Mitochondrial phylogenomics illuminates the evolutionary history of Neuropterida

A camouflaged diversity: taxonomic revision of the thorny lacewing subfamily Symphrasinae (Neuroptera, Rhachiberothidae)

Species of the thorny lacewing subfamily Symphrasinae (Neuroptera: Rhachiberothidae) are revised. Prior to this work, 42 species were known in the genera Anchieta Navás, 1909, Plega Navás, 1928, and Trichoscelia Westwood, 1852. Herein, the number of species is increased to 60, 23 of which are newly described. Species previously known are redescribed, and their taxonomic status is revised. Keys, diagnoses, and high-resolution images for all species are presented. The distribution range of Anchieta is now known from Costa Rica to southern Brazil with a total of 11 species, of which three are newly described. The genus Plega is known from southwestern United States to southern Brazil and includes 28 species of which 14 are described as new. Moreover, the genus Trichoscelia occurs from central and southern Mexico to Argentina, with a total of 21 species, of which six are herein newly described. A phylogenetic analysis of Symphrasinae based on morphological characters recovered the three symphrasine genera as monophyletic, with Anchieta sister to Plega + Trichoscelia. The three genera are newly diagnosed based on a cladistic framework. Within the genus Anchieta, bee-mimicking species comprise a monophyletic group, while wasp-mimicking species form a laddered sequence to that lineage. Within Plega, three lineages are recovered, the first mostly composed of South and Mesoamerican species, the second with species predominantly from Central America and central and southern Mexico, and a third clade encompassing species mostly from central and northern Mexico and southwestern United States. By contrast, relationships between species of Trichoscelia were poorly resolved because of a simplified and conserved morphology of this group.

Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genome of the Libelloides sibiricus (Neuroptera, Ascalaphidae)

Libelloides sibiricus (Eversmann, 1850) is widely distributed in China, Korea and eastern Russia. To date, few studies have been conducted on this species, with the exception of morphological taxonomy studies. In this study, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of Libelloides sibiricus, which is 15,811 bp in length, with an overall A + T content of 74.8%, encoding 2 ribosomal RNA genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, 13 protein-coding genes, and a control region. The gene arrangement and components of L. sibiricus are identical to those of most other Neuropteran species. TAA is utilized as the termination codon for most PCGs and TAG for nd1, however, nd6 and atp6 used the incomplete termination codon TA- and cox1, cox2, nd5, cytb had termination codons consisting of only T-. In addition, we selected all known 59 species of Neuroptera from NCBI, and used Sialis hamata, Sialis melania, Sialis longidens and Sialis jiyuni (Megaloptera: Sialidae) as the outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that the mitogenome of L. sibiricus was the most closely related to L. macaronius and all the owlflies formed the monophyletic group within the superfamily Myrmeleontoidea.

Phylogenomics resolves the higher-level phylogeny of herbivorous eriophyoid mites (Acariformes: Eriophyoidea)

BACKGROUND

Eriophyoid mites (Eriophyoidea) are among the largest groups in the Acariformes; they are strictly phytophagous. The higher-level phylogeny of eriophyoid mites, however, remains unresolved due to the limited number of available morphological characters-some of them are homoplastic. Nevertheless, the eriophyoid mites sequenced to date showed highly variable mitochondrial (mt) gene orders, which could potentially be useful for resolving the higher-level phylogenetic relationships.

RESULTS

Here, we sequenced and compared the complete mt genomes of 153 eriophyoid mite species, which showed 54 patterns of rearranged mt gene orders relative to that of the hypothetical ancestor of arthropods. The shared derived mt gene clusters support the monophyly of eriophyoid mites (Eriophyoidea) as a whole and the monophylies of six clades within Eriophyoidea. These monophyletic groups and their relationships were largely supported in the phylogenetic trees inferred from mt genome sequences as well. Our molecular dating results showed that Eriophyoidea originated in the Triassic and diversified in the Cretaceous, coinciding with the diversification of angiosperms.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals multiple molecular synapomorphies (i.e. shared derived mt gene clusters) at different levels (i.e. family, subfamily or tribe level) from the complete mt genomes of 153 eriophyoid mite species. We demonstrated the use of derived mt gene clusters in unveiling the higher-level phylogeny of eriophyoid mites, and underlines the origin of these mites and their co-diversification with angiosperms.

A comprehensive phylogenomic study unveils evolutionary patterns and challenges in the mitochondrial genomes of Carcharhiniformes: A focus on Triakidae

The complex evolutionary patterns in the mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of the most species-rich shark order, the Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks) has led to challenges in the phylogenomic reconstruction of the families and genera belonging to the order, particularly the family Triakidae (houndsharks). The current state of Triakidae phylogeny remains controversial, with arguments for both monophyly and paraphyly within the family. We hypothesize that this variability is triggered by the selection of different a priori partitioning schemes to account for site and gene heterogeneity within the mitogenome. Here we used an extensive statistical framework to select the a priori partitioning scheme for inference of the mitochondrial phylogenomic relationships within Carcharhiniformes, tested site heterogeneous CAT + GTR + G4 models and incorporated the multi-species coalescent model (MSCM) into our analyses to account for the influence of gene tree discordance on species tree inference. We included five newly assembled houndshark mitogenomes to increase resolution of Triakidae. During the assembly procedure, we uncovered a 714 bp-duplication in the mitogenome of Galeorhinus galeus. Phylogenetic reconstruction confirmed monophyly within Triakidae and the existence of two distinct clades of the expanded Mustelus genus. The latter alludes to potential evolutionary reversal of reproductive mode from placental to aplacental, suggesting that reproductive mode has played a role in the trajectory of adaptive divergence. These new sequences have the potential to contribute to population genomic investigations, species phylogeography delineation, environmental DNA metabarcoding databases and, ultimately, improved conservation strategies for these ecologically and economically important species.

Cephalic anatomy highlights morphological adaptation to underground habitats in a minute lacewing larva of Dilar (Dilaridae) and conflicting phylogenetic signal in Neuroptera

Dilaridae are a distinctive and phylogenetically ambiguous neuropteran family. So far, the anatomy of the immature stages remains largely unknown. We examined the 1st instar larvae of Dilar montanus in detail and present results of live observations for the first time. The minute, cryptic larvae display features correlated with their underground lifestyle: for instance, a strongly flattened head, stout antennae, eyelessness, and burrowing forelegs. In contrast to molecular data, several characters suggest a 'dilarid clade' combining Dilaridae with Mantispoidea, for instance a very thin and curved or reduced tentorial bridge, and an elongated postmentum. We found intrinsic antennal muscles and Johnston's organ, the first record of these structures in holometabolous larvae. This proves that the first 2 larval antennomeres are homologous with the scapus and pedicellus. The described characters are discussed and analyzed with an updated matrix of neuropteran larval characters. Alternative scenarios of character evolution are presented. Additionally, we show how the 1st-instar larvae move and feed in the substrate, and also provide a high-resolution video recording of the function of the elongate tubular ovipositor and the egg-laying behavior in an adult female under natural conditions.

The Morphological Diversity of Dragon Lacewing Larvae (Nevrorthidae, Neuroptera) Changed More over Geological Time Scales Than Anticipated

Nevrorthidae, the group of dragon lacewings, has often been considered a relic group. Today, dragon lacewings show a scattered distribution, with some species occurring in southern Europe, Japan, Australia, and one in China. The idea that this distribution is only a remnant of an originally larger distribution is further supported by fossils of the group preserved in ambers from the Baltic region (Eocene, ca. 35-40 MaBP) and Myanmar (Kachin amber, Cretaceous, ca. 100 MaBP). Larvae of the group are slender and elongated and live mostly in water. Yet, larvae are in fact very rare. So far, only slightly more than 30 larval specimens, counting all extant and fossil larvae, have been depicted in the literature. Here, we report numerous additional specimens, including extant larvae, but also fossil ones from Baltic and Kachin amber. Together with the already known ones, this sums up to over 100 specimens. We analysed quantitative aspects of the morphology of these larvae and compared them over time to identify changes in the diversity. Despite the enriched sample size, the data set is still unbalanced, with, for example, newly hatched larvae (several dozen specimens) only known from the Eocene. We expected little change in larval morphology over geological time, as indicated by earlier studies. However, on the contrary, we recognised morphologies present in fossils that are now extinct. This result is similar to those for other groups of lacewings which have a relic distribution today, as these have also suffered a loss in diversity in larval forms.

Contribution to the Knowledge of Dicranoptychini (Diptera, Tipuloidea, Limoniidae) in China, with the First Mitochondrial Genome of the Tribe and Its Phylogenetic Implications

Dicranoptychini is a tribe in the subfamily Limoniinae (Diptera, Tipuloidea, and Limoniidae) and includes only the genus Dicranoptycha Osten Sacken, 1860. However, the species diversity of the tribe in China was seriously underestimated, and the taxonomic status of Dicranoptycha has long been controversial. In this study, types of Chinese Dicranoptycha species and specimens collected from several localities in China were examined, and the first mitochondrial (mt) genome of the tribe Dicranoptychini is presented. Two Dicranoptycha species, D. jiufengshana sp. nov. and D. shandongensis sp. nov., from China, are described and illustrated as new to science. A Palaearctic species, D. prolongata Alexander, 1938, is recorded in China for the first time. In addition, the complete mt genome of D. shandongensis sp. nov. is sequenced and annotated, indicating that it is a typical circular DNA molecule with a length of 16,157 bp and shows a similar gene order, nucleotide composition, and codon usage to mt genomes of other Tipuloidea species. The two pairs of repeat elements are found in its control region. Phylogenetic results confirm the sister-group relationship between Cylindrotomidae and Tipulidae, question the position of the genus Epiphragma Osten Sacken, 1860 in Limoniidae, and indicate that Dicranoptychini may be a basal lineage within Limoniinae.

Comparative genome and phylogenetic analysis revealed the complex mitochondrial genome and phylogenetic position of Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley

Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley is a destructive pest that causes severe economic damage to litchi and longan. Previous C. sinensis research has focused on population life tables, oviposition selectivity, pest population prediction, and control technology. However, there are few studies on its mitogenome and phylogenetic evolution. In this study, we sequenced the whole mitogenome of C. sinensis by the third-generation sequencing, and analyzed the characteristics of its mitogenome by comparative genome. The complete mitogenome of C. sinensis is a typical circular and double-stranded structure. The ENC-plot analyses revealed that natural selection could affect the information of codon bias of the protein-coding genes in the mitogenome of C. sinensis in the evolutionary process. Compared with 12 other Tineoidea species, the trnA-trnF gene cluster of tRNA in the C. sinensis mitogenome appears to have a new arrangement pattern. This new arrangement has not been found in other Tineoidea or other Lepidoptera, which needs further exploration. Meanwhile, a long AT repeated sequence was inserted between trnR and trnA, trnE and trnF, ND1 and trnS in the mitogenome of C. sinensis, and the reason for this sequence remains to be further studied. Furthermore, the results of phylogenetic analysis showed that the litchi fruit borer belonged to Gracillariidae, and Gracillariidae was monophyletic. The results will contribute to an improved understanding of the complex mitogenome and phylogeny of C. sinensis. It also will provide a molecular basis for further research on the genetic diversity and population differentiation of C. sinensis.

Phylogenetic Implications of Mitogenomic Sequences and Gene Rearrangements of Scale Insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea)

Coccoidea (scale insects) are important plant parasites with high diversity of species. However, the phylogenetic relationship within Coccoidea has not been fully determined. In this study, we sequenced mitogenomes of six species belonging to five coccoid families. With the addition of three previously published mitogenomes, a total of 12 coccoid species were adopted for the phylogenetic reconstruction based on the maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. The monophyly of Coccoidea was recovered and Aclerdidae and Coccidae were recovered as the sister group, successively sister to Cerococcidae, Kerriidae, and Eriococcidae. In addition, there were gene rearrangements occurring in all mitogenomes of coccoid species studied here. The novel gene rearrangement ND6-trnP and trnI-ND2-trnY supported the monophyly of Coccoidea and the sister relationship of Aclerdidae and Coccidae. This implies that data from the mitogenome can provide new insight for clarifying the deeper level of phylogenetic relationship within Coccoidea.

Giant Jurassic dragon lacewing larvae with lacustrine palaeoecology represent the oldest fossil record of larval neuropterans

Neuropterans seem to be less specious among holometabolans, while they are in fact the relicts of a diverse group from the Mesozoic era. Their early radiation resulted in great family level morphological heterogeneity of extant neuropterans, especially of their larvae. The earliest previously reported fossil larvae of this group were from the Early Cretaceous, where they already showed high taxonomic diversity and an extremely wide range of variations in morphotypes. In this work, the earliest record of the larva of the neuropteran Palaeoneurorthus baii gen. et sp. nov. from the Middle Jurassic Daohugou Beds of China is described. The larvae, which have large and elongated bodies, straight stylets with curved apices, an extremely elongated cervix and an extended anterior lobe of pronotum, are placed in Nevrorthidae. The elongated cervix is probably a specialized adaptation for hunting small organisms. The palaeoenvironment of these larvae indicates that larvae of Nevrorthidae have exhibited stable aquatic ecology since the Middle Jurassic, and underwent a possible shift from lakes to more lotic yet constricted modern mountain rivulet habitats over time.

An Expanded View on the Morphological Diversity of Long-Nosed Antlion Larvae Further Supports a Decline of Silky Lacewings in the Past 100 Million Years

Lacewings have been suggested to be a relict group. This means that the group of lacewings, Neuroptera, should have been more diverse in the past, which also applies to many ingroups of Neuroptera. Psychopsidae, the group of silky lacewings, is one of the ingroups of Neuroptera which is relatively species-poor in the modern fauna. Larvae of the group Psychopsidae, long-nosed antlions, can be easily identified as such in being larvae of antlion-like lacewings without teeth in their stylets (=compound structure of mandible and maxilla), with empodia (=attachment structures on legs) and with a prominent forward-protruding labrum. Therefore, such larvae can also be recognised in the fossil record. An earlier study demonstrated a decline in the morphological diversity of long-nosed antlion larvae over the past 100 million years. Here, we report several dozen new long-nosed antlion larvae and expand the earlier quantitative study. Our results further corroborate the decline of silky lacewings. Yet, a lack of an indication of saturation indicates that we have still not approached the original diversity of long-nosed antlions in the Cretaceous.

A Rearrangement of the Mitochondrial Genes of Centipedes (Arthropoda, Myriapoda) with a Phylogenetic Analysis

Due to the limitations of taxon sampling and differences in results from the available data, the phylogenetic relationships of the Myriapoda remain contentious. Therefore, we try to reconstruct and analyze the phylogenetic relationships within the Myriapoda by examining mitochondrial genomes (the mitogenome). In this study, typical circular mitogenomes of Mecistocephalus marmoratus and Scolopendra subspinipes were sequenced by Sanger sequencing; they were 15,279 bp and 14,637 bp in length, respectively, and a control region and 37 typical mitochondrial genes were annotated in the sequences. The results showed that all 13 PCGs started with ATN codons and ended with TAR codons or a single T; what is interesting is that the gene orders of M. marmoratus have been extensively rearranged compared with most Myriapoda. Thus, we propose a simple duplication/loss model to explain the extensively rearranged genes of M. marmoratus, hoping to provide insights into mitogenome rearrangement events in Myriapoda. In addition, our mitogenomic phylogenetic analyses showed that the main myriapod groups are monophyletic and supported the combination of the Pauropoda and Diplopoda to form the Dignatha. Within the Chilopoda, we suggest that Scutigeromorpha is a sister group to the Lithobiomorpha, Geophilomorpha, and Scolopendromorpha. We also identified a close relationship between the Lithobiomorpha and Geophilomorpha. The results also indicate that the mitogenome can be used as an effective mechanism to understand the phylogenetic relationships within Myriapoda.

Unraveling the evolutionary history of the snakefly family Inocelliidae (Insecta: Raphidioptera) through integrative phylogenetics

Inocelliidae is one of the two extant families of the holometabolan order Raphidioptera (snakeflies), with the modern fauna represented by seven genera and 44 species. The evolutionary history of the family is little-known. Here we present the first phylogenetic and biogeographical analyses based on a worldwide sampling of taxa and datasets combined with morphological characters and mitochondrial genomes, aiming to investigate the intergeneric phylogeny and historical biogeography of Inocelliidae. The phylogenetic inference from the combined analysis of morphological and molecular data recovered the sister-group relationship between a clade of (Negha + Indianoinocellia) + Sininocellia and a clade of Fibla + the Inocellia clade (interiorly nested by Amurinocellia and Parainocellia). Amurinocellia stat.r. and Parainocellia stat.r. et emend.n. are relegated to subgeneric status within Inocellia, whereas a newly erected subgenus of Inocellia, Epinocellia subgen.n., accommodates the former Parainocellia burmana (U. Aspöck and H. Aspöck, 1968) plus a new species Inocellia (Epinocellia) weii sp.n. Further, the Inocellia crassicornis group constitutes the nominotypical subgenus Inocellia stat.n., but the Inocellia fulvostigmata group is paraphyletic. Diversification within Inocelliidae is distinguished by an Eocene divergence leading to extant genera and a Miocene radiation of species. A biogeographical scenario depicts how the diverse inocelliid fauna from East Asia could have originated from western North America via dispersal across the Beringia during the early Tertiary, and how the Miocene ancestors of Inocellia could have accomplished long-distance dispersals via the Tibet-Himalayan corridor or eastern Palaearctic to western Palaearctic. Our results shed new light specifically on the evolution of Inocelliidae and, in general, the Raphidioptera.

A New Cretaceous Dustywing Genus (Neuroptera: Coniopterygidae) with Peculiar Wing Venation

The species and morphological diversity of dustywings (Neuroptera: Coniopterygidae) from the Cretaceous, of which the knowledge is rapidly increasing by recent studies on the species from the mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber, provide valuable evidence for understanding the phylogeny and early evolution of this highly specialized lacewing lineage. Here we describe a new genus and two new species of this genus in Coniopterygidae from the mid-Cretaceous (lowermost Cenomanian) of northern Myanmar, namely Paradoxoconis szirakii gen. et sp. nov. and Paradoxoconis longipalpa gen. et sp. nov. The new genus possesses a peculiar combination of wing characters, e.g., the terminal fusion or connection between ScP and RA, the terminal connection of RA to RP, the presence of forewing A3, and the presence of a distal gradate series of crossveins. Despite uncertain subfamilial placement, this new genus morphologically resembles the extant genus Coniocompsa Enderlein, 1905 of the subfamily Aleuropteryginae and the extant genus Flintoconis Sziráki, 2007 of the subfamily Brucheiserinae. Our finding highlights the palaeodiversity of dustywings from the Cretaceous.

Phylogenetic implications of the complete mitochondrial genome of Ogcogastersegmentator (Westwood, 1847) and first record of the genus Ogcogaster Westwood, 1847 from China (Neuroptera, Myrmeleontidae, Ascalaphinae)

Background

The genus Ogcogaster Westwood, 1847, which is endemic to the Oriental Region and contains only five species, has been recorded in India and Pakistan, but not in China. The genus was not sampled in any previous study on the phylogeny of Neuroptera and its affinity within Ascalaphinae is unclear.

New information

The owlfly species Ogcogastersegmentator (Westwood, 1847) is firstly recorded from China, based on a female specimen collected from Yunnan Province, which represents the first record of the genus Ogcogaster from China. The complete mitochondrial genome of this species is first sequenced and described. The phylogenetic analysis, based on all 13 PCGs and two rRNA genes of the owlfly mitogenomes determined so far, assigned O.segmentator into a monophyletic group with Libelloidesmacaronius (Scopoli, 1763) and Ascalohybrissubjacens (Walker, 1853).

Evolution of holometaboly revealed by developmental transformation of internal thoracic structures in a green lacewing Chrysopa pallens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

Despite extensive studies on the morphology of holometabolous insects and their larvae, the morphological transformations of internal structures during metamorphosis have been rarely documented. Here, we used micro-computed tomography to investigate the developmental transformations of thoracic structures in the green lacewing Chrysopa pallens (Rambur, 1838) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), with emphasis on the development of the digestive, tracheal, and thoracic skeleto-muscular system. All the adult organs were modified during the prepupal or early pupal stage. The histolysis and remodeling began with the skeletal elements, followed by changes in the digestive system before it concluded with modifications of the musculature. Similar to the tracheal system's development, the digestive system did not disappear completely throughout metamorphosis but underwent a dramatic morphological change, which included the midgut significantly decreasing in size during the pupal stage. Our results provide important evidence for understanding the evolutionary pattern of developmental transformations in different major lineages of Holometabola.

Bibliometric Analyses of Web of Science Illuminate Research Advances of Neuropterida

Neuropterida is a relatively primitive group of Holometabola. There are about 6500 extant species. Many species of this group are natural enemies and can prey on a variety of agricultural pests. In order to understand the leading research institutions, researchers and research contents, and to predict the future research directions of Neuropterida, the Web of Science core database, from January 1995 to September 2021, was searched with the theme of “Neuropterida or Neuroptera or Megaloptera or Raphidioptera or Lacewing”. The results showed that the United States and China published relatively more publications than other countries. In addition, researchers from these two countries had more cooperation with other countries. China Agricultural University ranked the highest in the number of publications and centrality in this field. In addition, it was found that the early research focused on the biological control of Neuropterida by analyzing the keyword burst, whereas the more recent research focused on the phylogeny of Neuropterida. As the first representative chromosome-level genome of Neuropterida has been published, the future research of Neuropterida will focus on the genomic studies and molecular mechanisms of their morphological characters, behavior, historical evolution and so on.

New Cretaceous Lacewings in a Transitional Lineage of Myrmeleontoidea and Their Phylogenetic Implications

Simple Summary

The Cretaceous myrmeleontoids (antlions, spoon-winged lacewings, split-footed lacewings, etc.), as one of the diverse neuropteran groups, are valuable for understanding the early evolution of Myrmeleontoidea. Here, two new species individually belonging to the extinct families Cratosmylidae and Babinskaiidae are described from the mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber of Myanmar. The morphology-based phylogeny of Myrmeleontoidea herein inferred recovered the positions of these new taxa but questioned the familial status of Cratosmylidae. The new finding also highlights the Gondwanan origin of the lacewing paleofauna from the mid-Cretaceous of northern Myanmar.

Abstract

The extinct neuropteran families Cratosmylidae and Babinskaiidae hitherto only known from the Cretaceous represent the transitional lineage between Nymphidae and advanced myrmeleontoids (e.g., Nemopteridae and Myrmeleontidae) in the superfamily Myrmeleontoidea. Here, we describe two new species, which respectively belong to Cratosmylidae and Babinskaiidae, namely, Araripenymphes burmanus sp. nov. and Paradoxoleon chenruii gen. et sp. nov., from the mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber of Myanmar. Cratosmylidae, which was previously only recorded from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil (Crato Formation), is first reported from the mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber of Myanmar, and the co-occurrence of Araripenymphes Menon, Martins-Neto and Martill, 2005 across South America and Asia further documents the Gondwanan origin of the northern Myanmar amber lacewing paleofauna. The first finding of a deeply bifurcated forewing MP with two free branches in Babinskaiidae (viz., Paradoxoleon chenruii gen. et sp. nov.) highlights the morphological diversity of this extinct family. The phylogenetic positions of Araripenymphes burmanus sp. nov. and Paradoxoleon chenruii gen. et sp. nov. were recovered on the basis of a morphology-based phylogenetic analysis, and the monophyly of Cratosmylidae + Babinskaiidae was corroborated. Given the paraphyly of Cratosmylidae, its familial status is discussed.

A new species of beaded lacewings (Neuroptera, Berothidae) from mid-Cretaceous Myanmar amber

A new species of Berothidae, Jersiberotha musivum sp. nov., is described and illustrated from mid-Cretaceous (lowest Cenomanian) Myanmar amber. It is easily distinguished from other species of Berothidae by the configuration of the wing venation including: forewing with distinct areas of infuscation surrounding cross-veins and vein forks, all cross-veins simple prior to ScP-RA fusion, presence of two cross-veins ra-rp; absence of inner or outer graduate series of cross-veins; RP with three branches; and absence of ma-mp cross-veins and cua-cup cross-veins; while hind wing has cross-vein 1r-m absent. The previous diagnoses of Iceloberotha Grimaldi, 2000 and Jersiberotha Grimaldi, 2000 are quite unclear because some characters occur mosaically in both genera. In order to solve this problem and distinguish J. musivum from other species in the family, a new key to species of Berothidae from Myanmar amber has been provided and the diagnoses of Iceloberotha and Jersiberotha have been revised.

The Diversity of Aphidlion-like Larvae over the Last 130 Million Years

Simple Summary

The larvae of green lacewings and brown lacewings are called ‘aphidlions’, as they consume aphids. They play also an economic role as biological pest control. Aphidlions have, mostly, elongated spindle-shaped bodies, and similarly to most lacewing larvae, they possess a pair of venom-injecting compound jaws, also called stylets. Fossils that have been interpreted as aphidlions are known from amber of different ages (about 130, 100, 35, and 15 million years old). In this study, new aphidlion-like larvae are reported from about 100 million-year-old amber from Myanmar and about 35 million-year-old Baltic amber. The shapes of head and stylets were compared between the different time slices. With the newly described fossils and specimens from the literature, a total of 361 specimens could be included in the analysis: 78 fossil larvae, 188 extant larvae of brown lacewings, and 95 extant larvae of green lacewings. The results indicate that the diversity of head shapes stays about the same over time besides a certain increase in diversity of the head shapes in brown lacewing larvae. In certain other lacewings, a distinct decrease in the diversity of head shapes was observed in the larvae.

Abstract

Aphidlions are larvae of certain lacewings (Neuroptera), and more precisely larvae of the groups Chrysopidae, green lacewings, and Hemerobiidae, brown lacewings. The name ‘aphidlion’ originates from their ecological function as specialised predators of aphids. Accordingly, they also play an economic role as biological pest control. Aphidlions have, mostly, elongated spindle-shaped bodies, and similarly to most lacewing larvae they are equipped with a pair of venom-injecting stylets. Fossils interpreted as aphidlions are known to be preserved in amber from the Cretaceous (130 and 100 million years ago), the Eocene (about 35 million years ago) and the Miocene (about 15 million years ago) ages. In this study, new aphidlion-like larvae are reported from Cretaceous amber from Myanmar (about 100 million years old) and Eocene Baltic amber. The shapes of head and stylets were compared between the different time slices. With the newly described fossils and specimens from the literature, a total of 361 specimens could be included in the analysis: 70 specimens from the Cretaceous, 5 from the Eocene, 3 from the Miocene, 188 extant larvae of Chrysopidae, and 95 extant larvae of Hemerobiidae. The results indicate that the diversity of head shapes remains largely unchanged over time, yet there is a certain increase in the diversity of head shapes in the larvae of Hemerobiidae. In certain other groups of Neuroptera, a distinct decrease in the diversity of head shapes in larval stages was observed.

The first cave associated genus of Berothidae (Insecta: Neuroptera), and a new interpretation of the subfamily Cyrenoberothinae

A new genus of Berothidae (Neuroptera), Speleoberotha gen. nov., with two new species from Brazil, Speleoberotha mineira sp. nov. and Speleoberotha palomae sp. nov., are herein presented. These are the first cave-associated species of Berothidae ever recorded. The new genus shares some characters with the two extant genera of the subfamily Cyrenoberothinae, Cyrenoberotha and Manselliberotha, and other characters are shared with three fossil genera, Microberotha, Protoberotha and Sibelliberotha. This intermediate nature of the new genus was reinforced by the phylogenetic analyses presented here, which recovered Speleoberotha gen. nov. as sister to Sibelliberotha but closely associated with the extant Cyrenoberothinae. In this sense, a new concept of the subfamily Cyrenoberothinae is presented here, now including Speleoberotha gen. nov. and the three fossil genera together with Cyrenoberotha and Manselliberotha. We discuss the biogeographical history of the new concept of Cyrenoberothinae, suggesting that the clade originated in Gondwana. We also provide an identification key for the genera of Cyrenoberothinae.

Similar pattern, different paths: tracing the biogeographical history of Megaloptera (Insecta: Neuropterida) using mitochondrial phylogenomics

The sequential breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea since the Middle Jurassic is one of the crucial factors that has driven the biogeographical patterns of terrestrial biotas. Despite decades of effort searching for concordant patterns between diversification and continental fragmentation among taxonomic groups, increasing evidence has revealed more complex and idiosyncratic scenarios resulting from a mixture of vicariance, dispersal and extinction. Aquatic insects with discreet ecological requirements, low vagility and disjunct distributions represent a valuable model for testing biogeographical hypotheses by reconstructing their distribution patterns and temporal divergences. Insects of the order Megaloptera have exclusively aquatic larvae, their adults have low vagility, and the group has a highly disjunct geographical distribution. Here we present a comprehensive phylogeny of Megaloptera based on a large-scale mitochondrial genome sequencing of 99 species representing >90% of the world genera from all major biogeographical regions. Molecular dating suggests that the deep divergence within Megaloptera pre-dates the breakup of Pangaea. Subsequently, the intergeneric divergences within Corydalinae (dobsonflies), Chauliodinae (fishflies) and Sialidae (alderflies) might have been driven by both vicariance and dispersal correlated with the shifting continent during the Cretaceous, but with strikingly different and incongruent biogeographical signals. The austral distribution of many corydalids appears to be a result of colonization from Eurasia through southward dispersal across Europe and Africa during the Cretaceous, whereas a nearly contemporaneous dispersal via northward rafting of Gondwanan landmasses may account for the colonization of extant Eurasian alderflies from the south.

Phylogeny of Chrysopidae (Neuroptera), with emphasis on morphological trait evolution

We present a phylogeny of Chrysopidae inferred from combining molecular and morphological data. Apochrysinae were recovered as sister to the rest of the family (Nothochrysinae and Chrysopinae). The monogeneric tribe Nothancylini is confirmed as sister to the remaining Chrysopinae. The other four tribes are grouped in two clades: Belonopterygini + Leucochrysini and Ankylopterygini + Chrysopini. The Nineta-group is herein transferred from Chrysopini to Ankylopterygini. Within the diverse and species-rich Chrysopini we recognize five genus-group clades: Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Chrysopodes, Eremochrysa and Meleoma generic groups. The mapping of characters, such as the parameres, the tignum, the im cell or the tibial spurs, on the phylogeny provides insights into the evolution of these traits in the family. In addition, we propose the following taxonomic changes to the classification of the family: the inclusion of Chrysopidia, Nineta and Tumeochrysa in the tribe Ankylopterygini, and the synonymization of Furcochrysa with Chrysopa.

DNA Barcoding of Portuguese Lacewings (Neuroptera) and Snakeflies (Raphidioptera) (Insecta, Neuropterida)

The orders Neuroptera and Raphidioptera include the species of insects known as lacewings and snakeflies, respectively. In Portugal, these groups account for over 100 species, some of which are very difficult to identify by morphological analysis. This work is the first to sample and DNA sequence lacewings and snakeflies of Portugal. A reference collection was built with captured specimens that were identified morphologically. DNA barcode sequences of 658 bp were obtained from 243 specimens of 54 species. The results showed that most species can be successfully identified through DNA barcoding, with the exception of seven species of Chrysopidae (Neuroptera). Additionally, the first published distribution data are presented for Portugal for the neuropterans Gymnocnemiavariegata (Schneider, 1845) and Myrmecaelurus (Myrmecaelurus) trigrammus (Pallas, 1771).

The first mitochondrial genome of spongillafly from Asia (Neuroptera: Sisyridae: Sisyra aurorae Navás, 1933) and phylogenetic implications of Osmyloidea

The spongillafly species Sisyra aurorae Navás, 1933 (Neuroptera: Sisyridae) is an endemic species in China and is first recorded from Shanghai. The mitogenome of this species is sequenced, representing the first mitogenome of Sisyridae from Asia. The nearly complete mitogenome is 15,634 bp, which contains 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNAs), two ribosomal RNA genes (rRNAs), and a control region. The gene order and arrangement are similar to other lacewing mitogenomes. Both Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses based on 13 PCGs recovered the interfamilial phylogeny within Osmyloidea as Sisyridae + (Nevrorthidae + Osmylidae).

The first complete mitochondrial genome of Euroleon coreanus (Okamoto, 1926) (Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae) and its phylogeny

The first complete mitochondrial genome of Euroleon coreanus (Okamoto, 1926) was 15,797 bp in length, and contained 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNAs, two ribosomal RNAs, and the control region. Compared to the classic insect mitochondrial genome, E. coreanus showed a gene rearrangement of ND2-C-W-Y-COX1. The overall AT content of the mitochondrial genome was 75.5%. The monophyly of Ascalaphidae, Myrmeleontidae, Nemopteridae, Nymphidae, and Psychopsidae was supported in both BI and ML trees. And E. coreanus was a sister clade to the clade of genus Myrmeleon.

A novel reference dated phylogeny for the genus Spodoptera Guenée (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae: Noctuinae): new insights into the evolution of a pest-rich genus

The noctuid genus Spodoptera currently consists of 31 species with varied host plant breadths, ranging from monophagous and oligophagous non-pest species to polyphagous pests of economic importance. Several of these pest species have become major invaders, colonizing multiple continents outside their native range. Such is the case of the infamous fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), which includes two recognized host strains that have not been treated as separate species. Following its accidental introduction to Africa in 2016, it quickly spread through Africa and Asia to Australia. Given that half the described Spodoptera species cause major crop losses, comparative genomics studies of several Spodoptera species have highlighted major adaptive changes in genetic architecture, possibly relating to their pest status. Several recent population genomics studies conducted on two species enable a more refined understanding of their population structures, migration patterns and invasion processes. Despite growing interest in the genus, the taxonomic status of several Spodoptera species remains unstable and evolutionary studies suffer from the absence of a robust and comprehensive dated phylogenetic framework. We generated mitogenomic data for 14 Spodoptera taxa, which are combined with data from 15 noctuoid outgroups to generate a resolved mitogenomic backbone phylogeny using both concatenation and multi-species coalescent approaches. We combine this backbone with additional mitochondrial and nuclear data to improve our understanding of the evolutionary history of the genus. We also carry out comprehensive dating analyses, which implement three distinct calibration strategies based on either primary or secondary fossil calibrations. Our results provide an updated phylogenetic framework for 28 Spodoptera species, identifying two well-supported ecologically diverse clades that are recovered for the first time. Well-studied larvae in each of these clades are characterized by differences in mandibular shape, with one clade's being more specialized on silica-rich C₄ grasses. Interestingly, the inferred timeframe for the genus suggests an earlier origin than previously thought for the genus: about 17-18 million years ago.

Tanyptera (Tanyptera) hebeiensis Yang et Yang (Diptera: Tipulidae) newly recorded from Shandong, China: sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial genome

The genus Tanyptera Latreille, 1804 is recorded from Shandong Province, China for the first time with T. (T.) hebeiensis Yang et Yang, 1988 found in Mount Kunyu, Shandong. In this study, we report the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of T. (T.) hebeiensis, representing the first mitochondrial genome of the subfamily Ctenophorinae (Diptera: Tipulidae), which is a circular molecule of 15,888 bp with an AT content of 77.6%. The mitochondrial genome contains 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNAs), two ribosomal RNA genes (rRNAs), and a non-coding region. Gene overlaps are found at nine gene junctions, ranging from 1 to 8 bp in length. The canonical mitochondrial start codons for invertebrate mitochondrial genomes are found in 12 PCGs, except for COI which uses the uncanonical start codons TCG. Stop codons of 10 PCGs are invariably complete TAA and TAG, while COII, ND4, and ND5 end with a single thymine stop codon. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that the Pediciidae is a sister group to the remaining Tipuloidea, the Cylindrotomidae has a sister-group relationship with the Tipulidae, and the Limoniidae is not a monophyletic clade.

Mitochondrial Metagenomics Reveals the Ancient Origin and Phylodiversity of Soil Mites and Provides a Phylogeny of the Acari

High-throughput DNA methods hold great promise for phylogenetic analysis of lineages that are difficult to study with conventional molecular and morphological approaches. The mites (Acari), and in particular the highly diverse soil-dwelling lineages, are among the least known branches of the metazoan Tree-of-Life. We extracted numerous minute mites from soils in an area of mixed forest and grassland in southern Iberia. Selected specimens representing the full morphological diversity were shotgun sequenced in bulk, followed by genome assembly of short reads from the mixture, which produced >100 mitochondrial genomes representing diverse acarine lineages. Phylogenetic analyses in combination with taxonomically limited mitogenomes available publicly resulted in plausible trees defining basal relationships of the Acari. Several critical nodes were supported by ancestral-state reconstructions of mitochondrial gene rearrangements. Molecular calibration placed the minimum age for the common ancestor of the superorder Acariformes, which includes most soil-dwelling mites, to the Cambrian-Ordovician (likely within 455-552 Ma), whereas the origin of the superorder Parasitiformes was placed later in the Carboniferous-Permian. Most family-level taxa within the Acariformes were dated to the Jurassic and Triassic. The ancient origin of Acariformes and the early diversification of major extant lineages linked to the soil are consistent with a pioneering role for mites in building the earliest terrestrial ecosystems.

Comparative analysis of five mitogenomes of Osmylinae (Neuroptera: Osmylidae) and their phylogenetic implications

In this study, five mitogenomes of Osmylinae species were sequenced: Osmylus fulvicephalus, Osmylus lucalatus, Plethosmylus atomatus, Plethosmylus zheanus, and Plethosmylus sp. These mitogenomes vary from 15,401 bp to 17,136 bp in size. The nucleotide compositions of Osmylinae mitogenomes are biased towards A/T. The gene arrangement of five mitogenomes is congruent with the putative ancestral pattern of the insects. Most of PCGs initiate with typical start codon ATN and terminate with TAA as the stop codon. All tRNA genes are folded into the typical cloverleaf secondary structure with an exception of tRNA^Ser(AGN). The phylogenetic relationship was reconstructed by both maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods based on 13 PCGs and two rRNA genes. The sister group relationships between Osmylinae and the clade of Spilosmylinae and Protosmylinae were recovered as expected. The monophyly of Osmylinae was corroborated, but within the subfamily, three species (P. atomatus, P. zheanus, and Plethosmylus sp.) originally belonging to Plethosmylus (transferred to Osmylus by Winterton) were restored as a clade and sister to the clade of Osmylus. The current results implied that it is necessary to reassess the systematic status of Plethosmylus in the future.

Sequence analysis of mitochondrial genome of the false and phantom crane-fly Ptychoptera qinggouensis Kang, Yao and Yang, 2013 (Diptera, Ptychopteridae)

The genus Ptychoptera Meigen, 1803 is the largest genus of the family Ptychopteridae with 78 known species. In this study, we report a nearly complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of this genus, which is a circular molecule of more than 15,028 bp. The mt genome contains 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes and a non-coding region. The overall base composition is A (38.1%), T (36.7%), C (14.9%), and G (10.4%), with an AT content of 74.8%. The AT content of N-strand genes (75.7%) is higher than that of the J-strand genes (71.7%). Phylogenetic analysis reveals that the monophyly of Ptychopteridae, Bibiomorpha, Tipulomorpha and Brachycera are strongly supported, and the sister group relationship between Tanyderidae and Ptychopteridae is not supported.

Cretaceous diversity and disparity in a lacewing lineage of predators (Neuroptera: Mantispidae)

Mantidflies (Mantispidae) are an unusual and charismatic group of predatory lacewings (Neuroptera), whereby the adults represent a remarkable case of morphological and functional convergence with praying mantises (Mantodea). The evolutionary history of mantidflies remains largely unknown due to a scarcity of fossils. Here, we report the discovery of a highly diverse palaeofauna of mantidflies from the mid-Cretaceous (lowermost Cenomanian) of Myanmar. The raptorial forelegs of these mantidflies possess highly divergent morphological modifications, some of which are unknown among modern mantidflies, e.g. the presence of forked basal profemoral spines or even the complete loss of foreleg spine-like structures. A phylogenetic analysis of Mantispidae reveals a pattern of raptorial foreleg evolution across the family. The high species diversity and disparate foreleg characters might have been driven by diverse niches of predator-prey interplay in the complex tropical forest ecosystem of the mid-Cretaceous.

An integrative phylogenomic approach to elucidate the evolutionary history and divergence times of Neuropterida (Insecta: Holometabola)

BACKGROUND

The latest advancements in DNA sequencing technologies have facilitated the resolution of the phylogeny of insects, yet parts of the tree of Holometabola remain unresolved. The phylogeny of Neuropterida has been extensively studied, but no strong consensus exists concerning the phylogenetic relationships within the order Neuroptera. Here, we assembled a novel transcriptomic dataset to address previously unresolved issues in the phylogeny of Neuropterida and to infer divergence times within the group. We tested the robustness of our phylogenetic estimates by comparing summary coalescent and concatenation-based phylogenetic approaches and by employing different quartet-based measures of phylogenomic incongruence, combined with data permutations.

RESULTS

Our results suggest that the order Raphidioptera is sister to Neuroptera + Megaloptera. Coniopterygidae is inferred as sister to all remaining neuropteran families suggesting that larval cryptonephry could be a ground plan feature of Neuroptera. A clade that includes Nevrorthidae, Osmylidae, and Sisyridae (i.e. Osmyloidea) is inferred as sister to all other Neuroptera except Coniopterygidae, and Dilaridae is placed as sister to all remaining neuropteran families. Ithonidae is inferred as the sister group of monophyletic Myrmeleontiformia. The phylogenetic affinities of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae were dependent on the data type analyzed, and quartet-based analyses showed only weak support for the placement of Hemerobiidae as sister to Ithonidae + Myrmeleontiformia. Our molecular dating analyses suggest that most families of Neuropterida started to diversify in the Jurassic and our ancestral character state reconstructions suggest a primarily terrestrial environment of the larvae of Neuropterida and Neuroptera.

CONCLUSION

Our extensive phylogenomic analyses consolidate several key aspects in the backbone phylogeny of Neuropterida, such as the basal placement of Coniopterygidae within Neuroptera and the monophyly of Osmyloidea. Furthermore, they provide new insights into the timing of diversification of Neuropterida. Despite the vast amount of analyzed molecular data, we found that certain nodes in the tree of Neuroptera are not robustly resolved. Therefore, we emphasize the importance of integrating the results of morphological analyses with those of sequence-based phylogenomics. We also suggest that comparative analyses of genomic meta-characters should be incorporated into future phylogenomic studies of Neuropterida.

Mitochondrial genomes of three Bostrichiformia species and phylogenetic analysis of Polyphaga (Insecta, Coleoptera)

Here we determined mitogenomes of three Bostrichiformia species. These data were combined with 51 previously sequenced Polyphaga mitogenomes to explore the higher-level relationships within Polyphaga by using four different mitogenomic datasets and three tree inference approaches. Among Polyphaga mitogenomes we observed heterogeneity in nucleotide composition and evolutionary rates, which may have affected phylogenetic inferences across the different mitogenomic datasets. Elateriformia, Cucujiformia, and Scarabaeiformia were each inferred to be monophyletic by all analyses, as was Bostrichiformia by most analyses based on two datasets with low heterogeneity. The large series Staphyliniformia was never recovered as monophyletic in our analyses. The Bayesian tree using a degenerated nucleotide dataset (P123_Degen) and a site-heterogeneous mixture model in PhyloBayes was supported as the best Polyphaga phylogeny: (Scirtiformia, (Elateriformia, ((Bostrichiformia, Cucujiformia), (Scarabaeiformia + Staphyliniformia)))). For Cucujiformia, the largest series, we inferred a superfamily-level phylogeny: ((Cleroidea, Coccinelloidea), (Tenebrionoidea, (Cucujoidea + Curculionoidea + Chrysomeloidea))).

Phylogeny and diversification of the true water bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Nepomorpha)

Climate fluctuations and tectonic reconfigurations associated with environmental changes play large roles in determining patterns of adaptation and diversification, but studies documenting how such drivers have shaped the evolutionary history and diversification dynamics of limnic organisms during the Mesozoic are scarce. Members of the heteropteran infraorder Nepomorpha, or aquatic bugs, are ideal for testing the effects of these determinants on their diversification pulses because most species are confined to aquatic environments during their entire life. The group has a relatively mature taxonomy and is well represented in the fossil record. We investigated the evolution of Nepomorpha based on phylogenetic analyses of morphological and molecular characters sampled from 115 taxa representing all 13 families and approximately 40% of recognized genera. Our results were largely congruent with the phylogenetic relationships inferred from morphology. A divergence dating analysis indicated that Nepomorpha began to diversify in the late Permian (approximately 263 Ma), and diversification analyses suggested that palaeoecological opportunities probably promoted lineage diversification in this group.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Conwentzia sinica (Neuroptera: Coniopterygidae)

The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of Conwentzia sinica Yang, 1974 was sequenced and analyzed. The sequenced mitogenome is 15,153 bp in size, including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes, and one control region. Thirteen PCGs use ATN as the start codon. Most of PCGs terminate with TAA codons but ND5, ND4 with a single T residue, and ND3 terminates with TAG. The lrRNA gene is 1290 bp. The measured length of srRNA gene is 782 bp. Twenty-two tRNA genes possess the typical clover-leaf secondary structure except for tRNASer(AGN) . The phylogenetic result supports the monophyly of the family Coniopterygidae and a closer relationship between Conwentzia and Coniopteryx.

The larval morphology of the spongefly Sisyra nigra (Retzius, 1783) (Neuroptera: Sisyridae)

The morphology of mature larvae of Sisyra nigra was studied and documented with a broad spectrum of techniques. Special emphasis is on the cephalic anatomy and on the digestive tract. Cephalic structures are highly modified, with numerous autapomorphic conditions, including a globular head capsule, an extended area with large cornea lenses, a massive tentorium, a strongly developed prepharyngeal pumping apparatus with a horizontal arrangement of dilators, a sharp bend between the prepharynx and pharynx, and an unusual filter apparatus at the entrance of the large crop. The thoracic and abdominal muscle sets, and the legs are largely unmodified. Postcephalic apomorphies are conspicuous tergal setiferous tubercles, trifid setiferous pleural projections, single pretarsal claws, zigzag-shaped abdominal tracheal gills, and a dense vestiture of setae on the terminal abdominal segments. Mandibulo-maxillary stylets curved outwards are an unusual apomorphy also found in the semiaquatic larvae of Osmylidae. Semiaquatic or aquatic habits and secondarily multisegmented antennae are potential synapomorphies of these two groups and Nevrorthidae (Osmyloidea). A sistergroup relationship between Sisyridae and Nevrorthidae suggests that fully aquatic habits of larvae may be a synapomorphy of both families. A specialized terminal antennal seta is a potential groundplan apomorphy of Neuroptera, with secondary loss in Nevrorthidae and Ithonidae + Myrmeleontiformia, respectively. A trumpet-shaped empodium is likely an apomorphy of Neuroptera excluding Coniopterygidae and Osmyloidea, and the secondary loss an apomorphy of Ithonidae on one hand, and Myrmeleontiformia excl. Psychopsidae on the other.

A mantidfly in Cretaceous Spanish amber provides insights into the evolution of integumentary specialisations on the raptorial foreleg

Multiple predatory insect lineages have developed a raptorial lifestyle by which they strike and hold prey using modified forelegs armed with spine-like structures and other integumentary specialisations. However, how structures enabling the raptorial function evolved in insects remains largely hypothetical or inferred through phylogeny due to the rarity of meaningful fossils. This is particularly true for mantidflies (Neuroptera: Mantispidae), which have a scarce fossil record mostly based on rock compressions, namely isolated wings. Here, Aragomantispa lacerata gen. et sp. nov. is described from ca. 105-million-year-old San Just amber (Spain), representing the oldest and one of the few mantidflies hitherto described from amber. The fossil shows exquisitely preserved forefemoral spine-like structures composed of integumentary processes each bearing a modified seta, and prostrate setae on foretibiae and foretarsi. The fine morphology of these structures was unknown in fossil mantidflies. An assessment of integumentary specialisations from raptorial forelegs across mantispoid lacewings is provided. The present finding reveals how the specialised foreleg armature associated to the raptorial lifestyle in extant mantidflies was present yet not fully established by the Early Cretaceous, at least in some lineages, and provides palaeontological evidence supporting certain evolutionary patterns of acquisition of integumentary specialisations related to the raptorial function in the group.

The complete mt genomes of Lutzia halifaxia, Lt. fuscanus and Culex pallidothorax (Diptera: Culicidae) and comparative analysis of 16 Culex and Lutzia mt genome sequences

BACKGROUND

Despite the medical importance of the genus Culex, the mitochondrial genome (mt genome) characteristics of Culex spp. are not well understood. The phylogeny of the genus and particularly the generic status of the genus Lutzia and the subgenus Culiciomyia remain unclear.

METHODS

The present study sequenced and analyzed the complete mt genomes of Lutzia halifaxia, Lutzia fuscanus and Cx. (Culiciomyia) pallidothorax and assessed the general characteristics and phylogenetics of all known 16 mt genome sequences for species in the genera Culex and Lutzia.

RESULTS

The complete mt genomes of Lt. halifaxia, Lt. fuscanus and Cx. pallidothorax are 15,744, 15,803 and 15,578 bp long, respectively, including 13 PCGs, 22 tRNAs, two tRNAs and a control region (CR). Length variations in the Culex and Lutzia mt genomes involved mainly the CR, and gene arrangements are the same as in other mosquitoes. We identified four types of repeat units in the CR sequences, and the poly-T stretch exists in all of these mt genomes. The repeat units of CR are conserved to different extent and provide information on their evolution. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the Coronator and Sitiens groups are each monophyletic, whereas the monophyletic status of the Pipiens Group was not supported; Cx. pallidothorax is more closely related to the Sitiens and Pipiens groups; and both phylogenetics analysis and repeat unit features in CR show that Lutzia is a characteristic monophyletic entity, which should be an independent genus.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review of the mt genome sequences and taxonomic discussion based on the mt genomes of Culex spp. and Lutzia spp. The research provides general information on the mt genome of these two genera, and the phylogenetic and taxonomic status of Lutzia and Culiciomyia.

A new genus and species of berothids (Insecta, Neuroptera) from the Late Cretaceous Myanmar amber

A new genus and species of Berothidae is described from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) Myanmar amber. Ansoberothajiewenae gen. et sp. nov. can be easily distinguished from other berothid genera by the long antenna, the scape with ca. 100 flagellomeres, the forewing with four ra-rp, MPand CuA are pectinately branched, and the hind wing with one oblique cua-cup between CuA stem and the distal branch of CuP.

Bionomics and Ecological Services of Megaloptera Larvae (Dobsonflies, Fishflies, Alderflies)

Megaloptera belong to a large monophyletic group, the Neuropteroidea, together with Coleoptera, Strepsiptera, Raphidioptera, and Neuroptera. With the latter two, this order constitutes the Neuropterida, a smaller monophyletic subset among which it is the only entirely aquatic group, with larvae of all species requiring submersion in freshwater. Megaloptera is arguably the oldest extant clade of Holometabola with aquatic representatives, having originated during the Permian before the fragmentation of Pangea, since about 230 Ma. It includes 54 genera (35 extant and 19 extinct genera), with 397 extant described species and subspecies. Recent Megaloptera are divided into two families: Corydalidae (with subfamilies Corydalinae-dobsonflies and Chauliodinae-fishflies) and Sialidae (alderflies), both widely yet disjunctively distributed among zoogeographical realms. All species of Megaloptera have aquatic larvae, whereas eggs, pupae, and adults are terrestrial. The anatomy, physiology, and behavior of megalopteran larvae are specialized for an aquatic predatory habit, yet their ecological significance might still be underappreciated, as their role in food webs of benthic communities of many temperate and tropical streams and rivers is still understudied and largely unquantified. In many freshwater ecosystems, Megaloptera larvae are a conspicuous benthic component, important in energy flow, recycling of materials, and food web dynamics.