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Liu S, Hu X, Ge W, Mai X. Distributive fairness during the transition to adolescence: The role of peer comparison and social value orientation. Psych J 2024. [PMID: 39294873 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 09/21/2024]
Abstract
Combining the dictator game (DG) and the ultimatum game (UG), this study recruited 546 Chinese children (321 boys, aged 9-12 years) as distributors, and found that both peer comparison and social value orientation (SVO) significantly influenced children's distributive fairness from late childhood to early adolescence. Results showed that as the unfairness of peer proposals increased, participants decreased the amount of gold coins distributed to the receiver in both tasks, revealing a peer comparison effect. This effect was more pronounced for adolescents than for children in both tasks. In addition, participants' fair distribution behaviors in the DG showed a three-way interaction effect of SVO, grade, and peer comparison. Specifically, for proselfs, children were not influenced by peers and consistently proposed self-interested distributions, whereas adolescents exhibited a peer comparison effect; for prosocials, both children and adolescents were influenced by peers, but children decreased the amount of their distributions only when they saw peers make extremely unfair distributions, whereas adolescents decreased the amount of their distributions when they saw peers make both mildly and extremely unfair distributions. This study highlights the importance of social environment and personal trait in shaping children's fair distribution behavior during the transition from late childhood to early adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Liu
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
| | - Xinmu Hu
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
| | - Weijun Ge
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoqin Mai
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
- Laboratory of Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
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2
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Barth C, Grütter J. Inclusive classroom norms and children's expectations of inclusion of peers with learning difficulties in their social world. J Sch Psychol 2024; 104:101312. [PMID: 38871421 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
We examined whether inclusive classroom norms predicted children's reasoning and expectations about the inclusion of peers with learning difficulties from different perspectives (i.e., self, friends, and unfamiliar story protagonist). Swiss elementary school children (N = 1019; 51% girls; Mage = 10.20 years; Grades 3-6) shared their perceptions of inclusive classroom norms and answered questions regarding the inclusion of a character with learning difficulties in an academic scenario. Multilevel analyses revealed that children expected less inclusion from their friends (estimated OR = 0.14, p < .001) or the unfamiliar story protagonist (estimated OR = 0.15, p < .001) than from themselves. Inclusive classroom norms positively predicted children's own (estimated OR = 3.17, p = .041) and their friends' inclusion expectations (estimated OR = 4.59, p = .007). Moreover, individuals who perceived higher inclusive norms than the classroom average were less concerned that the inclusion of the child with learning difficulties would threaten successful group functioning (γ = - 0.19, p = .011). To target the inclusion of children with learning difficulties, school psychologists can heighten classmates' perceptions of inclusive norms and pay attention to individual differences in norm perception.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeanine Grütter
- Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Germany; University of Teacher Education Lucerne, Switzerland
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3
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Di Dio C, Manzi F, Miraglia L, Gummerum M, Bigozzi S, Davide M, Marchetti A. Virtual agents and risk-taking behavior in adolescence: the twofold nature of nudging. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11242. [PMID: 37433842 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38399-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Peer pressure can influence risk-taking behavior and it is particularly felt during adolescence. With artificial intelligence (AI) increasingly present in a range of everyday human contexts, including virtual environments, it is important to examine whether AI can have an impact on human's decision making processes and behavior. By using the balloon analogue risk task (BART) evaluating propensity to take risk, in this study 113 adolescents' risk-taking behavior was measured when playing alone and in the presence of either a robot avatar or human avatar. In the avatar conditions, participants performed the BART while the avatars either (1) verbally incited risk-taking or (2) discouraged risk-taking (experimental tasks). Risk-taking behavior in the BART was assessed in terms of total number of pumps, gain and explosions. Tendency to impulsivity was also evaluated, as well as the effects of age and gender on risky behavior. The main finding showed a significant effect of both avatars on risk-taking tendency, with riskier behavior during incitement than discouragement conditions, the latter being also substantially different from the playing-alone condition. The results of this study open up new questions in a very sensitive and timely topic and offer various insights into the effect of nudging on adolescents' behavior in virtual contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.
| | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Miraglia
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Massaro Davide
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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Wachs S, Castellanos M, Wettstein A, Bilz L, Gámez-Guadix M. Associations Between Classroom Climate, Empathy, Self-Efficacy, and Countering Hate Speech Among Adolescents: A Multilevel Mediation Analysis. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2023; 38:5067-5091. [PMID: 36148972 PMCID: PMC9900686 DOI: 10.1177/08862605221120905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Although hate speech is widely recognized as an online phenomenon, very few studies have investigated hate speech among adolescents in offline settings (e.g., schools). At the same time, not much is known about countering hate speech (counterspeech) among adolescents and which factors are associated with it. To this end, the present study used the socio-ecological framework to investigate the direct and indirect links among one contextual factor (i.e., classroom climate) and two intrapersonal factors (i.e., empathy for victims of hate speech, self-efficacy regarding intervention in hate speech) to understand counterspeech among adolescents. The sample is based on self-reports of 3,225 students in Grades 7 to 9 (51.7% self-identified as female) from 36 schools in Germany and Switzerland. Self-report questionnaires were administered to measure classroom climate, empathy, self-efficacy, and counterspeech. After controlling for adolescents' grade, gender, immigrant background, and socioeconomic status (SES), the 2-(1-1)-1 multilevel mediation analysis showed that classroom climate (L2), empathy for victims of hate speech (L1), and self-efficacy toward intervention in hate speech (L1) had a positive effect on countering hate speech (L1). Classroom climate (L2) was also positively linked to empathy for victims of hate speech (L1), and self-efficacy toward intervention in hate speech (L1). Furthermore, classroom climate (L2) was indirectly associated with countering hate speech (L1) via greater empathy (L1) and self-efficacy (L1). The findings highlight the need to focus on contextual and intrapersonal factors when trying to facilitate adolescents' willingness to face hate speech with civic courage and proactively engage against it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Wachs
- Department of Educational Sciences,
University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- National Anti-Bullying Research and
Resource Centre, Institute of Education, Dublin CityUniversity, Dublin,
Ireland
| | - Melisa Castellanos
- Institute for Research, Development and
Evaluation, Bern University of Teacher Education, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Wettstein
- Institute for Research, Development and
Evaluation, Bern University of Teacher Education, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ludwig Bilz
- Department of Health Sciences,
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
| | - Manuel Gámez-Guadix
- Department of Biological and Health
Psychology, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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5
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Wei B, Zhang X, Xiao X, Li Y. The effect of different types of social norms on children's sharing behavior: The roles of parents, teachers, and peers. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bingying Wei
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality Beijing Normal University Beijing P. R. China
| | - Xuran Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality Beijing Normal University Beijing P. R. China
| | - Xue Xiao
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality Beijing Normal University Beijing P. R. China
| | - Yanfang Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality Beijing Normal University Beijing P. R. China
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6
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Wachs S, Wettstein A, Bilz L, Krause N, Ballaschk C, Kansok-Dusche J, Wright MF. Playing by the Rules? An Investigation of the Relationship Between Social Norms and Adolescents' Hate Speech Perpetration in Schools. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2022; 37:NP21143-NP21164. [PMID: 34866450 PMCID: PMC9554370 DOI: 10.1177/08862605211056032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hate speech is often discussed and investigated as an online phenomenon, while hate speech among adolescents in the real world (e.g., in schools) has rarely been researched. Consequently, not much is known about potential interpersonal correlates and theoretical frameworks that might help us better understand why adolescents engage in hate speech in offline environments. To add to the literature, this study investigates hate speech perpetration among young people by utilizing the Social Cognitive Theory; more specifically, the association between witnessing and perpetrating hate speech in schools, and whether this relation is weakened or strengthened by anti-hate speech injunctive norms and deviant peer pressure. The sample consists of 1719 young people (45.1% boys, 53.6% girls, 1.3% gender diverse) between 11 and 18 years old (Mage = 13.96; SD = .98) from 22 schools in Switzerland. Self-report questionnaires were administered to measure hate speech involvement and adolescents' perception of social norms (i.e., anti-hate speech injunctive norms and deviant peer pressure). Multilevel regression analyses revealed that witnessing and perpetrating hate speech were positively associated. Moreover, injunctive anti-hate speech norms were negatively related and deviant peer pressure positively related to hate speech perpetration. Finally, increasing levels of injunctive anti-hate speech norms weakened the relation between witnessing and perpetrating hate speech, whereas higher levels of deviant peer pressure strengthened this association. The findings demonstrate that the Social Cognitive Theory is a useful framework for understanding hate speech perpetration in schools. The results also highlight the importance of taking into account social norms and interpersonal relationships (e.g., within the class) when designing anti-hate speech prevention programs and not focusing solely on intrapersonal factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Wachs
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- National Anti-Bullying Research and
Resource Centre, Institute of Education, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alexander Wettstein
- Institute for Research, Development
and Evaluation, Bern University of Teacher
Education, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ludwig Bilz
- Department of Health Sciences, Brandenburg University of Technology
Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
| | - Norman Krause
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Cindy Ballaschk
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Julia Kansok-Dusche
- Department of Health Sciences, Brandenburg University of Technology
Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
| | - Michelle F. Wright
- Department of Psychology, Penn State University, Pennsylvania, PA, USA
- Department of Psychology, DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA
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7
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McCauley TG, McCullough ME. Retrospective Self-Reported Childhood Experiences in Enriched Environments Uniquely Predict Prosocial Behavior and Personality Traits in Adulthood. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 20:14747049221110603. [PMID: 35791506 PMCID: PMC10303491 DOI: 10.1177/14747049221110603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
What features of people's childhood environments go on to shape their prosocial behavior during adulthood? Past studies linking childhood environment to adult prosocial behavior have focused primarily on adverse features, thereby neglecting the possible influence of exposure to enriched environments (e.g., access to material resources, experiences with rich cooperative relationships, and interactions with morally exemplary role models). Here, we expand the investigation of childhood environmental quality to include consideration of enriching childhood experiences and their relation to adult prosociality. In two cross-sectional studies, we found promising evidence that enriched childhood environments are associated with adult moral behavior. In study 1 (N = 1,084 MTurk workers), we adapted an existing measure of enriched childhood environmental quality for retrospective recall of childhood experiences and found that subjects' recollections of their enriched childhood experiences are distinct from their recollections of adverse childhood experiences. In Study 2 (N = 2,208 MTurk workers), we found that a formative composite of subjects' recollections of enriched childhood experiences is positively associated with a variety of morally relevant traits in adulthood, including agreeableness, honesty-humility, altruism, endorsement of the principle of care, empathic responding to the plights of needy others, and charitable donations in an experimental setting, and that these associations held after controlling for childhood environmental adversity, childhood socioeconomic status, sex, and age. We also found evidence suggesting that some, but not all, of the relationship between enrichment and adult prosociality can be explained by a shared genetic correlation. We include a new seven-item measure as an appendix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas G. McCauley
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of
Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Michael E. McCullough
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of
Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
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8
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Mammen M, Köymen B, Tomasello M. Young children’s moral judgments depend on the social relationship between agents. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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9
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Gettler LT, Boyette AH, Rosenbaum S. Broadening Perspectives on the Evolution of Human Paternal Care and Fathers’ Effects on Children. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANTHROPOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Unlike most mammals, human fathers cooperate with mothers to care for young to an extraordinary degree. Human paternal care likely evolved alongside our unique life history strategy of raising slow-developing, energetically costly children, often in rapid succession. Adaptive frameworks generally assume that paternal provisioning played a critical role in this pattern's emergence. We draw on nonhuman primate data to propose that nonprovisioning forms of low-cost hominin male care were potentially foundational and ratcheted up through evolutionary time, helping facilitate social contexts for later subsistence specialization and sharing. We then argue for expanding the breadth of anthropological research on paternal effects in families, particularly in three domains: direct care and teaching;social capital cultivation; and reduction of family conflict. Anthropologists can greatly contribute to conversations about the determinants of children's development across contexts, but we need to ask more expansive questions about the pathways through which caregivers (including fathers) affect child outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee T. Gettler
- Department of Anthropology, and Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA
| | - Adam H. Boyette
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology, and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stacy Rosenbaum
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA
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10
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Misch A, Dunham Y. (Peer) Group influence on children's prosocial and antisocial behavior. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 201:104994. [PMID: 33038705 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study investigates the influence of moral ingroup versus outgroup behavior on 5- and 6-year-olds' and 8- and 9-year-olds' own moral behavior (N = 296). After minimal group assignment, children in Experiment 1 observed adult ingroup or outgroup members engaging in prosocial sharing or antisocial stealing before they themselves had the opportunity to privately donate stickers or take away stickers from others. Older children shared more than younger children, and prosocial models elicited higher sharing. Surprisingly, group membership had no effect. Experiment 2 investigated the same question using peer models. Children in the younger age group were significantly influenced by ingroup behavior, whereas older children were not affected by group membership. Additional measures reveal interesting insights into how moral ingroup and outgroup behavior affects intergroup attitudes, evaluations, and choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Misch
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; Department of Psychology, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany.
| | - Yarrow Dunham
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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11
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Yazdi H, Heyman GD, Barner D. Children are sensitive to reputation when giving to both ingroup and outgroup members. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 194:104814. [PMID: 32145479 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies establish that reputation concerns play an important role in outgroup giving. However, it is unclear whether the same is true for ingroup giving, which by some accounts tends to be motivated by empathic concerns. To explore this question, we tested the extent to which 5 to 9-year-old children (Study 1: N = 164) and adults (Study 2: N = 80) shared resources with ingroup and outgroup members, either when being watched by an observer (where we expected reputation concerns to be salient) or in private (where we expected no effect of reputation concerns). We also assessed whether children and adults differ in their beliefs about which form of sharing (ingroup or outgroup giving) is nicer. Although we found that both children and adults exhibited an ingroup bias when sharing, there was no evidence in either group that reputation concerns were greater for outgroup members than for ingroup members. We also found that, in contrast to adults, children shared more resources when observed than in private. Additionally, children evaluated ingroup giving as nicer across different sharing scenarios, whereas adults identified outgroup giving as nicer when the two forms of giving were contrasted. These results are the first to suggest that reputational concerns influence children's sharing both with ingroup and outgroup members, and that children differ from adults in their reasoning about which form of group sharing is nicer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haleh Yazdi
- University of California, San Diego, United States.
| | | | - David Barner
- University of California, San Diego, United States
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Molleman L, Kanngiesser P, van den Bos W. Social information use in adolescents: The impact of adults, peers and household composition. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225498. [PMID: 31751413 PMCID: PMC6874082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Social learning strategies are key for making adaptive decisions, but their ontogeny remains poorly understood. We investigate how social information use depends on its source (adults vs. peer), and how it is shaped by household composition (extended vs. nuclear), a factor known to modulate social development. Using a simple estimation task, we show that social information strongly impacts the behaviour of adolescents aged 11 to 15 years (N = 256), especially when its source is an adult. However, social information use does not depend on household composition: the relative impact of adults and peers was similar in adolescents from both household types. Furthermore, adolescents were found to directly copy others' estimates surprisingly frequently. This study provides novel insights into adolescents' social information use and contributes to understanding the ontogeny of social learning strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Molleman
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development Berlin, Germany
| | - Patricia Kanngiesser
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
- Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Wouter van den Bos
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development Berlin, Germany
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Krettenauer T, Bauer K, Sengsavang S. Fairness, prosociality, hypocrisy, and happiness: Children's and adolescents' motives for showing unselfish behaviour and positive emotions. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 37:505-518. [PMID: 31162692 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined what motives account for age-related decreases in selfish behaviour and whether these motives equally predict positive emotions when making a moral decision. The study was based on a sample of 190 children and adolescents (101 females) from three different age groups (childhood, early adolescence, and middle adolescence, M = 12.9 years, SD = 2.58). A decision-making task was used where participants chose between (1) maximizing their own self-interest versus (2) being prosocial, (3) being fair, or (4) appearing fair while avoiding the costs of actually being fair. Overall, prosociality and fairness were equally important motives for unselfish behaviour. At the same time, the importance of fairness motivation increased with age. Hypocrisy motivation was less frequent than expected by chance. Prosociality was most strongly and positively associated with self-rated happiness about the decision, whereas the opposite was found for individuals who were motivated by fairness. Overall, the study indicates that children's or adolescents' unselfish behaviour in decision-making tasks are driven by a variety of motives with diverse emotional implications. The relative importance of these motives changes over the course of development. STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTION: What is already known on this subject? Older children behave less selfishly in resource allocation tasks. Prosocial behaviour is associated with positive emotions. What the present study adds? Unselfish behaviour is equally motivated by fairness and prosociality. Fairness motivation increases from childhood throughout adolescence. Decisions motivated by prosociality are experienced as more positive than decisions motivated by fairness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Krettenauer
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kathleen Bauer
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sonia Sengsavang
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
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