Designing mate choice experiments

Synthesis of sexual selection: a systematic map of meta-analyses with bibliometric analysis

Sexual selection has been a popular subject within evolutionary biology because of its central role in explaining odd and counterintuitive traits observed in nature. Consequently, the literature associated with this field of study became vast. Meta-analytical studies attempting to draw inferences from this literature have now accumulated, varying in scope and quality, thus calling for a synthesis of these syntheses. We conducted a systematic literature search to create a systematic map with a report appraisal of meta-analyses on topics associated with sexual selection, aiming to identify the conceptual and methodological gaps in this secondary literature. We also conducted bibliometric analyses to explore whether these gaps are associated with the gender and origin of the authors of these meta-analyses. We included 152 meta-analytical studies in our systematic map. We found that most meta-analyses focused on males and on certain animal groups (e.g. birds), indicating severe sex and taxonomic biases. The topics in these studies varied greatly, from proximate (e.g. relationship of ornaments with other traits) to ultimate questions (e.g. formal estimates of sexual selection strength), although the former were more common. We also observed several common methodological issues in these studies, such as lack of detailed information regarding searches, screening, and analyses, which ultimately impairs the reliability of many of these meta-analyses. In addition, most of the meta-analyses' authors were men affiliated to institutions from developed countries, pointing to both gender and geographical authorship biases. Most importantly, we found that certain authorship aspects were associated with conceptual and methodological issues in meta-analytical studies. Many of our findings might simply reflect patterns in the current state of the primary literature and academia, suggesting that our study can serve as an indicator of issues within the field of sexual selection at large. Based on our findings, we provide both conceptual and analytical recommendations to improve future studies in the field of sexual selection.

Perspective: the evolution of hormones and person perception-a quantitative genetic framework

Evolutionary biology provides a unifying theory for testing hypotheses about the relationship between hormones and person perception. Person perception usually receives attention from the perspective of sexual selection. However, because person perception is one trait in a suite regulated by hormones, univariate approaches are insufficient. In this Perspectives article, quantitative genetics is presented as an important but underutilized framework for testing evolutionary hypotheses within this literature. We note tacit assumptions within the current literature on psychiatric genetics, which imperil the interpretation of findings thus far. As regulators of a diverse manifold of traits, hormones mediate tradeoffs among an array of functions. Hormonal pleiotropy also provides the basis of correlational selection, a process whereby selection on one trait in a hormone-mediated suite generates selection on the others. This architecture provides the basis for conflicts between sexual and natural selection within hormone-mediated suites. Due to its role in person perception, psychiatric disorders, and reproductive physiology, the sex hormone estrogen is highlighted as an exemplar here. The implications of this framework for the evolution of person perception are discussed. Empirical quantification of selection on traits within hormone-mediated suites remains an important gap in this literature with great potential to illuminate the fundamental nature of psychiatric disorders.

Behavioural consequences of intraspecific variability in a mate recognition signal

Mate recognition is paramount for sexually reproducing animals, and many insects rely on cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) for close-range sexual communication. To ensure reliable mate recognition, intraspecific sex pheromone variability should be low. However, CHCs can be influenced by several factors, with the resulting variability potentially impacting sexual communication. While intraspecific CHC variability is a common phenomenon, the consequences thereof for mate recognition remain largely unknown. We investigated the effect of CHC variability on male responses in a parasitoid wasp showing a clear-cut within-population CHC polymorphism (three distinct female chemotypes, one thereof similar to male profiles). Males clearly discriminated between female and male CHCs, but not between female chemotypes in no-choice assays. When given a choice, a preference hierarchy emerged. Interestingly, the most attractive chemotype was the one most similar to male profiles. Mixtures of female CHCs were as attractive as chemotype-pure ones, while a female-male mixture negatively impacted male responses, indicating assessment of the entire, complex CHC profile composition. Our study reveals that the evaluation of CHC profiles can be strict towards 'undesirable' features, but simultaneously tolerant enough to cover a range of variants. This reconciles reliable mate recognition with naturally occurring variability.

Effects of past mating behavior versus past ejaculation on male mate choice and male attractiveness

Past reproductive effort allows males to assess their ability to acquire mates, but it also consumes resources that can reduce their future competitive ability. Few studies have examined how a male's reproductive history affects his subsequent mate choice, and, to date, no study has determined the relative contribution of past mating behavior and past ejaculate production because these two forms of investment are naturally highly correlated. Here, we disentangled the relative effects of past mating behavior and past ejaculate production in mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) by experimentally preventing some males from ejaculating when trying to mate. We assessed the effect of mating behavior on mate choice by comparing males that had previously been with or without access to females and male rivals for 8 and 16 weeks and assessed the effect of ejaculation on mate choice by comparing males that either could or could not ejaculate when they had access to females for 16 weeks. Reproductive treatment did not affect male attractiveness, but it did affect male mate choice. Somewhat surprisingly, in five of the six treatment-by-age at testing combinations, males preferred a female in the vicinity of a male rival over a solitary female. This preference was marginally stronger for males that had previously engaged in mating behavior but were unaffected by past ejaculate production. We discuss the potential benefits to males of associating with another male when seeking mates. This is the first study to quantify the relative influence of pre- and post-copulatory reproductive investment on male mate choice.

No geographical differences in male mate choice in a widespread fish, Limia perugiae

Behavior, like most other traits, can have a spatial component, and variability of behavior at the population level is predicted. In this article, we explore male mate choice at this level. Male mate choice, while maybe not as common as female choice, is expected to evolve when males respond to significant variation in female quality and, for example, prefer females with higher fecundity. In fishes, higher fecundity is associated with larger body size, an easily measured trait. In this study, we investigated the presence of male mate choice for larger females in a widespread species of livebearing fish, Limia perugiae, while comparing preferences between populations. We hypothesized that environmental variation, for example, in the form of salinity, might result in population differences. Using dichotomous choice tests, we analyzed behavioral data for 80 individuals from 7 distinct populations from Hispaniola. We found that L. perugiae males significantly preferred large females, but there was no significant statistical variation between populations.

Neurobiology of Pathogen Avoidance and Mate Choice: Current and Future Directions

Animals are under constant threat of parasitic infection. This has influenced the evolution of social behaviour and has strong implications for sexual selection and mate choice. Animals assess the infection status of conspecifics based on various sensory cues, with odours/chemical signals and the olfactory system playing a particularly important role. The detection of chemical cues and subsequent processing of the infection threat that they pose facilitates the expression of disgust, fear, anxiety, and adaptive avoidance behaviours. In this selective review, drawing primarily from rodent studies, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the detection and assessment of infection status and their relations to mate choice are briefly considered. Firstly, we offer a brief overview of the aspects of mate choice that are relevant to pathogen avoidance. Then, we specifically focus on the olfactory detection of and responses to conspecific cues of parasitic infection, followed by a brief overview of the neurobiological systems underlying the elicitation of disgust and the expression of avoidance of the pathogen threat. Throughout, we focus on current findings and provide suggestions for future directions and research.

Meta-analytical evidence that males prefer virgin females

Males are often predicted to prefer virgin over non-virgin females because of the reduced risk of sperm competition. Does this prediction hold across studies? Our systematic meta-analysis of 138 studies, mainly conducted in invertebrates, confirms that males generally prefer virgin females. However, males preferred virgin females even in species with last male sperm precedence, suggesting that sperm competition alone does not drive male preferences. Furthermore, our results suggest that males may reject mated females even when no alternative exists. Preference for virgins is unlikely to influence female reproductive success since virginity cannot be selected for, but strong preference for virgin females could swamp or reinforce selection on other traits. Our results add to growing evidence that males are not indiscriminate in mating. However, given the unexplained heterogeneity in effect sizes, we urge caution in assuming that males will prefer virgins and recommend considering the natural context of mating decisions.

Light wavelength and pulsing frequency affect avoidance responses of Canada geese

Collisions between birds and aircraft cause bird mortality, economic damage, and aviation safety hazards. One proposed solution to increasing the distance at which birds detect and move away from an approaching aircraft, ultimately mitigating the probability of collision, is through onboard lighting systems. Lights in vehicles have been shown to lead to earlier reactions in some bird species but they could also generate attraction, potentially increasing the probability of collision. Using information on the visual system of the Canada goose (Branta canadensis), we developed light stimuli of high chromatic contrast to their eyes. We then conducted a controlled behavioral experiment (i.e., single-choice test) to assess the avoidance or attraction responses of Canada geese to LED lights of different wavelengths (blue, 483 nm; red, 631 nm) and pulsing frequencies (steady, pulsing at 2 Hz). Overall, Canada geese tended to avoid the blue light and move towards the red light; however, these responses depended heavily on light exposure order. At the beginning of the experiment, geese tended to avoid the red light. After further exposure the birds developed an attraction to the red light, consistent with the mere exposure effect. The response to the blue light generally followed a U-shape relationship (avoidance, attraction, avoidance) with increasing number of exposures, again consistent with the mere exposure effect, but followed by the satiation effect. Lights pulsing at 2 Hz enhanced avoidance responses under high ambient light conditions; whereas steady lights enhanced avoidance responses under dim ambient light conditions. Our results have implications for the design of lighting systems aimed at mitigating collisions between birds and human objects. LED lights in the blue portion of the spectrum are good candidates for deterrents and lights in the red portion of the spectrum may be counterproductive given the attraction effects with increasing exposure. Additionally, consideration should be given to systems that automatically modify pulsing of the light depending on ambient light intensity to enhance avoidance.

Chemical communication and its role in sexual selection across Animalia

Sexual selection has been studied as a major evolutionary driver of animal diversity for roughly 50 years. Much evidence indicates that competition for mates favors elaborate signaling traits. However, this evidence comes primarily from a few taxa, leaving sexual selection as a salient evolutionary force across Animalia largely untested. Here, we reviewed the evidence for sexual selection on communication across all animal phyla, classes, and orders with emphasis on chemoreception, the only sense shared across lifeforms. An exhaustive literature review documented evidence for sexual selection on chemosensory traits in 10 of 34 animal phyla and indications of sexual selection on chemosensory traits in an additional 13 phyla. Potential targets of sexual selection include structures and processes involved in production, delivery, and detection of chemical signals. Our review suggests sexual selection plays a widespread role in the evolution of communication and highlights the need for research that better reflects animal diversity.

Maze design: size and number of choices impact fish performance in cognitive assays

Although studies on fish cognition are increasing, consideration of how methodological details influence the ability to detect and measure performance is lagging. Here, in two separate experiments the authors compared latency to leave the start position, latency to make a decision, levels of participation and success rates (whether fish entered the rewarded chamber as first choice) across different physical designs. Experiments compared fish performance across (a) two sizes of T-mazes, large and standard, and a plus-maze, and (b) open choice arenas with either two or four doors. Fish in T-mazes with longer arms took longer to leave the start chamber and were less likely to participate in a trial than fish in T-mazes with shorter arms. The number of options, or complexity, in a maze significantly impacted success but did not necessarily impact behavioural measures, and did not impact the number of fish that reached a chamber. Fish in the plus-maze had similar latencies to leave the start box and time to reach any chamber as fish in the same-sized T-maze but exhibited lower overall success. Similarly, in an open choice arena, increasing the number of options - doors to potential reward chambers - resulted in lower probability of success. There was an influence of reward position in the choice arena, with rewarded chambers closest to the sides of the arena resulting in lower latencies to enter and higher probability of decision success. Together the results allow the authors to offer practical suggestions towards optimal maze design for studies of fish cognition.

Female treefrog preference for breeding sites matches offspring performance in the presence of two anuran competitors

Preference-performance theory predicts that females should select breeding sites that maximize offspring performance. Amphibians have been a model system for investigating habitat selection, yet most studies have focused on habitat selection in response to predators and conspecifics. We investigated female oviposition site selection and larval performance in eastern gray treefrogs (Hyla versicolor) among pools with and without one of two ecologically distinct heterospecific larvae, the green frog (Rana clamitans) and the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). Pools without heterospecifics were used on more nights and had more eggs deposited compared to pools with heterospecifics. In a competition experiment, treefrog larval performance matched this female preference: tadpoles developed faster and grew larger in the absence of either heterospecific. Although we hypothesized that bullfrogs would more strongly affect female treefrog preference and offspring performance because of previous work demonstrating that bullfrogs had stronger negative effects on other tadpoles, both heterospecifics elicited similar responses. The effects of heterospecifics on anuran breeding site selection are understudied and not well understood, and our results demonstrate that female selection of breeding sites is an adaptive behavior for offspring in the presence of heterospecific competitors.

CD-1 mice females recognize male reproductive success via volatile organic compounds in urine

Sexual selection is considered as one of the leading factors of evolutionary development. In the conditions of incessant competition, specialized methods of attracting individuals of the opposite sex as well as criteria for assessing the quality of a sexual partner have been formed. In order for animals to rely on signaling from sexual partners, the signal must reflect the morpho-physiological status of animals. A high reproductive efficiency of male mice is a good advantage for mate selection and thus must be somehow demonstrated to potential mates. The aim of our study was to find out if male mice could demonstrate their reproductive efficiency through urine volatile organic compounds. The experiment implies cohabiting one male with two mature females for 6 days. The reproductive success of the male was assessed by the presence or absence of pregnant females. At the same time, naive females, who did not participate in reproduction, assessed the urine of the successful males as more attractive, which was expressed in shorter Latency time of sniffs in the Olfactory test. Using a rapid headspace GC/MS analysis, we have found volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in male urine that correlated with female behavior. It turned out that these substances are derivatives of mouse pheromone 6-hydroxy-6-methyl-3-heptanone. The amplitude of peaks corresponding to this pheromone correlated with the testosterone level in blood and the weight of preputial glands. The amplitude of peaks increased in males after mating with whom the females turned out to be pregnant. It is important to note that body weight, weight of testes, weight of seminal vesicles, weight of preputial glands, and plasma testosterone level alone are not reliable indicators of male reproductive success. Thus, the content of the pheromone 6-hydroxy-6-methyl-3-heptanone in the urine of males can serve as a good predictor of the quality of the male as a sexual partner for female CD-1 mice.

The effect of individual state on the strength of mate choice in females and males

Animals are thought to gain significant fitness benefits from choosing high-quality or compatible mates. However, there is large within-species variation in how choosy individuals are during mating. This may be because the costs and benefits of being choosy vary according to an individual's state. To test this, I systematically searched for published data relating the strength of animal mate choice in both sexes to individual age, attractiveness, body size, physical condition, mating status, and parasite load. I performed a meta-analysis of 108 studies and 78 animal species to quantify how the strength of mate choice varies according to individual state. In line with the predictions of sexual selection theory, I find that females are significantly choosier when they are large and have a low parasite load, thus supporting the premise that the expression of female mate choice is dependent on the costs and benefits of being choosy. However, female choice was not influenced by female age, attractiveness, physical condition, or mating status. Attractive males were significantly choosier than unattractive males, but male mate choice was not influenced by male age, body size, physical condition, mating status, or parasite load. However, this dataset was limited by a small sample size, and the overall correlation between individual state and the strength of mate choice was similar for both sexes. Nevertheless, in both males and females individual state explained only a small amount of variation in the strength of mate choice.

Timing matters: female receptivity and mate choice in the zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Abstract

Female choice has been documented in many animal taxa, and how we test it has been refined through years of studies on the topic. However, when designing mate choice experiments some variables, surprisingly, often remain overlooked, including receptivity and reproductive stage. Here, we aimed to assess whether the female reproductive stage influences strength and direction of mate choice in the zebrafish, Danio rerio. Females were offered a choice between two males differing in body size. We found that female choice in our experimental setup was significantly repeatable and that females preferred larger males. Nonetheless, the level of choosiness of females was affected by the time since the last spawning. Females spent more time choosing when tested 7 and 10 days after spawning rather than 4 days, indicating a higher receptivity to males from one week after the last spawning. Moreover, females preferred larger males only when tested 7 and 10 days after spawning. Our results suggest that female mate choice should take female receptivity into account, by standardizing time since the last spawning across females. More broadly, this suggests that 7–10 days since the previous spawning is the ideal time interval for zebrafish female receptivity to peak, with implications for facilities and researchers to increase egg production in natural spawning events and manual egg collection.

Significance statement

The role of pre-copulatory female mate preference has long been recognized in sexual selection. Nonetheless, female receptivity often remains overlooked in mate choice experiments especially in external fertilizing species. In the present study, we investigated if the female reproductive stage affects the strength and direction of female mate choice in an external fertilizing fish, the zebrafish, Danio rerio. We found that, when tested 7 and 10 days after spawning rather than 4 days, females spent more time choosing, demonstrating an increased receptivity to males from 1 week following the last spawning. Furthermore, only at 7 and 10 days after spawning females exibith a clear preference for the bigger males. Our study highlights the importance of considering the female receptivity in future studies assessing mate choices in this and other externally fertilizing species, and also for zebrafish facilities to increase egg production in natural spawning events and manual egg collection.

Revisiting and interpreting the role of female dominance in male mate choice: the importance of replication in ecology and evolution

In many species females prefer to mate with socially dominant males, often because it elevates their fecundity by providing greater access to material resources or lowers offspring mortality due to superior male defence. Far fewer studies have tested whether males prefer socially dominant females. Intriguingly, an earlier study showed that when the sexes freely interact, male mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) preferentially attempt to mate with dominant females. Here we replicate this study using a slightly modified experimental design to test the generality of its finding. In addition, we conducted standard, two-choice male mate choice trials to test directly whether males prefer dominant over subordinate females. Corroborating the previous study, we found that when a male and two females freely interact, males more often attempt to mate with the dominant female. However, males did not prefer to associate with (i.e., choose) dominant females in two-choice trials where females could not interact. We discuss whether greater access to males is a benefit of female social dominance, or an epiphenomenon of other benefits of dominance.

Hormonal contraceptives as disruptors of competitive behavior: Theoretical framing and review

Emerging evidence suggests that hormonal contraceptives (HCs) impact psychological outcomes through alterations in neurophysiology. In this review, we first introduce a theoretical framework for HCs as disruptors of steroid hormone modulation of socially competitive attitudes and behaviors. Then, we comprehensively examine prior research comparing HC users and non-users in outcomes related to competition for reproductive, social, and financial resources. Synthesis of 46 studies (n = 16,290) led to several key conclusions: HC users do not show the same menstrual cycle-related fluctuations in self-perceived attractiveness and some intrasexual competition seen in naturally-cycling women and, further, may show relatively reduced status- or achievement-oriented competitive motivation. However, there a lack of consistent or compelling evidence that HC users and non-users differ in competitive behavior or attitudes for mates or financial resources. These conclusions are tentative given the notable methodological limitations of the studies reviewed. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Cognition and Its Shaping Effect on Sexual Conflict: Integrating Biology and Psychology

While genetic variation is of crucial importance for organisms to be able to adapt to their ever-changing environments over generations, cognitive processes can serve the same purpose by acting at shorter time scales. Cognition, and its resulting behaviour, allows animals to display flexible, fast and reversible responses that, without implying a genetic change, are crucial for adaptation and survival. In the research field on sexual conflict, where studies focus on male and female mating strategies that increase the individual's reproductive fitness while forcing a cost on the partner, the role that cognition may play in how such strategies can be optimised has been widely overlooked. However, a careful analysis of behavioural studies shows that animals can develop and change their responses depending on what they perceive as well as on what they can predict from their experience, which can be of prime importance for optimising their reproductive fitness. As will be reviewed here, largely psychological processes, such as perception, memory, learning and decision-making, can not only modulate sexual conflict, but can also have a big impact on the reproductive success of a given individual. This review highlights the need for a more integrative view of sexual conflict where cognitive processes are also considered as a fundamental part of an animal's adaptive mating response.

Lack of inbreeding avoidance during mate selection in migratory monarch butterflies

Inbreeding is generally thought to have negative consequences for organismal health. However, despite the potential fitness effects, it remains surprisingly common among wild populations. In many cases, the complex factors that underlie mating dynamics make predicting whether individuals should or do avoid inbreeding quite challenging. One reason inbreeding may persist among species is that the likelihood of encountering relatives can be rare. Thus, even if inbreeding has severe consequences, selection to avoid mating with kin will be weak in species that are highly dispersed. Here we investigated if migratory monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), which are famous for their dispersal ability, actively avoid inbreeding. We found that neither female nor male monarchs choose mates based on relatedness. These results support the hypothesis that movement ecology can mask the deleterious effects of inbreeding and relax selection for active inbreeding avoidance behaviors. Overall, our data add to the growing list of studies showing that inbreeding avoidance is not the behavioral "default" for most species. We also highlight the implications that inbreeding may have on the declining populations of this iconic butterfly.

Female preference for song frequency in the cicada Mogannia formosana Matsumura (Hemiptera: Cicadidae)

In chorusing species, sound frequency has been suggested as a decisive cue for male body size in female mate choice. However, few studies on the female choice of male song frequency have been conducted in cicadas, in which males of most species sing in chorusing groups to attract females for mating. In this study, we investigated female mate choice for song frequency and body size of males of a chorusing cicada, Mogannia formosana, by phonotaxis experiments using two-choice tests and field observation, respectively. The choice proportion of effective responses and the proximity to the stimulus were used to assess the phonotaxis preference. In the field, two types of males (copulating vs. random) were caught, and their body sizes were compared. In phonotaxis experiments, the results revealed that females showed a preference for low-frequency song by approaching the low-frequency stimuli to a significantly greater proximity. By comparing the body sizes of copulating vs. random males, no significant differences were found. However, the copulating males had significantly different body shapes, as expressed by pronotum width regression by body length, from those of random males. We concluded that the sound frequency of male songs and male body shape in M. formosana can be used as cues of mate quality during female mate choice within a chorus. Additionally, we suggest that females of this species might use multiple cues for mate choice in different ranges of communication and that body size might not be the sole criterion of mate quality.

The better, the choosier: A meta-analysis on interindividual variation of male mate choice

Male mate choice occurs in several animal species, but we know little about the factors that influence the expression of this behaviour. Males vary in their capacity to acquire mates (i.e. male quality), which could be crucial to male mate choice expression but it is often overlooked. Using a meta‐analytical approach, we explore interindividual variation in the expression of male mate choice by comparing the mating investment of males of different qualities and phenotypes to high‐ and low‐quality females. We used two datasets that together contained information from 60 empirical studies, comprising 52 species. We found that males of all qualities and phenotypes prefer high‐quality females, but differ in the strength of such preference. High‐ and medium‐quality males are choosier than low‐quality males. Similarly, males that are larger or in greater body condition are choosier than their counterparts. In contrast, male body mass and age are not associated with changes in male mate choice. We also show that experimental design may influence our understanding of male mating investment patterns, which may limit the generalisation of our findings. Nonetheless, we argue that male quality may be an important feature in the expression of male mate choice.

Tolerant pattern recognition: evidence from phonotactic responses in the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus (de Geer)

When the amplitude modulation of species-specific acoustic signals is distorted in the transmission channel, signals become difficult to recognize by the receiver. Tolerant auditory pattern recognition systems, which after having perceived the correct species-specific signal transiently broaden their acceptance of signals, would be advantageous for animals as an adaptation to the constraints of the environment. Using a well-studied cricket species, Gryllus bimaculatus, we analysed tolerance in auditory steering responses to 'Odd' chirps, mimicking a signal distorted by the transmission channel, and control 'Silent' chirps by employing a fine-scale open-loop trackball system. Odd chirps on their own did not elicit a phonotactic response. However, when inserted into a calling song pattern with attractive Normal chirps, the females' phonotactic response toward these patterns was significantly larger than to patterns with Silent chirps. Moreover, females actively steered toward Odd chirps when these were presented within a sequence of attractive chirps. Our results suggest that crickets employ a tolerant pattern recognition system that, once activated, transiently allows responses to distorted sound patterns, as long as sufficient natural chirps are present. As pattern recognition modulates how crickets process non-attractive acoustic signals, the finding is also relevant for the interpretation of two-choice behavioural experiments.

Estimation of the strength of mate preference from mated pairs observed in the wild

A number of key processes in evolution are driven by individuals preferring mates with particular phenotypes. However, despite long‐standing interest, it is difficult to quantify the strength of mate preference from phenotypic observations in nature in a way that connects directly to key parameters in theoretical models. To bridge the gap between mathematical models and empirical data, we develop a novel maximum likelihood‐based method to estimate the strength and form of mate preference, where preference depends on traits expressed in both males and females. Using simulated data, we demonstrate that our method accurately infers model parameters, including the strength of mate preference and the optimal offset match between trait values in mated pairs when model assumptions are satisfied. Applying our method to two previous studies of assortative mating in marine gastropods and the European common frog, we support previous findings, but also give additional insight into the role of mate preference in each system. Our method can be generalized to a variety of plant and animal taxa that exhibit mating preferences to facilitate the testing of evolutionary hypotheses and link empirical data to theoretical models of assortative mating, sexual selection, and speciation.

Mate Preference Plasticity in a Critically Endangered Frog: Implications for Conservation Breeding

Variation in female mate preferences for male traits remains poorly understood (both among and within females), despite having important evolutionary and conservation implications, particularly for captive breeding. Here, we investigate female mate preferences for male advertisement call frequency, and determine whether preferences vary over repeated trials, in the critically endangered southern corroboree frog, Pseudophryne corroboree. We conducted a series of phonotaxis trials in a six-speaker arena where naïve, captive-bred, virgin females were offered a choice between low, average and high frequency male advertisement calls, with a subset of females tested repeatedly. In the first trial, we found no evidence for a population-level preference for call frequency, but females spent less time in the low call zone than expected by chance. However, our results showed that female mate preferences changed over sequential trials. Females spent significantly more time in the low frequency call zone in the third trial compared to the first trial, and, in the last trial, females exhibited a significant population-level preference for low frequency calls. Subsequently, repeatability estimates of female preferences were low and did not significantly deviate from zero. Our results indicate that female P. corroboree mate preferences can exhibit temporal variation, and suggest that females are more attracted to low call frequencies after repeated exposure. These findings imply that female P. corroboree may become choosier over time, and highlight the potential for mate preferences to exhibit phenotypic plasticity within a single reproductive cycle. Overall, these findings provide the first information on mate preferences in P. corroboree, and emphasize the importance of considering individual variation in mate choice studies. From a conservation perspective, knowledge of individual variation in female mate preferences may be used to conduct behavioral manipulations in captivity that facilitate the breeding of genetically valuable individuals, and improve the success of conservation breeding programs.

Does brain size affect mate choice? An experimental examination in pygmy halfbeaks

Choosing a mate is one of the most important decisions in an animal's lifetime. Female mate choice is often guided by the presence or intensity of male sexual ornaments, which must be integrated and compared among potential mates. Individuals with greater cognitive abilities may be better at evaluating and comparing sexual ornaments, even when the difference in ornaments is small. While brain size is often used as a proxy for cognitive ability, its effect on mate choice has rarely been investigated. Here, we investigate the effect of brain size on mate preferences in the pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys collettei, a small freshwater fish that forms mixed-sex shoals where mating takes place. Pygmy halfbeaks are ideal models as their semi-transparent heads allow for external brain measurements. After validating the use of external measurements as a proxy for internal brain size, we presented females with large or small brains (relative to body length) with two males that had either a large or small difference in sexual ornamentation (measured by the total area of red coloration). Unexpectedly, neither total relative brain size nor relative telencephalon size affected any measured aspect of mate preference. However, the difference in male sexual ornamentation did affect preference, with females preferring males with a smaller area of red coloration when the difference in ornaments was large. This study highlights the complexities of mate choice and the importance of considering a range of stimuli when examining mate preferences.

Elucidating mutual mate choice: effects of trial design on preferences of male zebra finches

Understanding the dynamics of mutual mate choice requires investigation of mate preferences of both sexes using a variety of designs, but fewer studies have focused on male choice in avian models. Here we conducted two experiments on preferences of male zebra finches to study the impact of trial design on results. Experimental design varied in number of trial participants, inclusion of observer (“audience”) males, and housing design for stimulus females. Females were reared on one of two diets to enhance variation in mating quality: those reared on a protein-supplement diet (HI-diet) were predicted to be more attractive to males than (LO-diet) females that did not receive supplements. Results differed among trial types. Notably, males showed the predicted preference for HI-diet females only in the Group Choice experiment, where two male subjects simultaneously chose from a field of four females, and all six birds interacted freely. In the Dyadic Preference (DP) experiment, a single male was allowed to interact with two stimulus females that were physically isolated; in half of these trials, audience males were present. In DP trials without audience males, test males did not express a preference consensus; however, with audience males present, test males preferred LO-diet females. Results are consistent with a small but growing literature indicating that results of mate choice experiments can be highly sensitive to design considerations.

Meta-analysis shows the evidence for context-dependent mating behaviour is inconsistent or weak across animals

Animals often need to invest significantly in mating behaviour in order to successfully mate. However, the expression of mating behaviour can be costly, especially in unfavourable environments, so animals are expected to adjust their behaviour in a context-dependent way to mitigate these costs. I systematically searched the literature for studies measuring animal mating behaviour (sexual signalling, response to sexual signals or the strength of mate choice) in more than one environment, and used a phylogenetically controlled meta-analysis to identify environmental factors influencing these behaviours. Across 222 studies, the strength of mate choice was significantly context-dependent, and most strongly influenced by population density, population sex ratio and predation risk. However, the average effect sizes were typically small. The amount of sexual signalling and the strength of response to sexual signals were not significantly related to the environment. Overall, this suggests that the evidence for context-dependent mating behaviour across animals is surprisingly weak.

A meta-analysis of factors influencing the strength of mate-choice copying in animals

Mate-choice copying is a form of social learning in which an individual’s choice of mate is influenced by the apparent choices of other individuals of the same sex and has been observed in more than 20 species across a broad taxonomic range. Though fitness benefits of copying have proven difficult to measure, theory suggests that copying should not be beneficial for all species or contexts. However, the factors influencing the evolution and expression of copying have proven difficult to resolve. We systematically searched the literature for studies of mate-choice copying in nonhuman animals and, then, performed a phylogenetically controlled meta-analysis to explore which factors influence the expression of copying across species. Across 58 published studies in 23 species, we find strong evidence that animals copy the mate choice of others. The strength of copying was significantly influenced by taxonomic group; however, sample size limitations mean it is difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding copying in mammals and arthropods. The strength of copying was also influenced by experimental design: copying was stronger when choosers were tested before and after witnessing a conspecific’s mate choice compared to when choosers with social information were compared to choosers without. Importantly, we did not detect any difference in the strength of copying between males and females or in relation to the rate of multiple mating. Our search also highlights that more empirical work is needed to investigate copying in a broader range of species, especially those with differing mating systems and levels of reproductive investment.

Defense against predators incurs high reproductive costs for the aposematic moth Arctia plantaginis

To understand how variation in warning displays evolves and is maintained, we need to understand not only how perceivers of these traits select color and toxicity but also the sources of the genetic and phenotypic variation exposed to selection by them. We studied these aspects in the wood tiger moth Arctia plantaginis, which has two locally co-occurring male color morphs in Europe: yellow and white. When threatened, both morphs produce defensive secretions from their abdomen and from thoracic glands. Abdominal fluid has shown to be more important against invertebrate predators than avian predators, and the defensive secretion of the yellow morph is more effective against ants. Here, we focused on the morph-linked reproductive costs of secretion of the abdominal fluid and quantified the proportion of phenotypic and genetic variation in it. We hypothesized that, if yellow males pay higher reproductive costs for their more effective aposematic display, the subsequent higher mating success of white males could offer one explanation for the maintenance of the polymorphism. We first found that the heritable variation in the quantity of abdominal secretion was very low (h 2 = 0.006) and the quantity of defensive secretion was not dependent on the male morph. Second, deploying the abdominal defensive secretion decreased the reproductive output of both color morphs equally. This suggests that potential costs of pigment production and chemical defense against invertebrates are not linked in A. plantaginis. Furthermore, our results indicate that environmentally induced variation in chemical defense can alter an individual's fitness significantly.