Parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems: A meta-analytic review

A cognitive script perspective on how early caregiving experiences inform adolescent peer relationships and loneliness: A 14-year longitudinal study of Chinese families

Leveraging data from a longitudinal study of Chinese families (n = 364), this research aims to understand the role of secure base script knowledge as a cognitive mechanism by which early caregiving experiences inform adolescents' friendship quality and feelings of loneliness. Results showed that observed maternal sensitivity at 14 and 24 months old was negatively associated with adolescents' self-reported conflicts with close friends (β = -0.17, p = 0.044) at 15 years old, and this association was partially mediated by their secure base script knowledge assessed at 10 years old. Further, secure base script knowledge moderated the link between adolescents' friend conflict and feelings of loneliness (β = -0.15, p = 0.037). The results support a cognitive script perspective on the association between early caregiving experiences and later socio-emotional adjustment. Furthermore, this study adds to the developmental literature that has previously focused on more stringent and authoritarian aspects of parenting in Chinese families, thereby contributing to our understanding of how sensitive and supportive parenting practices contribute to socio-emotional development outside of Western contexts. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Maternal sensitivity during infancy and toddlerhood has a long-term association with adolescents' friendship quality and adolescents' secure base script partially explains the association. First evidence to demonstrate that the secure base script in attachment relationships mediates the association between early maternal caregiving and socio-emotional development in Chinese adolescents. Adolescents lacking secure base script knowledge are particularly vulnerable to feelings of loneliness when facing high levels of conflict in close friendships.

Parental mentalization and children's externalizing problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Parental mentalization, as the ability to understand mental states (e.g., desires) behind their children's actions, may play a relevant role in the prevention of future externalizing problems. We conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between parental mentalization and children's externalizing problems. Six electronic databases were searched for studies, published in English or Spanish, linking empirically those two variables. Participants included caregivers and children between 0 and 18 years. The filtering process yielded 42 studies with 52 effect sizes. Random-effect analysis revealed higher parental mentalization associated with fewer externalizing problems, with an effect size of r = -.19 (95% CI [-.25, -.13]). Due to high heterogeneity (I2 = 83.750), further analyses were conducted to explore factors affecting such association. Parenting experience and children's developmental stage moderated the relationship, but approaches to operationalize mentalization (MM or PRF), sample type (clinical/at-risk vs. community), and reporting figure (primary caregiver vs. other informants) did not. The study highlights the significance of parental mentalization as a potential contributor to the prevention of externalizing behaviors among infants, children, and adolescents. Our findings may underscore practical implications for equipping caregivers with mentalization skills, helping them to answer appropriately to their children needs.

Child-father and child-mother attachment relationships in naturalistic settings

This study examines paternal and maternal sensitivity as predictors of toddlers' attachment security in two naturalistic contexts. Seventy-three mostly White middle-class families participated between 2015 and 2019 when children (49.3% girls) were approximately 29.48 months old. Each child-parent dyad completed a home and playground visit. Findings revealed paternal and maternal sensitivity were significantly associated at home and marginally at the playground. Paternal sensitivity was only predictive of security to the father at the playground, showing a medium effect, while small effects of maternal sensitivity on security to the mother were found in both contexts. Cross-parent contributions to security were small and limited to the playground. The need to consider the greater ecology of child-parent relationships and suggestions for larger-scale research are discussed.

Toddler disorganized attachment in relation to cortical thickness and socioemotional problems in late childhood

Disorganized attachment is a risk for mental health problems, with increasing work focused on understanding biological mechanisms. Examining late childhood brain morphology may be informative - this stage coincides with the onset of many mental health problems. Past late childhood research reveals promising candidates, including frontal lobe cortical thickness and hippocampal volume. However, work has been limited to Western samples and has not investigated mediation or moderation by brain morphology. Furthermore, past cortical thickness research included only 33 participants. The current study utilized data from 166 children from the GUSTO Asian cohort, who participated in strange situations at 18 months and MRI brain imaging at 10.5 years, with 124 administered the Child Behaviour Checklist at 10.5 years. Results demonstrated disorganization liked to internalizing problems, but no mediation or moderation by brain morphology. The association to internalizing (but not externalizing) problems is discussed with reference to the comparatively higher prevalence of internalizing problems in Singapore.

Family-level profiles of parental reactions to emotions: Longitudinal associations with multi-informant reports of adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms

Longitudinal study of associations between family-level emotion socialization and adolescent adjustment is limited. When American children (53.5% girls) were in second grade (N = 213; Mage = 7.98; data collected 2002-2003), mothers and fathers (79.8% of mothers and 74.2% of fathers were White) reported on their reactions to children's emotions; in seventh, eighth, and ninth grade (Mage = 13.03, 14.17, 15.29, respectively; data collected 2007-2010), adolescents, mothers, and fathers reported on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Four family-level profiles of reactions were identified. Profile differences emerged, suggesting that the emotion dismissing profile was longitudinally associated with elevated adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms and that fathering may especially foster child adjustment for families in a divergence profile.

Parental reflective functioning in mothers and fathers of preschoolers: Associations with adult attachment and parenting behavior

Parental reflective functioning (PRF) is considered a key parental competence. Since most research on PRF has focused on infancy or the first years of life, there is a gap in our understanding of PRF among parents of older children. Therefore, we investigated PRF in mothers and fathers with preschool-aged children, examining associations between PRF, parent's romantic attachment, and observed parenting behavior. The sample comprised 50 mothers, 40 fathers, and their 5-year-old children. PRF was assessed using the parental reflective functioning questionnaire (PRFQ), parental romantic attachment was assessed using the experiences in close relationships scale-revised (ECR-R), and parenting behavior was assessed during a parent-child free-play interaction with the coding interactive behavior (CIB) coding system. Results showed that mothers scored higher on the interest and curiosity scale than fathers, indicating that mothers show a more active interest and curiosity in their child's mental states. Further, higher levels of attachment anxiety in fathers were associated with higher levels of pre-mentalizing modes. In mothers, higher levels of attachment avoidance were associated with lower levels of interest and curiosity. Finally, and unexpectedly, higher levels of interest and curiosity in mothers were associated with less sensitivity during free play. In summary, the study found meaningful associations between mothers' and fathers' romantic attachment and their PRF indicating a spill-over of their attachment strategies into their relationship with their child. Further, the study results suggest that very high levels of interest and curiosity in mothers reflect hypermentalizing.

Paternal and Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Sensitivity: Links with Trajectories of Socioemotional Problems in Toddlerhood

Parental depressive symptoms and sensitivity have well-documented consequences for children; however, studies considering both parents are still scarce. This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the respective roles of paternal and maternal depressive symptoms and sensitivity in predicting the development of child socioemotional problems during toddlerhood. We also investigated the buffering role of each parent's sensitivity in the associations between the other parent's depressive symptoms and toddlers' socioemotional problems. The sample consisted of 140 Canadian families who were visited in their homes when children were around 13 (T1), 19 (T2), and 27 (T3) months of age. At T1, both parents' sensitivity was assessed from observations of parent-child interactions at home and each parent reported on his or her own depressive symptoms. At T1, T2, and T3, maternal and paternal perceptions of their toddler's socioemotional problems were assessed and aggregated. Growth curve analyses revealed that paternal and maternal depressive symptoms as well as paternal sensitivity were unique and persistent predictors of child socioemotional problems and that sensitive fathering acted as a buffer in the context of maternal depressive symptoms. This study highlights the importance of considering both parents when studying risk and protective factors for young children's socioemotional problems.

A meta-analytic examination of sensitive responsiveness as a mediator between depression in mothers and psychopathology in children

The current meta-analysis examined the mediating role of sensitive-responsive parenting in the relationship between depression in mothers and internalizing and externalizing behavior in children. A systematic review of the path of maternal sensitive responsiveness to child psychopathology identified eligible studies. Meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM) allowed for the systematic examination of the magnitude of the indirect effect across 68 studies (N = 15,579) for internalizing and 92 studies (N = 26,218) for externalizing psychopathology. The synthesized sample included predominantly White, English-speaking children (age range = 1 to 205 months; Mage = 66 months; 47% female) from Western, industrialized countries. The indirect pathway was small in magnitude and similar for externalizing (b = .02) and internalizing psychopathology (b = .01). Moderator analyses found that the indirect pathway for externalizing problems was stronger when mother-child interactions were observed during naturalistic and free-play tasks rather than structured tasks. Other tested moderators were not significant.

Paternal Activation as a Protective Factor against Problem Behaviors in Early Childhood

Activation parenting includes behaviors that challenge children to approach novel situations, explore their environments, and take physical and socioemotional risks through a balance of encouragement and limit-setting. Although components of activation parenting have been linked to lower levels of children's problem behaviors, comprehensive measures of activation parenting and longitudinal research on families from low socioeconomic backgrounds are lacking. The goal of the present study was to test associations between paternal activation parenting at age 3 and children's externalizing and internalizing problems at age 5 in a sample of low-income, ethnically diverse fathers. Participating fathers (N = 171; 9% Black, 47% white, 8% Latinx; mean household income = $25,145) and their children (51% female) were drawn from the Early Steps Multisite Study. Activation parenting during a teaching task at child age 3 was associated with lower levels of internalizing problems at age 5 and decreases in externalizing problems from baseline (age 2). Implications of the current findings are presented for future research on associations between activation parenting and child problem behaviors, including the potential for the development of prevention and intervention programs.

Mentalisation-based online intervention for psychologically distressed parents: protocol of a non-randomised feasibility trial of the Lighthouse Parenting Programme-Online (LPP-Online)

INTRODUCTION

Online-based interventions provide a low-threshold way to reach and support families. The mentalisation-based Lighthouse Parenting Programme is an established intervention aimed at preventing psychopathological development in children. The objective of this study is to examine the feasibility of an online adaptation of the Lighthouse Parenting Programme (LPP-Online), evaluating (a) recruitment capability, compliance, acceptability and satisfaction with the intervention; (b) the psychometric properties of and the acceptability regarding the adjunct psychological evaluation; and (c) the employed materials and resources. The study will also obtain a preliminary evaluation of participants' responses to the intervention.

METHOD AND ANALYSIS

In this monocentric, one-arm, non-randomised feasibility trial, n=30 psychologically distressed parents with children aged 0 to 14 years will participate in the LPP-Online for a duration of 8 weeks. The intervention consists of online group sessions and individual sessions, 38 smartphone-based ecological momentary interventions (EMI), and psychoeducational materials (website, booklet). At baseline (T0) and the end of the intervention (T1), parents complete self-report questionnaires as well as 7-day ecological momentary assessments (EMA) via smartphone. During the intervention, additional EMA are completed before and after the daily EMI. An interview regarding parents' subjective experience with the intervention will be conducted at T1. The feasibility of the intervention, the psychological evaluation and the resources will be examined using descriptive and qualitative analyses. The preliminary evaluation of the parents' response to the intervention will be conducted by analysing pre-post changes in questionnaire measures and the 7-day EMA as well as data of additional EMA completed before and after the daily EMI.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval of the study has been obtained from the local ethics board (Faculty of Behavioural and Cultural Studies, University of Heidelberg). Consent to participate will be obtained before starting the assessments. Results will be disseminated as publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals and at international conferences.

REGISTRATION DETAILS

German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00027423), OSF (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/942YW).

Parental sensitivity and family conversation: A naturalistic longitudinal study with both mothers and fathers across three time-points in early infancy

Parental verbal sensitivity is known to promote child language skills, but few studies have considered: (a) links between global (i.e., verbal, behavioral, and affective) measures of parental sensitivity and infant-initiated conversations, an important precursor to language development; (b) whether maternal and paternal sensitivity show similar links with infant-initiated conversation; or (c) the transactional role of infant conversation for later parental sensitivity. Addressing these gaps, this study of 186 British first-time parents (93 families) examines the developmental dynamics between parental sensitivity and infant communication across the first year of life. We explore; (i) the role of maternal and paternal sensitivity (assessed during structured home observations at 4 months post-partum) for parent-infant conversational interactions at 7 months (indexed by day-long naturalistic recordings), and (ii) whether these mother-infant and father-infant conversations at 7 months shape maternal and paternal sensitivity at 14 months (also assessed via structured home observations). For both male and female infants, maternal (but not paternal) sensitivity at 4 months predicted infant vocalisations and conversational initiation at 7-months. By contrast, neither index of infant talk predicted maternal or paternal sensitivity at 14 months. Together these findings refine understanding of theoretical models of social development and suggest new possibilities for future research.

Identifying vulnerable mother-infant dyads: a psychometric evaluation of two observational coding systems using varying interaction periods

Introduction

Clinical services require feasible assessments of parent-infant interaction in order to identify dyads requiring parenting intervention. We assessed the reliability and predictive validity of two observational tools and tested whether briefer forms could be identified which retain acceptable psychometric properties over short observation periods.

Methods

A stratified high-risk community sample of 250 mother-infant dyads from The Wirral Child Health and Development Study completed 7-min play-based interaction at 6-8 months. Film-footage was independently coded by two trained raters using PIIOS and NICHD-SECCYD systems. Incremental predictive validity was assessed from 3, 5 and 7 min observation to attachment outcomes (Strange Situation; 14 months) and infant mental health (BITSEA; 14 and 30 months).

Results

Excellent inter-rater reliability was evident at code and subscale level for each tool and observation period. Stability of within-rater agreement was optimal after 5 min observation. ROC analysis confirmed predictive (discriminant) validity (AUCs >0.70) to top decile age 2 mental health outcomes for PIIOS total score and a brief 3-item composite from NICHD-SECCYD (sensitivity, intrusiveness, positive regard; NICHD-3), but not to attachment outcomes. Logistic regression showed dyads rated at-risk for externalizing problems using NICHD-3 were also at significantly higher risk for insecurity at 14 months (OR = 2.7, p = 0.004).

Conclusion

PIIOS total and NICHD-3 ratings from 5 min observation are both reliable and valid tools for use in clinical practice. Findings suggest NICHD-3 may have greater utility due to its comparative brevity to train and code, with suitability for use over a broader developmental time frame (3-24 months).

Parent-child educational aspiration congruence and adolescents' internalizing problems: The moderating effect of SES

Previous studies have found that adolescents and their parents may hold discrepant views about educational aspirations. However, little is known about how these discrepancies affect adolescents' internalizing problems and the moderating effect of SES on the relation between (in)congruence of parent-child educational aspirations and adolescents' internalizing problems. Therefore, this study explored the relation between (in)congruence of parent-child educational aspirations and adolescents' internalizing problems, and further tested the moderating role of SES. Based on two-wave survey data collected from a nationally representative sample of 8194 parent-child dyads in China (51.3 % boys, mean age = 13.58 years), multilevel polynomial regression and response surface analysis were performed to investigate the hypotheses. The results found that (1) internalizing problems were minimal when the two educational aspiration variables were congruent, (2) internalizing problems were the highest when the discrepancy between child educational and parental educational aspirations was largest, and (3) SES moderated the relation between (in)congruence in educational aspirations and adolescents' internalizing problems. The study's results not only comprehensively and intuitively reveal the influence of parents' and children's educational aspirations on adolescents' internalizing problems, but also provide targeted guidance and suggestions regarding parenting practices for families from diverse SES backgrounds.

Parent-child interactive behavior in a German sample of parents with and without a mental illness: model replication and adaption of the Coding Interactive Behavior system

Studies using observational measures often fail to meet statistical standards for both reliability and validity. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Coding Interactive Behavior (CIB) System within a German sample of parent-child dyads. The sample consisted of 149 parents with and without a mental illness and their children [n experimental group (EG) = 75, n control group (CG) = 74] who participated in the larger Children of Mentally Ill Parents at Risk Evaluation (COMPARE) study. The age of the children ranged from 3 to 12 years (M = 7.99, SD = 2.5). Exploratory factor analysis supported a five-factor model of the CIB with items describing 1) parental sensitivity/reciprocity, 2) parental intrusiveness, 3) child withdrawal, 4) child involvement, and 5) parent limit setting/child compliance. Compared to international samples, the model was reduced by two independent dyadic factors. Testing for predictive validity identified seven items with predictive power to differentiate parental group membership. The CIB factors did not seem to be sufficiently sensitive to illustrate differences in interaction within a sample of parents with various mental illnesses. To apply the CIB to the described sample or similar ones in the future, additional measurement instruments may be necessary.

Multiple Risk in Pregnancy- Prenatal Risk Constellations and Mother-Infant Interactions, Parenting Stress, and Child Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors: A Prospective Longitudinal Cohort Study from Pregnancy to 18 Months Postpartum

Multiple risk is associated with adverse developmental outcomes across domains. However, as risk factors tend to cluster, it is important to investigate formation of risk constellations, and how they relate to child and parental outcomes. By means of latent class analysis patterns of prenatal risk factors were identified, and relations to interactional quality, parenting stress, and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors were investigated. An array of prenatal risk factors was assessed in 1036 Norwegian pregnant women participating in a prospective longitudinal community-based study, Little in Norway. Mother-infant interactions were videotaped and scored with the Early Relational Health Screen (ERHS) at 12 months. The Parenting Stress Index (PSI) and Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) were administered at 18 months. First, we analyzed response patterns to prenatal risks to identify number and characteristics of latent classes. Second, we investigated whether latent class membership could predict mother-child interactional quality, parenting stress, and child internalizing and externalizing behavior after the child was born. Results revealed three prenatal risk constellations: broad risk (7.52%), mental health risk (21.62%) and low-risk (70.86%). Membership in the broad risk group predicted lower scores on interactional quality, while membership in the mental health risk group predicted less favorable scores on all outcome measures. Prenatal risks clustered together in specific risk constellations that differentially related to parent, child and interactional outcomes.

The role of fathers in child development from preconception to postnatal influences: Opportunities for the National Institutes of Health Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program

A growing body of literature highlights the important role of paternal health and socioemotional characteristics in child development, from preconception through adolescence. Much of this research addresses the indirect effects of fathers, for instance, their influence on maternal behaviors during the prenatal period or via the relationship with their partner. However, emerging evidence also recognizes the direct role of paternal health and behavior for child health and adjustment across development. This critical review presents evidence of biological and sociocultural influences of fathers on preconception, prenatal, and postnatal contributions to child development. The National Institutes of Health Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program incorporates in its central conceptualization the impact of fathers on family and child outcomes. This critical synthesis of the literature focuses on three specific child outcomes in the ECHO program: health outcomes (e.g., obesity), neurodevelopmental outcomes (e.g., emotional, behavioral, psychopathological development), and positive health. We highlight the unique insights gained from the literature to date and provide next steps for future studies on paternal influences.

An exploration of the domain specificity of maternal sensitivity among a diverse sample in the infancy period: Unique paths to child outcomes

Maternal sensitivity during an observed mother-child clean-up task at 18 months and maternal sensitivity during an observed mother-child free-play task at 18 months were tested as independent predictors of child internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, social competence, and language development at 24 months. Participants (n = 292 mothers) were recruited between 2015 and 2017, and were low-income (mean annual income = $19,136) and racially and ethnically diverse (43.8% Black; 44.2% Latinx). Maternal sensitivity during clean-up was a significant predictor of all social-emotional outcomes, and a unique predictor of child internalizing symptoms. Maternal sensitivity during free-play was a unique predictor of child language. Results suggest that context-specific subtypes of maternal sensitivity may differentially relate to early child outcomes.

The polygenic and reactive nature of observed parenting

In Wertz et al. (2019), parents' polygenic scores of educational attainment (PGS-EA) predicted parental sensitive responses to the child's needs for support, as observed in a dyadic task (i.e., observed sensitivity). We aimed to replicate and expand these findings by combining longitudinal data, child genotype data and several polygenic scores in the Generation R Study. Mother-child dyads participated in two developmental periods, toddlerhood (14 months old; n = 648) and early childhood (3-4 years old, n = 613). Higher maternal PGS-EA scores predicted higher observed sensitivity in toddlerhood (b = 0.12, 95% CI 0.03, 0.20) and early childhood (b = 0.16, 95% CI 0.08, 0.24). Child PGS-EA was significantly associated with maternal sensitivity in early childhood (b = 0.11, 95% CI 0.02, 0.21), and the effect of maternal PGS-EA was no longer significant when correcting for child PGS-EA. A latent factor of PGSs based on educational attainment, intelligence (IQ) and income showed similar results. These polygenic scores might be associated with maternal cognitive and behavioral skills that help shape parenting. Maternal PGSs predicted observed sensitivity over and above the maternal phenotypes, showing an additional role for PGSs in parenting research. In conclusion, we replicated the central finding of Wertz et al. (2019) that parental PGS-EA partially explains parental sensitivity. Our findings may be consistent with evocative gene-environment correlation (rGE), emphasizing the dynamic nature of parenting behavior across time, although further research using family trios is needed to adequately test this hypothesis.

Longitudinal evidence that infants develop their imitation abilities by being imitated

Humans are widely considered the most socially sophisticated species on the planet. Their remarkable abilities in navigating the social world have given rise to complex societies and the advancement of cultural intelligence.1,2,3,4,5 But what characterizes us as ultra-social beings? Theoretical advances in social sciences over the last century purport imitation as a central mechanism for the emergence of humans' unique social-cognitive abilities.6,7,8 Uncovering the ontogeny of imitation is therefore paramount for understanding human cultural evolution. Yet how humans become able to imitate is unclear and intensely debated. Recently, multidisciplinary findings have challenged long-standing assumptions that imitation is inborn.9,10,11,12 So what are the underlying processes supporting the development of imitation? One fascinating possibility is that infants become able to imitate by being imitated.13,14,15 Cognitive theories have suggested that by perceiving others imitating one's own behavior, visual and motor representations of that behavior are coactivated and associated, leading to the emergence of imitation abilities.14,15 Here, we show that being imitated by sensitive caregivers in infancy constitutes a psychological process giving rise to infants' imitation abilities. Results demonstrated (1) that maternal imitation at 14 months positively predicted infants' imitation abilities at 18 months and (2) that maternal imitation at 14 months mediated the positive effect of maternal sensitivity at 6 months on infants' imitation abilities at 18 months. This offers substantial evidence for the role of social interactions in the emergence of imitation as a key factor for human cultural learning.

Parental sensitivity to toddler's need for autonomy: An empirical study on mother-toddler and father-toddler interactions during feeding and play

During the second year of life, children's need for autonomy grows, and their behaviors become increasingly complex. Parental sensitivity to children's different cues is important in supporting adaptive psycho-emotional development. The present study assumes that mothers and fathers may respond with varying levels of sensitivity to the child's different cues, with particular attention to requests for greater autonomy. The study also examines the possible role played by interactive contexts (ie., play and feeding) and children's and parents' individual factors. The sample comprised N = 91 families with children aged between 12 and 24 months. Mother-toddler and father-toddler interactions were assessed during feeding and play. Parents completed questionnaires assessing children's temperament, psychopathological risk, and parenting stress. RESULTS: showed that toddlers' demands for autonomy were the most frequent cues in both play and feeding contexts, both with mothers and fathers. Furthermore, parents were more sensitive to toddlers' requests for cooperation than their requests for autonomy, in both interactive contexts. Moreover, mothers and fathers showed higher sensitivity to toddlers' demands for greater autonomy in the play context rather than in the feeding context. Mothers were more sensitive than fathers to toddlers' cues of resistance to parents' actions and to toddlers' requests for cooperation. Results showed differences and specificities in mother-toddler and father-toddler interactions in the two interactive contexts, showing associations between child negative emotionality, parental psychopathological risk and parenting stress, and maternal and paternal sensitivity to toddlers' demands for greater autonomy during play and feeding, respectively. These results confirm the initial hypotheses regarding parental sensitivity and its differential expression according to child cues. Implications are discussed.

Coding Dyadic Behavior in Caregiver-Child Interaction from a Clinical Psychology Perspective: How Should Multiple Instruments and Outcomes Be Dealt with?

The experiences children have in the interactions with their caregivers influence their developmental outcomes. To target caregiving and optimize intervention effects, the assessment of caregiver-child interactions is highly relevant for families affected by parental mental disorders. Behavioral observation is a widely used method for assessing family dynamics, and the literature offers a wide variety of instruments with which to code such data. However, a structured overview of behavioral observation instruments (BOIs) is lacking, and the multitude of types of dyadic behaviors (DBs) assessed within each BOI are complicating their application. We aim to provide an overview of the BOIs applied to families affected by mental disorders and suggest a DB taxonomy that may be used across BOIs. We first conducted a systemic literature search to identify the most frequently used BOIs and the DBs they capture in clinical psychology. Second, we asked 13 experts to sort DB terms based on perceived conceptual similarity and analyzed these results using multidimensional scaling. We found approximately 450 different terms for DBs, and we argue that DBs can be classified within two overarching dimensions, i.e., in terms of structure and in terms of reaction to a child's signals. These efforts can facilitate the coding and application of BOIs in clinical practice.

Mentalizing in first-time fathers: reflective functioning as a mediator between attachment representation and sensitivity

Sensitivity in parent-child interaction is essential for child development. Since fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, identifying factors leading to paternal sensitivity is crucial. We examined the relation between attachment representation and reflective functioning (RF) as factors influencing paternal sensitivity in a longitudinal study including N = 40 first-time fathers (Mage = 33) and their 6-month-old children. We used the Adult Attachment Interview during pregnancy to assess paternal attachment representation and general RF, the Parental Development Interview to assess fathers' parental RF, and the Emotional Availability Scale to measure sensitivity at child's age of 6 month. Data show that secure paternal attachment representation, high general and parental RF are associated with higher levels of paternal sensitivity. Further, parental RF mediates the association between attachment representation and paternal sensitivity. These findings contribute to the identification of a causal interplay in that they suggest an explanatory effect of RF on the association between fathers' attachment representation, and sensitivity.

Effects of emotionally oriented parental interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

This systematic review and meta-analysis investigates the effects of emotionally oriented parental interventions.

Background

Several emotionally oriented parental interventions have been developed during the last decade. Some of these have gained popularity and spread across several continents. The literature is growing and consists of qualitative studies; intervention only, quasi-experimental, case-control studies; and randomized controlled trials. They indicate effects for parents and children. However, no systematic review or meta-analysis has, to our knowledge, summarized the results.

Method

Using several search engines, we located 8,272 studies. After abstract and full-text screening, 33 studies were assessed for bias and included in the study. Outcomes for parents and children were extracted and combined into three constructs for parents and two for children. Meta-analyses were conducted for each construct to estimate the effect of the interventions using a robust Bayes meta-analysis.

Results

The results indicate the presence of a small to medium effect on parents' mental health, behavior, and use of emotionally oriented parenting, as well as on children's internalizing and externalizing difficulties. Most participants were recruited from the general population, and clinical settings were rare. The results show little evidence of publication bias.

Conclusion

There is evidence of a small to medium effect of emotionally oriented interventions on parents and children.

Systematic review registration

https://osf.io/un3q4/.

Cultural considerations in the assessment of sensitivity in low-income caregivers in Ethiopia

Background

Caregiver sensitivity is associated with positive child outcomes, and improving sensitivity is often the aim of parenting-directed interventions. However, sensitivity was conceptualized in Western cultures, and its application in populations with different backgrounds is still limited.

Objective

This study aimed to foster a contextualized cultural understanding of the meaning and nature of sensitivity by assessing the possibility of evaluating sensitivity in a low-income population living in Ethiopia and describing the nature of (in)sensitive parenting. Moreover, the associations between sensitivity and discipline, the quality of the environment, and individual characteristics were explored.

Methods

Parental sensitivity was coded on naturalistic video-recorded observations of free interactions between 25 female primary caregivers and their children. Caregivers completed questionnaires on discipline strategies and the level of satisfaction with the environment (access to basic needs, quality of house condition, community and family support, quality of learning opportunities, and working conditions).

Results

The assessment of sensitivity in this population was possible, with caregivers showing the full range of sensitivity levels. A description of manifestations of sensitivity in this population is provided. A K-means cluster analysis evidenced that high sensitivity was associated with high satisfaction regarding housing conditions and family environment. No association between sensitivity and discipline emerged.

Conclusion

The findings show the feasibility of assessing sensitivity in this sample. The descriptions of observed behaviors contribute to understanding culturally specific aspects of sensitivity to consider when assessing sensitivity in similar populations. The study provides considerations and guidelines to inform the structure of culturally-based interventions to promote sensitive parenting in similar cultural and socioeconomic situations.

Sensitive responsiveness in expectant and new fathers

Fathers have an increasingly important role in the family and contribute through their sensitive responsiveness to positive child development. Research on parenting more often included fathers as caregivers in the past two decades. We present a neurobiological model of sensitive responsive parenting with a role for fathers' hormonal levels and neural connectivity and processing of infant signals. We tested this model in a research program ("Father Trials") with correlational and randomized experimental studies, and we review the results of these studies. So far, interaction-focused behavioral interventions seem most promising in supporting fathers' sensitive responsiveness, even though the mechanisms are still uncharted.

Intrusive parenting in early childhood: A review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis examines similarities and differences in intrusive parenting between mothers and fathers and relations between intrusive parenting and early childhood development. The authors integrated 55 studies and differentiated cognitive skills and socio-emotional problems as developmental outcomes. The present study employs three-level meta-analyses to reliably estimate effect sizes and examine a range of moderators. It finds a moderate effect size of similarities in intrusive parenting within a family (r = 0.256, confidence interval [CI] = [0.180, 0.329]). No significant differences were observed in intrusiveness level between mothers and fathers (g = 0.035, CI = [-0.034, 0.103]). Intrusive parenting had a significant positive association with children's socio-emotional problems (r_mother  = 0.098, CI_mother  = [0.051, 0.145]; r_father  = 0.094, CI _father  = [0.032, 0.154]) but was not related to cognitive skills. Moderator analyses suggest that East Asian mothers exhibit higher intrusiveness levels than fathers, whereas Western parents display no significant differences. Overall, these results reveal more similarities than differences in intrusive parenting and that culture likely plays a role in shaping gender-specific parenting behaviors.

Variation in maternal sensitivity and the development of memory biases in preschoolers

Introduction

Links between maternal sensitivity, hippocampal development, and memory abilities suggests early life insensitive care may shape structures and schemas influencing future decisions and stress management, biasing children to negative information. While it is possible that this pattern of neurodevelopment may have adaptive consequences, for example, preventing children from encountering untoward experience with future adversity, it may also leave some children at risk for the development of internalizing problems.

Methods

Here, in a Two Wave Study, we examine whether insensitive care predicts sub sequentially assessed memory biases for threatening (but not happy) stimuli in preschoolers (n = 49), and if such relations cut across different forms of relational memory, i.e., memory for relations between two "items," between an "item" and its spatial location, and an "item" and its temporal sequence. In a subset (n = 18) we also examine links between caregiving, memory, and hippocampal subregion volume.

Results

Results indicate no main or interactive influence of gender on relational memory. However, insensitive caregiving predicted the difference between Angry and Happy memory during the Item-Space condition (B = 2.451, se = 0.969, p = 0.014, 95% CI (0.572, 4.340)], as well as memory for Angry (but not Happy) items [B = -2.203, se = 0.551, p < 0.001, 95% CI (-3.264,-1.094)]. Memory for the difference between Angry and Happy stimuli in the Space condition associated with larger right hippocampal body volumes (Rho = 0.639, p = 0.004). No relations were observed with internalizing problems.

Discussion

Results are discussed with reference to developmental stage and in consideration of whether negative biases may serve as an intermediate factor linking early life insensitive care and later socioemotional problems including an increased incidence of internalizing disorders.

Toward a dimensional model of risk and protective factors influencing children's early cognitive, social, and emotional development during the COVID-19 pandemic

Variation in infants' home environment is implicated in their cognitive and psycho-social development. The pandemic has intensified variations in home environments through exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities, and increasing psychological stressors for some families. This study investigates the effects of parental (predominantly maternal) mental health, enriching activities and screen use on 280 24- to 52-month-olds' executive functions, internalising and externalising problems, and pro-social behaviour; with socioeconomic status and social support as contextual factors. Our results indicate that aspects of the home environment are differentially associated with children's cognitive and psycho-social development. Parents who experienced sustained mental distress during the pandemic tended to report higher child externalising and internalising problems, and executive function difficulties at follow-up. Children who spent more time engaged in enriching activities with their parents showed stronger executive functions and social competence six months later. Screen use levels during the first year of the pandemic were not associated with outcomes. To mitigate the risk of persistent negative effects for this 'pandemic generation' of infants, our study highlights the importance of supporting parents' mental health. As our results demonstrate the impact of social support on mental health, investing in support services and interventions promoting building support networks are likely to be beneficial.

Conduct Problems and Hair Cortisol Concentrations Decrease in School-Aged Children after VIPP-SD: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Two Twin Cohorts

The Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) is effective in increasing parental sensitivity and sensitive discipline, and aims to decrease child behavior problems. Changes in quality of parenting may be accompanied by effects on child stress levels. However, studies of VIPP-SD effects on child behavior problems have shown mixed results and there are no studies to date of the effect of the intervention on children's stress levels, as measured by hair cortisol concentration (HCC). Furthermore, differences in intervention effectiveness may be explained by differential susceptibility factors. We hypothesized that the effects of the VIPP-SD on child behavior problems might be moderated by currently available child polygenic scores of differential susceptibility (PGS-DS). In the current pre-registered trial, we randomly assigned 40% of n = 445 families with school-aged twin children to the intervention group. The VIPP-SD was successful in decreasing both children's conduct problems and HCC. Effects were not moderated by available child PGS-DS. We conclude that a brief, home-based video-feedback parenting intervention can decrease child behavior problems and affect the child's stress-related neuroendocrine system as assessed with hair cortisol. In future studies, more specific PGS-DS for externalizing behaviors should be used as well as parental PGS-DS.

A meta-analysis on observed paternal and maternal sensitivity

Two meta-analyses were conducted (N = 10,980 child-father dyads) with 93 studies published between 1983-2020, primarily in North America and Europe, on observed parental sensitivity to children (3-180 months; 48% girls; 14% non-White) in partnered mothers and fathers. The first meta-analysis found higher maternal mean levels of observed sensitivity, with a small effect size (d = -.27). Differences between parents were larger with micro coding and triadic/family assessments. Differences narrowed as a function of publication year and were not significant in European samples. The second meta-analysis identified a moderate correlation between observed maternal and paternal sensitivity (r = .23 after adjusting for probable publication bias). Correlations were larger in Middle Eastern samples and with composite sensitivity scales.

Children in foster care with symptoms of reactive attachment disorder: feasibility randomised controlled trial of a modified video-feedback parenting intervention

BACKGROUND

Looked-after children are at risk of suboptimal attachment patterns and reactive attachment disorder (RAD). However, access to interventions varies widely, and there are no evidence-based interventions for RAD.

AIMS

To modify an existing parenting intervention for children with RAD in the UK foster care setting, and test the feasibility of conducting a randomised controlled trial (RCT) of the modified intervention.

METHOD

The intervention was modified with expert input and tested on a case series. A feasibility and pilot RCT compared the new intervention with usual care. Foster carers and children in their care aged ≤6 years were recruited across nine local authorities, with 1:1 allocation and blind post-treatment assessments. The modified intervention was delivered in-home by trained mental health professionals over 4-6 months. Children were assessed for RAD symptoms, attachment quality and emotional/behavioural difficulties, and foster carers were assessed for sensitivity and stress.

RESULTS

Minimal changes to the intervention programme were necessary, and focused on improving its suitability for the UK foster care context. Recruitment was challenging, and remained below target despite modifications to the protocol and the inclusion of additional sites. Thirty families were recruited to the RCT; 15 were allocated to each group. Most other feasibility outcomes were favourable, particularly high numbers of data and treatment completeness. The revised intervention was positively received by practitioners and foster carers.

CONCLUSIONS

A large-scale trial may be feasible, but only if recruitment barriers can be overcome. Dedicated resources to support recruitment within local authorities and wider inclusion criteria are recommended.