1
|
Hummel G, Aagaard K. Arthropods to Eutherians: A Historical and Contemporary Comparison of Sparse Prenatal Microbial Communities Among Animalia Species. Am J Reprod Immunol 2024; 92:e13897. [PMID: 39140417 DOI: 10.1111/aji.13897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the advent of next-generation sequencing, investigators worldwide have sought to discern whether a functional and biologically or clinically relevant prenatal microbiome exists. One line of research has led to the hypothesis that microbial DNA detected in utero/in ovo or prior to birth/hatching is a result of contamination and does not belong to viable and functional microbes. Many of these preliminary evaluations have been conducted in humans, mice, and nonhuman primates due to sample and specimen availability. However, a comprehensive review of the literature across animal species suggests organisms that maintain an obligate relationship with microbes may act as better models for interrogating the selective pressures placed on vertical microbial transfer over traditional laboratory species. To date, studies in humans and viviparous laboratory species have failed to illustrate the clear presence and transfer of functional microbes in utero. Until a ground truth regarding the status and relevance of prenatal microbes can be ascertained, it is salient to conduct parallel investigations into the prevalence of a functional prenatal microbiome across the developmental lifespan of multiple organisms in the kingdom Animalia. This comprehensive understanding is necessary not only to determine the role of vertically transmitted microbes and their products in early human health but also to understand their full One Health impact. This review is among the first to compile such comprehensive primary conclusions from the original investigator's conclusions, and hence collectively illustrates that prenatal microbial transfer is supported by experimental evidence arising from over a long and rigorous scientific history encompassing a breadth of species from kingdom Animalia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gwendolynn Hummel
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine) and Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Kjersti Aagaard
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine) and Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cheng YC, Xie CH, Chen YC, Fuh NT, Chuang MF, Kam YC. Paternal care plasticity: males care more for early- than late-developing embryos in an arboreal breeding treefrog. Front Zool 2024; 21:16. [PMID: 38898504 PMCID: PMC11186214 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-024-00537-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parental care benefits offspring but comes with costs. To optimize the trade-off of costs and benefits, parents should adjust care based on intrinsic and/or extrinsic conditions. The harm to offspring hypothesis suggests that parents should invest more in younger offspring than older offspring because younger offspring are more vulnerable. However, this hypothesis has rarely been comprehensively tested, as many studies only reveal an inverse correlation between parental care and offspring age, without directly testing the effects of offspring age on their vulnerability. To test this hypothesis, we studied Kurixalus eiffingeri, an arboreal treefrog with paternal care. We first performed a field survey by monitoring paternal care during embryonic development. Subsequently, we conducted a field experiment to assess the prevalence of egg predators (a semi-slug, Parmarion martensi) and the plasticity of male care. Finally, we conducted a laboratory experiment to assess how embryo age affects predation by P. martensi. RESULTS Our results showed that (1) male attendance and brooding frequency affected embryo survival, and (2) males attended and brooded eggs more frequently in the early stage than in the late stage. The experimental results showed that (3) males increased attendance frequency when the predators were present, and (4) the embryonic predation by the semi-slug during the early was significantly higher than in the late stage. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the importance of paternal care to embryo survival, and the care behavior is plastic. Moreover, our results provide evidence consistent with the predictions of the harm to offspring hypothesis, as males tend to care more for younger offspring which are more vulnerable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Cheng Cheng
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407224, Taiwan
| | - Cai-Han Xie
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407224, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chen Chen
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407224, Taiwan
| | - Nien-Tse Fuh
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407224, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Feng Chuang
- Department of Life Sciences and Research Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402202, Taiwan
| | - Yeong-Choy Kam
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407224, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jones KR, Belden LK, Hughey MC. Priority effects alter microbiome composition and increase abundance of probiotic taxa in treefrog tadpoles. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0061924. [PMID: 38757977 PMCID: PMC11218634 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00619-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbial communities, like other ecological communities, may be impacted by the colonization order of taxa through priority effects. Developing embryos and their associated microbiomes are subject to stochasticity during colonization by bacteria. For amphibian embryos, often developing externally in bacteria-rich environments, this stochasticity may be particularly impactful. For example, the amphibian microbiome can mitigate lethal outcomes from disease for their hosts; however, this may depend on microbiome composition. Here, we examined the assembly of the bacterial community in spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) embryos and tadpoles. First, we reared embryos from identified mating pairs in either lab or field environments to examine the relative impact of environment and parentage on embryo and tadpole bacterial communities. Second, we experimentally inoculated embryos to determine if priority effects (i) could be used to increase the relative abundance of Janthinobacterium lividum, an amphibian-associated bacteria capable of preventing fungal infection, and (ii) would lead to observed differences in the relative abundances of two closely related bacteria from the genus Pseudomonas. Using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, we observed differences in community composition based on rearing location and parentage in embryos and tadpoles. In the inoculation experiment, we found that priority inoculation could increase the relative abundance of J. lividum, but did not find that either Pseudomonas isolate was able to prevent colonization by the other when given priority. These results highlight the importance of environmental source pools and parentage in determining microbiome composition, while also providing novel methods for the administration of a known amphibian probiotic. IMPORTANCE Harnessing the functions of host-associated bacteria is a promising mechanism for managing disease outcomes across different host species. In the case of amphibians, certain frog-associated bacteria can mitigate lethal outcomes of infection by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Successful probiotic applications require knowledge of community assembly and an understanding of the ecological mechanisms that structure these symbiotic bacterial communities. In our study, we show the importance of environment and parentage in determining bacterial community composition and that community composition can be influenced by priority effects. Further, we provide support for the use of bacterial priority effects as a mechanism to increase the relative abundance of target probiotic taxa in a developing host. While our results show that priority effects are not universally effective across all host-associated bacteria, our ability to increase the relative abundance of specific probiotic taxa may enhance conservation strategies that rely on captive rearing of endangered vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Korin Rex Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Lisa K. Belden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Myra C. Hughey
- Department of Biology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Leonhardt F, Keller A, Arranz Aveces C, Ernst R. From Alien Species to Alien Communities: Host- and Habitat-Associated Microbiomes in an Alien Amphibian. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 86:2373-2385. [PMID: 37233803 PMCID: PMC10640505 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-023-02227-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Alien species can host diverse microbial communities. These associated microbiomes may be important in the invasion process and their analysis requires a holistic community-based approach. We analysed the skin and gut microbiome of Eleutherodactylus johnstonei from native range populations in St Lucia and exotic range populations in Guadeloupe, Colombia, and European greenhouses along with their respective environmental microbial reservoir through a 16S metabarcoding approach. We show that amphibian-associated and environmental microbial communities can be considered as meta-communities that interact in the assembly process. High proportions of bacteria can disperse between frogs and environment, while respective abundances are rather determined by niche effects driven by the microbial community source and spatial environmental properties. Environmental transmissions appeared to have higher relevance for skin than for gut microbiome composition and variation. We encourage further experimental studies to assess the implications of turnover in amphibian-associated microbial communities and potentially invasive microbiota in the context of invasion success and impacts. Within this novel framework of "nested invasions," (meta-)community ecology thinking can complement and widen the traditional perspective on biological invasions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Leonhardt
- Faculty of Biology, Technical University of Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany.
- Museum of Zoology, Senckenberg Natural History Collections Dresden, Königsbrücker Landstraße 159, 01109, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Alexander Keller
- Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Geschwister-Scholl-Platz 1, 80539, München, Germany
| | - Clara Arranz Aveces
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Rosenstein 1, 70173, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Raffael Ernst
- Faculty of Biology, Technical University of Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany.
- Museum of Zoology, Senckenberg Natural History Collections Dresden, Königsbrücker Landstraße 159, 01109, Dresden, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kouete MT, Bletz MC, LaBumbard BC, Woodhams DC, Blackburn DC. Parental care contributes to vertical transmission of microbes in a skin-feeding and direct-developing caecilian. Anim Microbiome 2023; 5:28. [PMID: 37189209 PMCID: PMC10184399 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-023-00243-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our current understanding of vertebrate skin and gut microbiomes, and their vertical transmission, remains incomplete as major lineages and varied forms of parental care remain unexplored. The diverse and elaborate forms of parental care exhibited by amphibians constitute an ideal system to study microbe transmission, yet investigations of vertical transmission among frogs and salamanders have been inconclusive. In this study, we assess bacteria transmission in Herpele squalostoma, an oviparous direct-developing caecilian in which females obligately attend juveniles that feed on their mother's skin (dermatophagy). RESULTS We used 16S rRNA amplicon-sequencing of the skin and gut of wild caught H. squalostoma individuals (males, females, including those attending juveniles) as well as environmental samples. Sourcetracker analyses revealed that juveniles obtain an important portion of their skin and gut bacteria communities from their mother. The contribution of a mother's skin to the skin and gut of her respective juveniles was much larger than that of any other bacteria source. In contrast to males and females not attending juveniles, only the skins of juveniles and their mothers were colonized by bacteria taxa Verrucomicrobiaceae, Nocardioidaceae, and Erysipelotrichaceae. In addition to providing indirect evidence for microbiome transmission linked to parental care among amphibians, our study also points to noticeable differences between the skin and gut communities of H. squalostoma and that of many frogs and salamanders, which warrants further investigation. CONCLUSION Our study is the first to find strong support for vertical bacteria transmission attributed to parental care in a direct-developing amphibian species. This suggests that obligate parental care may promote microbiome transmission in caecilians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcel T Kouete
- School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
- Department of Natural History, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
| | - Molly C Bletz
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, 02125, USA
| | | | - Douglas C Woodhams
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, 02125, USA
| | - David C Blackburn
- Department of Natural History, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Jones KR, Hughey MC, Belden LK. Colonization order of bacterial isolates on treefrog embryos impacts microbiome structure in tadpoles. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230308. [PMID: 36946107 PMCID: PMC10031419 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Priority effects, or impacts of colonization order, may have lasting influence on ecological community composition. The embryonic microbiome is subject to stochasticity in colonization order of bacteria. Stochasticity may be especially impactful for embryos developing in bacteria-rich environments, such as the embryos of many amphibians. To determine if priority effects experienced as embryos impacted bacterial community composition in newly hatched tadpoles, we selectively inoculated the embryos of laboratory-raised hourglass treefrogs, Dendropsophus ebraccatus, with bacteria initially isolated from the skin of wild D. ebraccatus adults over 2 days. First, embryos were inoculated with two bacteria in alternating sequences. Next, we evaluated the outcomes of priority effects in an in vitro co-culture assay absent of host factors. We then performed a second embryo experiment, inoculating embryos with one of three bacteria on the first day and a community of five target bacteria on the second. Through 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, we observed relative abundance shifts in tadpole bacteria communities due to priority effects. Our results suggest that the initial bacterial source pools of embryos shape bacterial communities at later life stages; however, the magnitude of those changes is dependent on the host environment and the identity of bacterial colonists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Korin Rex Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0131, USA
| | - Myra C. Hughey
- Department of Biology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, USA
| | - Lisa K. Belden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0131, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Temporal changes and transmission patterns in host-associated microbial communities have important implications for host health. The diversity of amphibian skin microbial communities is associated with disease outcome in amphibians exposed to the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). To successfully develop conservation strategies against Bd, we need a comprehensive understanding of how skin microbes are maintained and transmitted over time within populations. We used 16S rRNA sequence analysis to compare Epipedobates anthonyi frogs housed with one conspecific to frogs housed singly at four time points over the course of 1 year. We found that both α and β diversity of frog skin bacterial communities changed significantly over the course of the experiment. Specifically, we found that bacterial communities of cohabitating frogs became more similar over time. We also observed that some bacterial taxa were differentially abundant between frogs housed singly and frogs housed with a conspecific. These results suggest that conspecific contact may play a role in mediating amphibian skin microbial diversity and that turnover of skin microbial communities can occur across time. Our findings provide rationale for future studies exploring horizontal transmission as a potential mechanism of host-associated microbial maintenance in amphibians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ariel Kruger
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Spencer Roth
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Carranco AS, Romo D, de Lourdes Torres M, Wilhelm K, Sommer S, Gillingham MAF. Egg microbiota is the starting point of hatchling gut microbiota in the endangered yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:3917-3933. [PMID: 35621392 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Establishment and development of gut microbiota during vertebrates' early life are likely to be important predictors of health and fitness. Host-parental and host-environment interactions are essential to these processes. In oviparous reptiles whose nests represent a source of the parent's microbial inocula, the relative role of host-selection and stochastic environmental factors during gut microbial assemblage remains unknown. We sampled eggs incubated in artificial nests as well as hatchlings and juveniles (up to 30 days old) of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis) developing in tubs filled with river water. We examined the relative role of the internal egg microbiota and the abiotic environment on hatchling and juvenile turtle's cloacal microbiota assemblages during the first 30 days of development. A mean of 71% of ASVs in hatched eggs could be traced to the nest environmental microbiota and in turn a mean of 77% of hatchlings' cloacal ASVs were traced to hatched eggs. Between day 5 and 20 of juvenile turtle's development, the river water environment plays a key role in the establishment of the gut microbiota (accounting for a mean of 13%-34.6% of cloacal ASVs) and strongly influences shifts in microbial diversity and abundance. After day 20, shifts in gut microbiota composition were mainly driven by host-selection processes. Therefore, colonization by environmental microbiota is key in the initial stages of establishing the host's gut microbiota which is subsequently shaped by host-selection processes. Our study provides a novel quantitative understanding of the host-environment interactions during gut microbial assemblage of oviparous reptiles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Sofia Carranco
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - David Romo
- Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Cumbaya-, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Maria de Lourdes Torres
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Cumbaya-, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Kerstin Wilhelm
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Simone Sommer
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Mark A F Gillingham
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.,Biodiversity Research Institute (CSIC, Oviedo University, Principality of Asturias), Campus of Mieres, University of Oviedo, 33600, Mieres, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
McGrath-Blaser S, Steffen M, Grafe TU, Torres-Sánchez M, McLeod DS, Muletz-Wolz CR. Early life skin microbial trajectory as a function of vertical and environmental transmission in Bornean foam-nesting frogs. Anim Microbiome 2021; 3:83. [PMID: 34930504 PMCID: PMC8686334 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-021-00147-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The amphibian skin microbiome is an important mediator of host health and serves as a potential source of undiscovered scientifically significant compounds. However, the underlying modalities of how amphibian hosts obtain their initial skin-associated microbiome remains unclear. Here, we explore microbial transmission patterns in foam-nest breeding tree frogs from Southeast Asia (Genus: Polypedates) whose specialized breeding strategy allows for better delineation between vertically and environmentally derived microbes. To facilitate this, we analyzed samples associated with adult frog pairs taken after mating-including adults of each sex, their foam nests, environments, and tadpoles before and after environmental interaction-for the bacterial communities using DNA metabarcoding data (16S rRNA). Samples were collected from frogs in-situ in Brunei, Borneo, a previously unsampled region for amphibian-related microbial diversity. RESULTS Adult frogs differed in skin bacterial communities among species, but tadpoles did not differ among species. Foam nests had varying bacterial community composition, most notably in the nests' moist interior. Nest interior bacterial communities were discrete for each nest and overall displayed a narrower diversity compared to the nest exteriors. Tadpoles sampled directly from the foam nest displayed a bacterial composition less like the nest interior and more similar to that of the adults and nest exterior. After one week of pond water interaction the tadpole skin microbiome shifted towards the tadpole skin and pond water microbial communities being more tightly coupled than between tadpoles and the internal nest environment, but not to the extent that the skin microbiome mirrored the pond bacterial community. CONCLUSIONS Both vertical influence and environmental interaction play a role in shaping the tadpole cutaneous microbiome. Interestingly, the interior of the foam nest had a distinct bacterial community from the tadpoles suggesting a limited environmental effect on tadpole cutaneous bacterial selection at initial stages of life. The shift in the tadpole microbiome after environmental interaction indicates an interplay between underlying host and ecological mechanisms that drive community formation. This survey serves as a baseline for further research into the ecology of microbial transmission in aquatic animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah McGrath-Blaser
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 421 Carr Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Morgan Steffen
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, 951 Carrier Dr, Harrisonburg, VA 22807 USA
| | - T. Ulmar Grafe
- Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE 1410 Brunei
| | - María Torres-Sánchez
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 421 Carr Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - David S. McLeod
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, 951 Carrier Dr, Harrisonburg, VA 22807 USA
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, 11 West Jones Street, Raleigh, NC 27601 USA
| | - Carly R. Muletz-Wolz
- Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Center for Conservation Genomics, 3001 Connecticut Ave., Washington, DC 20008 USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Identifying fungal-host associations in an amphibian host system. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256328. [PMID: 34411153 PMCID: PMC8376043 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbes can interact with macro-organisms in a number of ways that affect host health. Few studies of host-associated microbiomes, however, focus on fungi. In addition, it is difficult to discern whether a fungal organism found in or on an ectotherm host is associating with it in a durable, symbiotic interaction versus a transient one, and to what extent the habitat and host share microbes. We seek to identify these host-microbe interactions on an amphibian, the Colorado boreal toad (Anaxyrus boreas boreas). We sequenced the ITS1 region of the fungal community on the skin of wild toads (n = 124) from four sites in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, across its physiologically dynamic developmental life stages. We also sampled the common habitats used by boreal toads: water from their natal wetland and aquatic pond sediment. We then examined diversity patterns within different life stages, between host and habitat, and identified fungal taxa that could be putatively host-associated with toads by using an indicator species analysis on toad versus environmental samples. Host and habitat were strikingly similar, with the exception of toad eggs. Post-hatching toad life stages were distinct in their various fungal diversity measures. We identified eight fungal taxa that were significantly associated with eggs, but no other fungal taxa were associated with other toad life stages compared with their environmental habitat. This suggests that although pre- and post-metamorphic toad life stages differ from each other, the habitat and host fungal communities are so similar that identifying obligate host symbionts is difficult with the techniques used here. This approach does, however, leverage sequence data from host and habitat samples to predict which microbial taxa are host-associated versus transient microbes, thereby condensing a large set of sequence data into a smaller list of potential targets for further consideration.
Collapse
|
11
|
Anslan S, Sachs M, Rancilhac L, Brinkmann H, Petersen J, Künzel S, Schwarz A, Arndt H, Kerney R, Vences M. Diversity and substrate-specificity of green algae and other micro-eukaryotes colonizing amphibian clutches in Germany, revealed by DNA metabarcoding. Naturwissenschaften 2021; 108:29. [PMID: 34181110 PMCID: PMC8238718 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-021-01734-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Amphibian clutches are colonized by diverse but poorly studied communities of micro-organisms. One of the most noted ones is the unicellular green alga, Oophila amblystomatis, but the occurrence and role of other micro-organisms in the capsular chamber surrounding amphibian clutches have remained largely unstudied. Here, we undertook a multi-marker DNA metabarcoding study to characterize the community of algae and other micro-eukaryotes associated with agile frog (Rana dalmatina) clutches. Samplings were performed at three small ponds in Germany, from four substrates: water, sediment, tree leaves from the bottom of the pond, and R. dalmatina clutches. Sampling substrate strongly determined the community compositions of algae and other micro-eukaryotes. Therefore, as expected, the frog clutch-associated communities formed clearly distinct clusters. Clutch-associated communities in our study were structured by a plethora of not only green algae, but also diatoms and other ochrophytes. The most abundant operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in clutch samples were taxa from Chlamydomonas, Oophila, but also from Nitzschia and other ochrophytes. Sequences of Oophila "Clade B" were found exclusively in clutches. Based on additional phylogenetic analyses of 18S rDNA and of a matrix of 18 nuclear genes derived from transcriptomes, we confirmed in our samples the existence of two distinct clades of green algae assigned to Oophila in past studies. We hypothesize that "Clade B" algae correspond to the true Oophila, whereas "Clade A" algae are a series of Chlorococcum species that, along with other green algae, ochrophytes and protists, colonize amphibian clutches opportunistically and are often cultured from clutch samples due to their robust growth performance. The clutch-associated communities were subject to filtering by sampling location, suggesting that the taxa colonizing amphibian clutches can drastically differ depending on environmental conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sten Anslan
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Maria Sachs
- Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Zülpicherstr. 47b, 50674, Köln, Germany
| | - Lois Rancilhac
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Henner Brinkmann
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ - German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jörn Petersen
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ - German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sven Künzel
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany
| | - Anja Schwarz
- Institute of Geosystems and Bioindication, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Hartmut Arndt
- Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Zülpicherstr. 47b, 50674, Köln, Germany
| | - Ryan Kerney
- Department of Biology, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, PA, USA
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Schulte LM, Ringler E, Rojas B, Stynoski JL. Developments in Amphibian Parental Care Research: History, Present Advances, and Future Perspectives. HERPETOLOGICAL MONOGRAPH 2020; 34:71-97. [PMID: 38989507 PMCID: PMC7616153 DOI: 10.1655/herpmonographs-d-19-00002.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Despite rising interest among scientists for over two centuries, parental care behavior has not been as thoroughly studied in amphibians as it has in other taxa. The first reports of amphibian parental care date from the early 18th century, when Maria Sibylla Merian went on a field expedition in Suriname and reported frog metamorphs emerging from their mother's dorsal skin. Reports of this and other parental behaviors in amphibians remained descriptive for decades, often as side notes during expeditions with another purpose. However, since the 1980s, experimental approaches have proliferated, providing detailed knowledge about the adaptive value of observed behaviors. Today, we recognize more than 30 types of parental care in amphibians, but most studies focus on just a few families and have favored anurans over urodeles and caecilians. Here, we provide a synthesis of the last three centuries of parental care research in the three orders comprising the amphibians. We draw attention to the progress from the very first descriptions to the most recent experimental studies, and highlight the importance of natural history observations as a source of new hypotheses and necessary context to interpret experimental findings. We encourage amphibian parental care researchers to diversify their study systems to allow for a more comprehensive perspective of the behaviors that amphibians exhibit. Finally, we uncover knowledge gaps and suggest new avenues of research using a variety of disciplines and approaches that will allow us to better understand the function and evolution of parental care behaviors in this diverse group of animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M. Schulte
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 13, 60438Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Eva Ringler
- Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210Vienna, Austria
- University of Vienna, Department of Integrative Zoology, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jennifer L. Stynoski
- Colorado State University, Department of Biology, 200 W. Lake Street, Fort Collins, CO, 48823USA
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, Dulce Nombre de Coronado, San José, Costa Rica
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Rebollar EA, Martínez-Ugalde E, Orta AH. The Amphibian Skin Microbiome and Its Protective Role Against Chytridiomycosis. HERPETOLOGICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1655/0018-0831-76.2.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eria A. Rebollar
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Emanuel Martínez-Ugalde
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Alberto H. Orta
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Delia J, Bravo‐Valencia L, Warkentin KM. The evolution of extended parental care in glassfrogs: Do egg‐clutch phenotypes mediate coevolution between the sexes? ECOL MONOGR 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecm.1411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Delia
- Department of Biology Boston University Boston 02214 Massachusetts USA
| | - Laura Bravo‐Valencia
- Profesional equipo de fauna silvestre Corantioquia Santa Fe de Antioquia Colombia
| | - Karen M. Warkentin
- Department of Biology Boston University Boston 02214 Massachusetts USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panamá 0843-03092 República de Panamá
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Kenison EK, Hernández-Gómez O, Williams RN. A novel bioaugmentation technique effectively increases the skin-associated microbial diversity of captive eastern hellbenders. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa040. [PMID: 32431814 PMCID: PMC7221235 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2019] [Revised: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Captive environments are maintained in hygienic ways that lack free-flowing microbes found in animals' natural environments. As a result, captive animals often have depauperate host-associated microbial communities compared to conspecifics in the wild and may have increased disease susceptibility and reduced immune function. Eastern hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) have suffered precipitous population declines over the past few decades. To bolster populations, eastern hellbenders are reared in captivity before being translocated to the wild. However, the absence of natural microbial reservoirs within the captive environment diminishes the diversity of skin-associated bacteria on hellbender skin and may negatively influence their ability to defend against pathogenic species once they are released into the wild. To prepare hellbenders for natural bacteria found in riverine environments, we devised a novel bioaugmentation method to increase the diversity of skin microbial communities within a captive setting. We exposed juvenile hellbenders to increasing amounts of river water over 5 weeks before translocating them to the river. We genetically identified and phylogenetically compared bacteria collected from skin swabs and river water for alpha (community richness) and beta (community composition) diversity estimates. We found that hellbenders exposed to undiluted river water in captivity had higher alpha diversity and distinct differentiation in the community composition on their skin, compared to hellbenders only exposed to well water. We also found strong evidence that hellbender skin microbiota is host-specific rather than environmentally driven and is colonized by rare environmental operational taxonomic units in river water. This technique may increase hellbender translocation success as increasing microbial diversity is often correlated with elevated disease resistance. Future work is necessary to refine our methods, investigate the relationship between microbial diversity and hellbender health and understand how this bioaugmentation technique influences hellbenders' survival following translocation from captivity into the wild.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin K Kenison
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, 715 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Idaho Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1387 S. Vinnell Way, Boise, ID 83706, USA
- Corresponding author: Idaho Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Boise, ID 83706, USA. Tel: (208) 685-6965.
| | - Obed Hernández-Gómez
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, 715 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Dominican University of California, 50 Acacia Ave., San Rafael, CA 94901, USA
| | - Rod N Williams
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, 715 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Hughey MC, Sokol ER, Walke JB, Becker MH, Belden LK. Ecological Correlates of Large-Scale Turnover in the Dominant Members of Pseudacris crucifer Skin Bacterial Communities. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2019; 78:832-842. [PMID: 30949751 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-019-01372-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Animals host a wide diversity of symbiotic microorganisms that contribute important functions to host health, and our knowledge of what drives variation in the composition of these complex communities continues to grow. Microbiome studies at larger spatial scales present opportunities to evaluate the contribution of large-scale factors to variation in the microbiome. We conducted a large-scale field study to assess variation in the bacterial symbiont communities on adult frog skin (Pseudacris crucifer), characterized using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. We found that skin bacterial communities on frogs were less diverse than, and structurally distinct from, the surrounding habitat. Frog skin was typically dominated by one of two bacterial OTUs: at western sites, a Proteobacteria dominated the community, whereas eastern sites were dominated by an Actinobacteria. Using a metacommunity framework, we then sought to identify factors explaining small- and large-scale variation in community structure-that is, among hosts within a pond, and among ponds spanning the study transect. We focused on the presence of a fungal skin pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) as one potential driver of variation. We found no direct link between skin bacterial community structure and Bd infection status of individual frog hosts. Differences in pond-level community structure, however, were explained by Bd infection prevalence. Importantly, Bd infection prevalence itself was correlated with numerous other environmental factors; thus, skin bacterial diversity may be influenced by a complex suite of extrinsic factors. Our findings indicate that large-scale factors and processes merit consideration when seeking to understand microbiome diversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Myra C Hughey
- Biology Department, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA.
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 4088 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Eric R Sokol
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 4088 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Battelle, National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON), Boulder, CO, USA
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Jenifer B Walke
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 4088 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Department of Biology, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA, USA
| | - Matthew H Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 4088 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA, USA
| | - Lisa K Belden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 4088 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Byrne PG, Gaitan‐Espitia JD, Silla AJ. Genetic benefits of extreme sequential polyandry in a terrestrial‐breeding frog. Evolution 2019; 73:1972-1985. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Phillip G. Byrne
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life SciencesUniversity of Wollongong Wollongong New South Wales Australia 2522
| | - Juan Diego Gaitan‐Espitia
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science, School of Biological SciencesThe University of Hong Kong Pokfulam Rd Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Aimee J. Silla
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life SciencesUniversity of Wollongong Wollongong New South Wales Australia 2522
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Hernández-Gómez O, Briggler JT, Williams RN. Captivity-Induced Changes in the Skin Microbial Communities of Hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis). MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2019; 77:782-793. [PMID: 30209587 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-018-1258-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Variation in environmental conditions can result in disparate associations between hosts and microbial symbionts. As such, it is imperative to evaluate how environmental variables (e.g., habitat quality) can influence host-associated microbiome composition. Within wildlife conservation programs, captive conditions can negatively influence the establishment and maintenance of "wild-type" microbiotas within a host. Alternative microbial communities can result in the proliferation of disease among captive stock or upon reintroduction. Hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) are a threatened salamander for which extensive captive management is currently employed. Using metabarcoding, we characterized the skin microbiota of wild and captive hellbenders from two subspecies in the state of Missouri, the eastern (C. a. alleganiensis) and the Ozark hellbender (C. a. bishopi). Both subspecies in our study included wild adults and captive juveniles that were collected from the wild as eggs. Our objectives were to investigate differences in the skin microbial communities' richness/diversity, composition, and functional profiles of microbes between wild and captive individuals. Captive eastern hellbenders possessed richer communities than wild cohorts, whereas the opposite pattern was observed within the Ozark subspecies. We found significant microbial community structure between wild and captive populations of both subspecies. Microbiota structure translated into differences in the predicted metagenome of wild and captive individuals as well. As such, we can expect captive hellbenders to experience alternative microbial structure and function upon reintroduction into the wild. Our study provides a baseline for the effect of captivity on the skin microbial communities of hellbenders, and highlights the need to incorporate microbiota management in current captive-rearing programs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Obed Hernández-Gómez
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California-Berkeley, 147 Hilgard Hall, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - Jeffrey T Briggler
- Missouri Department of Conservation, 2901 W. Truman Blvd, Jefferson City, MO, 65109, USA
| | - Rod N Williams
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, 715 W. State St, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Prest TL, Kimball AK, Kueneman JG, McKenzie VJ. Host-associated bacterial community succession during amphibian development. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:1992-2006. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany L. Prest
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Colorado at Boulder; Boulder CO USA
- Department of Biology; Duke University; Durham NC USA
| | - Abigail K. Kimball
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Colorado at Boulder; Boulder CO USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Anschutz Medical Campus; Aurora CO USA
| | - Jordan G. Kueneman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Colorado at Boulder; Boulder CO USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute; Panama City Panama
| | - Valerie J. McKenzie
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Colorado at Boulder; Boulder CO USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Simple observations with complex implications: What we have learned and can learn about parental care from a frog that feeds its young. ZOOL ANZ 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcz.2017.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
|
21
|
Hughey MC, Pena JA, Reyes R, Medina D, Belden LK, Burrowes PA. Skin bacterial microbiome of a generalist Puerto Rican frog varies along elevation and land use gradients. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3688. [PMID: 28875068 PMCID: PMC5580383 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbial communities are ubiquitous among animals, and serve important functions. For example, the bacterial skin microbiome of amphibians can play a role in preventing or reducing infection by the amphibian chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Evidence suggests that environmental bacteria likely serve as a source pool for at least some of the members of the amphibian skin bacterial community, underscoring the potential for local environmental changes to disrupt microbial community source pools that could be critical to the health of host organisms. However, few studies have assessed variation in the amphibian skin microbiome along clear environmental gradients, and so we know relatively little about how local environmental conditions influence microbiome diversity. We sampled the skin bacterial communities of Coqui frogs, Eleutherodactylus coqui (N = 77), along an elevational gradient in eastern Puerto Rico (0-875 m), with transects in two land use types: intact forest (N = 4 sites) and disturbed (N = 3 sites) forest. We found that alpha diversity (as assessed by Shannon, Simpson, and Phylogenetic Diversity indices) varied across sites, but this variation was not correlated with elevation or land use. Beta diversity (community structure), on the other hand, varied with site, elevation and land use, primarily due to changes in the relative abundance of certain bacterial OTUs (∼species) within these communities. Importantly, although microbiome diversity varied, E. coqui maintained a common core microbiota across all sites. Thus, our findings suggest that environmental conditions can influence the composition of the skin microbiome of terrestrial amphibians, but that some aspects of the microbiome remain consistent despite environmental variation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Myra C Hughey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Janelle A Pena
- Department of Biology, Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Roberto Reyes
- Department of Biology, Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Daniel Medina
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Lisa K Belden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Hughey MC, Delia J, Belden LK. Diversity and stability of egg‐bacterial assemblages: The role of paternal care in the glassfrog
Hyalinobatrachium colymbiphyllum. Biotropica 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Myra C. Hughey
- Department of Biological Sciences Virginia Tech 2119 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive Blacksburg VA 24061 USA
| | - Jesse Delia
- Department of Biology Boston University 5 Cummington Mall Boston MA 02215 USA
| | - Lisa K. Belden
- Department of Biological Sciences Virginia Tech 2119 Derring Hall, 926 West Campus Drive Blacksburg VA 24061 USA
| |
Collapse
|