTs nano-hybrid composite that induces apoptosis and has strong anti-leukemic capabilities. This hybrid nanocomposite is promising for in vivo testing and validation.

Functionalized nanoparticles crossing the brain-blood barrier to target glioma cells

Glioma is the most common tumor of the central nervous system (CNS), with a 5-year survival rate of <35%. Drug therapy, such as chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic agents, remains one of the main treatment modalities for glioma, including temozolomide, doxorubicin, bortezomib, cabazitaxel, dihydroartemisinin, immune checkpoint inhibitors, as well as other approaches such as siRNA, ferroptosis induction, etc. However, the filter function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) reduces the amount of drugs needed to effectively target CNS tumors, making it one of the main reasons for poor drug efficacies in glioma. Thus, finding a suitable drug delivery platform that can cross the BBB, increase drug aggregation and retainment in tumoral areas and avoid accumulation in non-targeted areas remains an unsolved challenge in glioma drug therapy. An ideal drug delivery system for glioma therapy should have the following features: (1) prolonged drug life in circulation and effective penetration through the BBB; (2) adequate accumulation within the tumor (3) controlled-drug release modulation; (4) good clearance from the body without significant toxicity and immunogenicity, etc. In this regard, due to their unique structural features, nanocarriers can effectively span the BBB and target glioma cells through surface functionalization, providing a new and effective strategy for drug delivery. In this article, we discuss the characteristics and pathways of different nanocarriers for crossing the BBB and targeting glioma by listing different materials for drug delivery platforms, including lipid materials, polymers, nanocrystals, inorganic nanomaterials, etc.

Hybrid Nanobioengineered Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Biosensors

Nanoengineering biosensors have become more precise and sophisticated, raising the demand for highly sensitive architectures to monitor target analytes at extremely low concentrations often required, for example, for biomedical applications. We review recent advances in functional nanomaterials, mainly based on novel organic-inorganic hybrids with enhanced electro-physicochemical properties toward fulfilling this need. In this context, this review classifies some recently engineered organic-inorganic metallic-, silicon-, carbonaceous-, and polymeric-nanomaterials and describes their structural properties and features when incorporated into biosensing systems. It further shows the latest advances in ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensors engineered from such innovative nanomaterials highlighting their advantages concerning the concomitant constituents acting alone, fulfilling the gap from other reviews in the literature. Finally, it mentioned the limitations and opportunities of hybrid nanomaterials from the point of view of current nanotechnology and future considerations for advancing their use in enhanced electrochemical platforms.

Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy Mapped With Carbon Nanoparticle Suspensions in Patients With Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

The mapping method represents a crucial factor affecting the rate of sentinel lymph node detection in breast cancer. We carried out this meta-analysis to assess the clinical utility of carbon nanoparticle suspensions (CNSs) in guiding sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) for breast cancer patients.

Methods

Electronic databases, which comprised the China National Knowledge Infrastructure, the Wanfang electronic database, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and PubMed, were explored to identify relevant studies from database inception to July 2021 that studied the detection rate of CNSs-guided SLNB. A meta-analysis was performed to generate pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio (PLR), negative likelihood ratio (NLR), a summary receiver operator characteristic curve (SROC), and a diagnostic odds ratio (DOR).

Results

A total of 33 publications that enrolled 2,171 patients were analyzed. The pooled sensitivity, specificity, PLR, and NLR were 0.93 (95% CI: 0.91–0.95, I² = 0.0%), 0.99 (95% CI: 0.98–0.99, I² = 56.5%), 42.85 (95% CI: 29.73–61.77, I² = 47.0%), and 0.09 (95% CI: 0.07–0.11, I² = 0.0%), respectively. The area under the curve (AUC) of the SROC curve was 0.98. There were no significant differences when analyzed based on the dose and site of CNS injection. There was significant publication bias among the included publications based on Deeks’ funnel plot [Slope (Bias) = −7.35, P = 0.00]. Nonetheless, the sensitivity analysis identified the results to be reliable and stable.

Conclusion

This meta-analysis highlights the accuracy and feasibility of using CNSs for SLNB in patients with breast cancer. Clinically, the identification and predictive values of CNSs as an optimal tracer for SLNB remains undisputed.

Comprehensive review on ultrasound-responsive theranostic nanomaterials: mechanisms, structures and medical applications

The field of theranostics has been rapidly growing in recent years and nanotechnology has played a major role in this growth. Nanomaterials can be constructed to respond to a variety of different stimuli which can be internal (enzyme activity, redox potential, pH changes, temperature changes) or external (light, heat, magnetic fields, ultrasound). Theranostic nanomaterials can respond by producing an imaging signal and/or a therapeutic effect, which frequently involves cell death. Since ultrasound (US) is already well established as a clinical imaging modality, it is attractive to combine it with rationally designed nanoparticles for theranostics. The mechanisms of US interactions include cavitation microbubbles (MBs), acoustic droplet vaporization, acoustic radiation force, localized thermal effects, reactive oxygen species generation, sonoluminescence, and sonoporation. These effects can result in the release of encapsulated drugs or genes at the site of interest as well as cell death and considerable image enhancement. The present review discusses US-responsive theranostic nanomaterials under the following categories: MBs, micelles, liposomes (conventional and echogenic), niosomes, nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, chitosan nanocapsules, dendrimers, hydrogels, nanogels, gold nanoparticles, titania nanostructures, carbon nanostructures, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, fuel-free nano/micromotors.

Controlled Fabrication of Quality ZnO NWs/CNTs and ZnO NWs/Gr Heterostructures via Direct Two-Step CVD Method

A novel and advanced approach of growing zinc oxide nanowires (ZnO NWs) directly on single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and graphene (Gr) surfaces has been demonstrated through the successful formation of 1D–1D and 1D–2D heterostructure interfaces. The direct two-step chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method was utilized to ensure high-quality materials’ synthesis and scalable production of different architectures. Iron-based universal compound molecular ink was used as a catalyst in both processes (a) to form a monolayer of horizontally defined networks of SWCNTs interfaced with vertically oriented ZnO NWs and (b) to grow densely packed ZnO NWs directly on a graphene surface. We show here that our universal compound molecular ink is efficient and selective in the direct synthesis of ZnO NWs/CNTs and ZnO NWs/Gr heterostructures. Heterostructures were also selectively patterned through different fabrication techniques and grown in predefined locations, demonstrating an ability to control materials’ placement and morphology. Several characterization tools were employed to interrogate the prepared heterostructures. ZnO NWs were shown to grow uniformly over the network of SWCNTs, and much denser packed vertically oriented ZnO NWs were produced on graphene thin films. Such heterostructures can be used widely in many potential applications, such as photocatalysts, supercapacitors, solar cells, piezoelectric or thermal actuators, as well as chemical or biological sensors.

Functionalized graphene oxide as a vehicle for targeted drug delivery and bioimaging applications

Graphene oxide (GO) has attracted tremendous attention as a most promising nanomaterial among the carbon family since it emerged as a polynomial functional tool with rational applications in diverse fields such as biomedical engineering, electrocatalysis, biosensing, energy conversion, and storage devices. Despite having certain limitations due to its irreversible aggregation performance owing largely to the strong van der Waals interactions, efforts have been made to smartly engineer its surface chemistry for realistic multimodal applications. The use of such GO-based engineered devices has increased rapidly in the last few years, principally due to its excellent properties, such as huge surface area, honeycomb-like structure allowing vacant interstitial space to accommodate compounds, sp2 hybridized carbon, improved biocompatibility and cell surface penetration due to electronic interactions. Amongst multifaceted GO dynamics, in this review, attempts are made to discuss the advanced applications of GO or graphene-based materials (GBNs) in the biomedical field involving drug or therapeutic gene delivery, dual drug or drug-gene combination targeting, special delivery of drug cocktails to the brain, stimuli-responsive release of molecular payloads, and Janus-structured smart applications for polar-nonpolar combination drug loading followed by targeting together with smart bioimaging approaches. In addition, the advantages of duel-drug delivery systems are discussed in detail. We also discuss various electronic mechanisms, and detailed surface engineering to meet microcosmic criteria for its utilization, various novel implementations of engineered GO as mentioned above, together with discussions of its inevitable toxicity or disadvantages. We hope that the target audience, belonging to biomedical engineering, pharmaceutical or material science fields, may acquire relevant information from this review which may help them design future studies in this field.

Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide as a Versatile Tool for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the deadliest diseases in human history with extremely poor prognosis. Although many traditional therapeutic modalities-such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy-have proved to be successful in inhibiting the growth of tumor cells, their side effects may vastly limited the actual benefits and patient acceptance. In this context, a nanomedicine approach for cancer therapy using functionalized nanomaterial has been gaining ground recently. Considering the ability to carry various anticancer drugs and to act as a photothermal agent, the use of carbon-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy has advanced rapidly. Within those nanomaterials, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), a graphene family 2D carbon nanomaterial, emerged as a good candidate for cancer photothermal therapy due to its excellent photothermal conversion in the near infrared range, large specific surface area for drug loading, as well as functional groups for functionalization with molecules such as photosensitizers, siRNA, ligands, etc. By unique design, multifunctional nanosystems could be designed based on rGO, which are endowed with promising temperature/pH-dependent drug/gene delivery abilities for multimodal cancer therapy. This could be further augmented by additional advantages offered by functionalized rGO, such as high biocompatibility, targeted delivery, and enhanced photothermal effects. Herewith, we first provide an overview of the most effective reducing agents for rGO synthesis via chemical reduction. This was followed by in-depth review of application of functionalized rGO in different cancer treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, photothermal therapy and/or photodynamic therapy, gene therapy, chemotherapy/phototherapy, and photothermal/immunotherapy.

Nanocluster-assisted protein-film voltammetry for direct electrochemical signal acquisition

Acquisition of the direct electrochemical response of protein is the cornerstone for the development of the third generation of electrochemical biosensors. In this work, we developed a nanocluster-assisted protein-film voltammetry technique (NCA-PFV) which can achieve the acquisition of the electrochemical signal and maintain the activity without affecting of the protein's structure. With this strategy, a lipid bilayer membrane is used to immobilize the membrane protein so as to maintain its natural state. Copper nanoclusters with a size smaller than most proteins are then used to function at sub-protein scale and to mediate the electron hopping from the electroactive center of the electrode. As a model, the direct electrochemical signal of cyclooxygenase (COX) is successfully obtained, with a pair of well-defined redox peaks located at -0.39 mV and -0.31 mV, which characterize the heme center of the enzyme. Its catalytic activity towards the substrate arachidonic acid (AA) is also retained. The detection range for AA is 10-1000 μM and the detection limit is 2.4 μM. Electrochemical monitoring of the regulation of the catalytic activity by an inhibitor DuP-697 is also achieved. This work provides a powerful tool for the fabrication of enzyme-based electrochemical biosensors, and is also of great significance for promoting the development and application of next-generation electrochemical biosensors.

Charge-conversional polyethylenimine-entrapped gold nanoparticles with 131I-labeling for enhanced dual mode SPECT/CT imaging and radiotherapy of tumors

Novel theranostic nanosystems demonstrate great potential to achieve timely diagnosis and effective therapy at the same time. However, due to the relatively low accumulation of theranostic nanosystems at the tumor site, the theranostic efficiency is limited. In this study, a novel theranostic nanosystem with a pH-responsive charge conversion property was constructed to improve the cellular uptake towards cancer cells for enhanced single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/computed tomography (CT) dual mode imaging and radiotherapy of tumors. In detail, polyethylenimine (PEI) was utilized as a nanoplatform to link with polyethylene glycol (PEG) monomethyl ether with one end of N-hydroxylsuccinimide (mPEG-NHS), PEG with ends of maleimide and succinimidyl valerate (MAL-PEG-SVA), alkoxyphenyl acylsulfonamide (APAS), 3-(4'-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid-OSu (HPAO), and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FI), successively. The formed functionalized PEI was then utilized to entrap gold nanoparticles, acetylate the remaining amines of PEI and label with radioactive iodine-131 (¹³¹I) to build theranostic nanosystems. The result demonstrated that the theranostic nanosystem has a 3.8 nm Au core and showed excellent colloidal stability. On account of the charge conversion property of APAS, the APAS linked PEI entrapped gold nanoparticles could switch from neutral to positive in a slightly acidic microenvironment, which induced improved cellular uptake. Above all, after ¹³¹I labeling, the generated theranostic nanosystem could achieve enhanced SPECT/CT dual mode imaging and radiotherapy of cancer cells in vitro and a xenograft tumor model in vivo. The constructed APAS-linked PEI nanosystem has great potential to be used as a model for SPECT/CT imaging and radiotherapy of various types of cancer.

Graphene and other 2D materials: a multidisciplinary analysis to uncover the hidden potential as cancer theranostics

Cancer represents one of the main causes of death in the world; hence the development of more specific approaches for its diagnosis and treatment is urgently needed in clinical practice. Here we aim at providing a comprehensive review on the use of 2-dimensional materials (2DMs) in cancer theranostics. In particular, we focus on graphene-related materials (GRMs), graphene hybrids, and graphdiyne (GDY), as well as other emerging 2DMs, such as MXene, tungsten disulfide (WS2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), black phosphorus (BP), silicene, antimonene (AM), germanene, biotite (black mica), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), and others. The results reported in the scientific literature in the last ten years (>200 papers) are dissected here with respect to the wide variety of combinations of imaging methodologies and therapeutic approaches, including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy. We provide a unique multidisciplinary approach in discussing the literature, which also includes a detailed section on the characterization methods used to analyze the material properties, highlighting the merits and limitations of the different approaches. The aim of this review is to show the strong potential of 2DMs for use as cancer theranostics, as well as to highlight issues that prevent the clinical translation of these materials. Overall, we hope to shed light on the hidden potential of the vast panorama of new and emerging 2DMs as clinical cancer theranostics.

Two dimensional carbon based nanocomposites as multimodal therapeutic and diagnostic platform: A biomedical and toxicological perspective

Graphene based nanocomposites have revolutionized cancer treatment, diagnosis and imaging owing to its good compatibility, elegant flexibility, high surface area, low mass density along with excellent combined additive effect of graphene with other nanomaterials. This review inculcates the type of graphene based nanocomposites and their fabrication techniques to improve its properties as photothermal and theranostic platform. With decades' efforts, many significant breakthroughs in the method of synthesis and characterization in addition to various functionalization options of graphene based nanocomposite have paved a solid foundation for their potential applications in the cancer therapy. This work intends to provide a thorough, up-to-date holistic discussion on correlation of breakthroughs with their biomedical applications and illustrate how to utilize these breakthroughs to address long-standing challenges in the clinical translation of nanomedicines. This review also emphasizes on graphene based nanocomposites based toxicity concerns pertaining to delivery platforms.

Cellular Signaling Pathways Activated by Functional Graphene Nanomaterials

The paper reviews the network of cellular signaling pathways activated by Functional Graphene Nanomaterials (FGN) designed as a platform for multi-targeted therapy or scaffold in tissue engineering. Cells communicate with each other through a molecular device called signalosome. It is a transient co-cluster of signal transducers and transmembrane receptors activated following the binding of transmembrane receptors to extracellular signals. Signalosomes are thus efficient and sensitive signal-responding devices that amplify incoming signals and convert them into robust responses that can be relayed from the plasma membrane to the nucleus or other target sites within the cell. The review describes the state-of-the-art biomedical applications of FGN focusing the attention on the cell/FGN interactions and signalosome activation.

Nanocomposite plasters for the treatment of superficial tumors by chemo-photothermal combination therapy

INTRODUCTION

Novel nanomedical systems are being developed as multiple therapeutic modalities because the combinational therapies for cancer on a single platform can have larger chance to address tumor heterogeneity and drug resistance than any mono-therapeutic modality.

METHODS

In this study, photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemotherapy (CT) were combined to treat squamous cell carcinoma by using a novel type of noninvasive plaster composed of carboxylated-reduced graphene oxide (rGO-COOH), gold nanorods (Au NRs), and doxorubicin (DOX). Firstly, DOX was loaded onto rGO-COOH to form DOX_rGO-COOH. Then, the obtained DOX_rGO-COOH and Au NRs were co-assembled to obtain nanocomposite multilayer. rGO-COOH and Au NRs were combined together to obtain high light-to-heat conversion efficiency. Using them as photothermal agents for PTT and using DOX in rGO-COOH as an anticancer drug for CT, their synergistic combination therapy could be applicable practically.

RESULTS

As a result, DOX_rGO-COOH/Au NRs showed higher photothermal effects than that showed by rGO-COOH or Au NRs alone. It also showed higher therapeutic effects than DOX_rGO-COOH (for CT) or Au nr (for PTT) alone. Moreover, the system can repeatedly produce heat and simultaneously stimulate the release of the encapsulated anticancer drug into the tumor upon being irradiated by near-infrared laser. In vivo experiments demonstrated that the squamous cell carcinoma-bearing mice treated with DOX_rGO-COOH/Au NRs were healthy for more than 60 days without tumor recurrence.

CONCLUSION

The as-developed DOX_rGO-COOH/Au NRs plaster could be an effective, convenient, and noninvasive treatment option for treating superficial tumors.

Multi-layered tumor-targeting photothermal-doxorubicin releasing nanotubes eradicate tumors in vivo with negligible systemic toxicity

Multi-layered single-walled carbon nanotubes, termed SWNT@BSA@Au-S-PEG-FA@DOX, which integrate photothermal therapy with small molecule drug delivery, were prepared using a facile layer-by-layer assembly process. Oxidized and cut single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) were coated with bovine serum albumin (BSA) to provide abundant active sites for the nucleation of Au seeds, which are subsequently converted into gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) by in situ reduction. The resulting SWNT@BSA@Au material exhibits ideal photothermal properties. Further modification of the nanomaterial with folic acid terminated-polyglycol (FA-PEG-SH) and subsequent loading with doxorubicin (DOX) afford the SWNT@BSA@Au-S-PEG-FA@DOX. The FA terminated PEG endows the material with high water-dispersibility, biocompatibility and cancer cell selectivity. A high drug loading ratio for DOX of up to 590% was achieved, with the drug release being pH and temperature dependent, adding to the selectivity of the system. High efficacy of the SWNT@BSA@Au-S-PEG-FA@DOX material, when combined with photothermal therapy (irradiation of the tumor with an 808 nm laser, 1 W cm-2 for 5 min, 24 h after systemic injection of the nanomedicine), was demonstrated in vivo, resulting in complete tumor eradication. Remarkably, the side effects are negligible with only minor damage to normal tissues including the liver and kidneys being observed.

Magnetic Mesoporous Silica Gated with Doped Carbon Dot for Site-Specific Drug Delivery, Fluorescence, and MR Imaging

Construction of a theranostic agent which integrates multiple modalities with different functions into one entity is challenging from a molecular design and synthesis perspective. In this context, the present paper reports the fabrication of a novel type of multifunctional hybrid nanoparticle composed of magnetic gadolinium oxide-iron oxide core, mesoporous silica shell gated with boronic acid functionalized highly luminescent carbon quantum dot (BNSCQD). The porous silica shell acts as an excellent reservoir for anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil, whereas the BNSCQD cap impressively controls the drug transport under simulated intracellular environment. Furthermore, recognition and fluorescence turn on response of BNSCQD toward cell surface glycan sialyl Lewis^a (SL^a) enables targeted drug release and excellent fluorescence imaging of SL^a overexpressed HePG2 cancer cells. The r₁ and r₂ relaxivities of the material are found to be 10 and 165 mM^-1 s^-1 which is comparable to commercially available magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. Benefiting from the combined advantages of dual stimuli-responsive drug release, excellent optical imaging, and MR imaging, this novel construct can be a promising theranostic material.

Polycaprolactone nanofibres loaded with 20(S)-protopanaxadiol for in vitro and in vivo anti-tumour activity study

In this work, 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD)-loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibres were successfully fabricated by the electrospinning technique using Tween 80 as a solubilizer. Firstly, smooth and continuous nanofibres were collected using suitable solvents and appropriate spinning conditions. Secondly, nanofibre mats were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric (TG) analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and mechanical testing. Finally, nanofibrous membranes were evaluated using water contact angle, in vitro drug release, biodegradation test, in vitro and in vivo anti-tumour activity and cell apoptosis assay. Scanning electron microscopic observations indicated that the diameter of the drug-loaded nanofibres increased with the increase of drug concentration. TG analysis and mechanical test showed that nanofibres were equipped with great thermal and mechanical properties. Biodegradation test exhibited that the structure of fabricated nanofibres had a certain degree of change after 15 days. An in vitro release study showed that PPD from drug-loaded nanofibres could be released in a sustained and prolonged mode. The cytotoxic effect of drug-loaded nanofibre mats examined on human laryngeal carcinoma cells (Hep-2 cells) demonstrated that the prepared nanofibres had a remarkable anti-tumour effect. Meanwhile, the drug-loaded fibre mats showed a super anti-tumour effect in an in vivo anti-tumour study. All in all, PCL nanofibres could be a potential carrier of PPD for cancer treatment.

Polycaprolactone nanofibres loaded with 20(S)-protopanaxadiol for in vitro and in vivo anti-tumour activity study

In this work, 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD)-loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibres were successfully fabricated by the electrospinning technique using Tween 80 as a solubilizer. Firstly, smooth and continuous nanofibres were collected using suitable solvents and appropriate spinning conditions. Secondly, nanofibre mats were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric (TG) analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and mechanical testing. Finally, nanofibrous membranes were evaluated using water contact angle, in vitro drug release, biodegradation test, in vitro and in vivo anti-tumour activity and cell apoptosis assay. Scanning electron microscopic observations indicated that the diameter of the drug-loaded nanofibres increased with the increase of drug concentration. TG analysis and mechanical test showed that nanofibres were equipped with great thermal and mechanical properties. Biodegradation test exhibited that the structure of fabricated nanofibres had a certain degree of change after 15 days. An in vitro release study showed that PPD from drug-loaded nanofibres could be released in a sustained and prolonged mode. The cytotoxic effect of drug-loaded nanofibre mats examined on human laryngeal carcinoma cells (Hep-2 cells) demonstrated that the prepared nanofibres had a remarkable anti-tumour effect. Meanwhile, the drug-loaded fibre mats showed a super anti-tumour effect in an in vivo anti-tumour study. All in all, PCL nanofibres could be a potential carrier of PPD for cancer treatment.

Non-Canonical Activation of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor by Carbon Nanoparticles

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is an abundant membrane protein, which is essential for regulating many cellular processes including cell proliferation. In our earlier studies, we observed an activation of the EGFR and subsequent signaling events after the exposure of epithelial cells to carbon nanoparticles. In the current study, we describe molecular mechanisms that allow for discriminating carbon nanoparticle-specific from ligand-dependent receptor activation. Caveolin-1 is a key player that co-localizes with the EGFR upon receptor activation by carbon nanoparticles. This specific process mediated by nanoparticle-induced reactive oxygen species and the accumulation of ceramides in the plasma membrane is not triggered when cells are exposed to non-nano carbon particles or the physiological ligand EGF. The role of caveolae formation was demonstrated by the induction of higher order structures of caveolin-1 and by the inhibition of caveolae formation. Using an in vivo model with genetically modified mice lacking caveolin-1, it was possible to demonstrate that carbon nanoparticles in vivo trigger EGFR downstream signaling cascades via caveolin-1. The identified molecular mechanisms are, therefore, of toxicological relevance for inhaled nanoparticles. However, nanoparticles that are intentionally applied to humans might cause side effects depending on this phenomenon.

Nanocomposites based on tubular and onion nanostructures of molybdenum and tungsten disulfides: inorganic design, functional properties and applications

The review concerns the development and the state-of-the-art in studies on the surface modification methods aimed at fabricating promising nanocomposites based on multilayer inorganic tubular and onion (fullerene-like) MoS2 and WS2 nanostructures. The synthetic details and structural features of these materials are considered. Considerable attention is paid to targeted functionalization of molybdenum and tungsten disulfide nanostructures and to fundamental principles that underlie their ability to chemical interactions. The functional properties and applications of the obtained materials are described.

The bibliography includes 183 references.

Vibrating droplet generation to assemble zwitterion-coated gold-graphene oxide stealth nanovesicles for effective pancreatic cancer chemo-phototherapy

A vibrating nozzle approach was used to produce uniform (∼2 μm) hybrid droplets containing gold-graphene oxide (Au-GO), doxorubicin (DOX), and zwitterionic chitosan (ZC) for assembly of Au-GO@ZC-DOX stealth nanovesicles (NVs) via a single-pass diffusion drying process without any hydrothermal reactions, separations, or purifications. NVs were prepared with a lateral dimension of ∼53.0 nm, a pH-triggered high DOX release profile, and strong photothermal effects. Macrophage opsonization was prevented, resulting in anti-cancer and anti-migration effects, with high intracellular uptake in PANC-1 and MIA PaCa-2 cells. PANC-1 tumor uptake was greater for NVs having the ZC configuration than that for NVs without the ZC configuration, resulting in better anti-tumor effects with minimal toxicities. The vibrating nozzle approach offers significant potential to assemble multi-componential NVs for more efficient anti-tumor treatment and easy user-defined manufacturing of multifunctional nanomedicines.

Sulfonated carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles as an efficient magnetic nanocatalyst for highly selective synthesis of benzimidazoles

Various benzimidazoles were obtained by applying sulfonated carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles as the nanocatalyst.

Addition of azomethine ylides to carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles

Carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles have been covalently functionalized using the Prato reaction.

Carbon nanomaterials in oncology: an expanding horizon

Carbon nanomaterials have been attracting attention in oncology for the development of safe and effective cancer nanomedicines in increasing improved patient compliance for generally recognized as safe (GRAS) prominence. Toxicity, safety and efficacy of carbon nanomaterials are the major concerns in cancer theranostics. Various parameters such as particle size and shape or surface morphology, surface charge, composition, oxidation and nonoxidative-stress-related mechanisms are prone to toxicity of the carbon nanomaterials. Currently, few cancer-related products have been available on the market, although some are underway in preclinical and clinical phases. Thus, our main aim is to provide comprehensive details on the carbon nanomaterials in oncology from the past two decades for patient compliance and safety.

Nanotechnology in Glycomics: Applications in Diagnostics, Therapy, Imaging, and Separation Processes

This review comprehensively covers the most recent achievements (from 2013) in the successful integration of nanomaterials in the field of glycomics. The first part of the paper addresses the beneficial properties of nanomaterials for the construction of biosensors, bioanalytical devices, and protocols for the detection of various analytes, including viruses and whole cells, together with their key characteristics. The second part of the review focuses on the application of nanomaterials integrated with glycans for various biomedical applications, that is, vaccines against viral and bacterial infections and cancer cells, as therapeutic agents, for in vivo imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and for selective drug delivery. The final part of the review describes various ways in which glycan enrichment can be effectively done using nanomaterials, molecularly imprinted polymers with polymer thickness controlled at the nanoscale, with a subsequent analysis of glycans by mass spectrometry. A short section describing an active glycoprofiling by microengines (microrockets) is covered as well.

Indocyanine Green Loaded Magnetic Carbon Nanoparticles for Near Infrared Fluorescence/Magnetic Resonance Dual-Modal Imaging and Photothermal Therapy of Tumor

Malignant tumor incidences have been rapidly rising recently and are becoming a serious threat to human health. Herein, a multifunctional cancer targeted theranostic nanoplatform is developed by in situ growth of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles on carbon nanoparticles, and then loaded with fluorescent dye indocyanine green (ICG@MCNPs). The loading of ICG on the nanoplatform significantly improves its photostability, and hence facilitates long-term near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging and efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) of tumor. The in vivo NIRF imaging reveals that ICG@MCNPs can be targeted to the tumor site. Moreover, in vivo magnetic resonance imaging also confirmed the efficient accumulation of ICG@MCNPs in the tumor site. Inspiringly, the subsequent PTT of tumor-bearing mice is achieved, as evidenced by the complete ablation of the tumor and the recovery of the physiological indexes to normal levels. Benefitting from its low-cost, simple preparation, and excellent dual-modal imaging and therapy, the ICG@MCNPs-based theranostic nanoplatform holds great promise in tumor-targeted nanomedicine.

Biomedical Applications of Multifunctional Gold-Based Nanocomposites

Active application of gold nanoparticles for various diagnostic and therapeutic purposes started in recent decades due to the emergence of new data on their unique optical and physicochemical properties. In addition to colloidal gold conjugates, growth in the number of publications devoted to the synthesis and application of multifunctional nanocomposites has occurred in recent years. This review considers the application in biomedicine of multifunctional nanoparticles that can be produced in three different ways. The first method involves design of composite nanostructures with various components intended for either diagnostic or therapeutic functions. The second approach uses new bioconjugation techniques that allow functionalization of gold nanoparticles with various molecules, thus combining diagnostic and therapeutic functions in one medical procedure. Finally, the third method for production of multifunctional nanoparticles combines the first two approaches, in which a composite nanoparticle is additionally functionalized by molecules having different properties.

Intracellular degradation of functionalized carbon nanotube/iron oxide hybrids is modulated by iron via Nrf2 pathway

The in vivo fate and biodegradability of carbon nanotubes is still a matter of debate despite tremendous applications. In this paper we describe a molecular pathway by which macrophages degrade functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) designed for biomedical applications and containing, or not, iron oxide nanoparticles in their inner cavity. Electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy show that intracellularly-induced structural damages appear more rapidly for iron-free CNTs in comparison to iron-loaded ones, suggesting a role of iron in the degradation mechanism. By comparing the molecular responses of macrophages derived from THP1 monocytes to both types of CNTs, we highlight a molecular mechanism regulated by Nrf2/Bach1 signaling pathways to induce CNT degradation via NOX₂ complex activation and O₂^•−, H₂O₂ and OH^• production. CNT exposure activates an oxidative stress-dependent production of iron via Nrf2 nuclear translocation, Ferritin H and Heme oxygenase 1 translation. Conversely, Bach1 was translocated to the nucleus of cells exposed to iron-loaded CNTs to recycle embedded iron. Our results provide new information on the role of oxidative stress, iron metabolism and Nrf2-mediated host defence for regulating CNT fate in macrophages.

Stepwise growth of gold coated cancer targeting carbon nanotubes for the precise delivery of doxorubicin combined with photothermal therapy

Combining doxorubicin with thermal therapy in the clinic has led to startling results in the treatment of problematic cancers. Here, we describe a multimodal multi-walled carbon nanotube material that combines tumor targeting, doxorubicin delivery, and photothermal therapy for localized cancer treatment. The agent was constructed layer-by-layer from polypyrrole and gold nanoparticles on multi-walled carbon nanotubes. The gold surface was modified with tumor targeting folic acid terminated PEGylated chains, which also provide water-dispersibility, biocompatibility and should extend the half-life in blood. The material has a high loading/unloading capacity for the cytotoxic agent doxorubicin. Release of the doxorubicin, combined with the photothermal properties of the material that induces localized hyperthermia, leads to efficient cancer cell death.

Recent advances in carbon based nanosystems for cancer theranostics

This review deals with four different types of carbon allotrope based nanosystems and summarizes the results of recent studies that are likely to have applications in cancer theranostics. We discuss the applications of these nanosystems for cancer imaging, drug delivery, hyperthermia, and PDT/TA/PA.

Recent Advances of Graphene-based Hybrids with Magnetic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

The utilization of graphene-based nanomaterials combined with magnetic nanoparticles offers key benefits in the modern biomedicine. In this minireview, we focus on the most recent advances in hybrids of magnetic graphene derivatives for biomedical applications. We initially analyze the several methodologies employed for the preparation of graphene-based composites with magnetic nanoparticles, more specifically the kind of linkage between the two components. In the last section, we focus on the biomedical applications where these magnetic-graphene hybrids are essential and pay special attention on how the addition of graphene improves the resulting devices in magnetic resonance imaging, controlled drug delivery, magnetic photothermal therapy and cellular separation and isolation. Finally, we highlight the use of these magnetic hybrids as multifunctional material that will lead to a next generation of theranostics.

Multifunctional gold-based nanocomposites for theranostics

Although Au-particle potential in nanobiotechnology has been recognized for the last 15 years, new insights into the unique properties of multifunctional nanostructures have just recently started to emerge. Multifunctional gold-based nanocomposites combine multiple modalities to improve the efficacy of the therapeutic and diagnostic treatment of cancer and other socially significant diseases. This review is focused on multifunctional gold-based theranostic nanocomposites, which can be fabricated by three main routes. The first route is to create composite (or hybrid) nanoparticles, whose components enable diagnostic and therapeutic functions. The second route is based on smart bioconjugation techniques to functionalize gold nanoparticles with a set of different molecules, enabling them to perform targeting, diagnostic, and therapeutic functions in a single treatment procedure. Finally, the third route for multifunctionalized composite nanoparticles is a combination of the first two and involves additional functionalization of hybrid nanoparticles with several molecules possessing different theranostic modalities. This last class of multifunctionalized composites also includes fluorescent atomic clusters with multiple functionalities.

The use of magnetic nanoparticles in cancer theranostics: Toward handheld diagnostic devices

Magnetic nanoparticles are frequently used in a wide range of biomedical applications. In the first part of this review the most commonly used preparation and surface coating approaches of MNPs are briefly summarized including multifunctional hybrid particles. The second part gives a detailed overview of the use of MNPs in "traditional" biomedical applications related to cancer theranostics, like magnetic resonance imaging, drug delivery, hyperthermia and also their applicability in the next generation of point of care devices based on micro nuclear magnetic resonance and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopic detection technology that all can be routinely applied in everyday clinical practice.

Magnetic and fluorescent carbon-based nanohybrids for multi-modal imaging and magnetic field/NIR light responsive drug carriers

This mini-review summarizes the latest developments and addresses the future perspectives of carbon-based magnetic and fluorescent nanohybrids in the biomedical field.

Antitumor Activity of Doxorubicin-Loaded Carbon Nanotubes Incorporated Poly(Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid) Electrospun Composite Nanofibers

The drug-loaded composite electrospun nanofiber has attracted more attention in biomedical field, especially in cancer therapy. In this study, a composite nanofiber was fabricated by electrospinning for cancer treatment. Firstly, the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were selected as carriers to load the anticancer drug-doxorubicin (DOX) hydrochloride. Secondly, the DOX-loaded CNTs (DOX@CNTs) were incorporated into the poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanofibers via electrospinning. Finally, a new drug-loaded nanofibrous scaffold (PLGA/DOX@CNTs) was formed. The properties of the prepared composite nanofibrous mats were characterized by various techniques. The release profiles of the different DOX-loaded nanofibers were measured, and the in vitro antitumor efficacy against HeLa cells was also evaluated. The results showed that DOX-loaded CNTs can be readily incorporated into the nanofibers with relatively uniform distribution within the nanofibers. More importantly, the drug from the composite nanofibers can be released in a sustained and prolonged manner, and thereby, a significant antitumor efficacy in vitro is obtained. Thus, the prepared composite nanofibrous mats are a promising alternative for cancer treatment.

Tunable Luminescent Carbon Nanospheres with Well-Defined Nanoscale Chemistry for Synchronized Imaging and Therapy

In this work, we demonstrate the significance of defined surface chemistry in synthesizing luminescent carbon nanomaterials (LCN) with the capability to perform dual functions (i.e., diagnostic imaging and therapy). The surface chemistry of LCN has been tailored to achieve two different varieties: one that has a thermoresponsive polymer and aids in the controlled delivery of drugs, and the other that has fluorescence emission both in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) region and can be explored for advanced diagnostic modes. Although these particles are synthesized using simple, yet scalable hydrothermal methods, they exhibit remarkable stability, photoluminescence and biocompatibility. The photoluminescence properties of these materials are tunable through careful choice of surface-passivating agents and can be exploited for both visible and NIR imaging. Here the synthetic strategy demonstrates the possibility to incorporate a potent antimetastatic agent for inhibiting melanomas in vitro. Since both particles are Raman active, their dispersion on skin surface is reported with Raman imaging and utilizing photoluminescence, their depth penetration is analysed using fluorescence 3D imaging. Our results indicate a new generation of tunable carbon-based probes for diagnosis, therapy or both.

Nanomaterials, Autophagy, and Lupus Disease

Nanoscale materials hold great promise in the therapeutic field. In particular, as carriers or vectors, they help bioactive molecules reach their primary targets. Furthermore, by themselves, certain nanomaterials-regarded as protective-can modulate particular metabolic pathways that are deregulated in pathological situations. They can also synergistically improve the effects of a payload drug. These properties are the basis of their appeal. However, nanoscale materials can also have intrinsic properties that limit their use, and this is the case for certain types of nanomaterials that influence autophagy. This property can be beneficial in some pathological settings, but in others, if the autophagic flux is already accelerated, it can be deleterious. This is notably the case for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other chronic inflammatory diseases, including certain neurological diseases. The nanomaterial-autophagy interaction therefore must be treated with caution for therapeutic molecules and peptides that require vectorization for their administration.

Multifunctional carbon nanomaterial hybrids for magnetic manipulation and targeting

Nanosized materials and multifunctional nanoscale platforms have attracted in the last years considerable interest in a variety of different fields including biomedicine. Carbon nanotubes and graphene are some of the most widely used carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) due to their unique morphology and structure and their characteristic physicochemical properties. Their high surface area allows efficient drug loading and bioconjugation and makes them the ideal platforms for decoration with magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). In the biomedical area, MNPs are of particular importance due to their broad range of potential applications in drug delivery, non-invasive tumor imaging and early detection based on their optical and magnetic properties. The remarkable characteristics of CNMs and MNPs can be combined leading to CNM/MNP hybrids which offer numerous promising, desirable and strikingly advantageous properties for improved performance in comparison to the use of either material alone. In this minireview, we attempt to comprehensively report the most recent advances made with CNMs conjugated to different types of MNPs for magnetic targeting, magnetic manipulation, capture and separation of cells towards development of magnetic carbon-based devices.