Association of hypoglycaemia severity with clinical, patient-reported and economic outcomes in US patients with type 2 diabetes using basal insulin

Utilities for Complications Associated with Type 2 Diabetes: A Review of the Literature

INTRODUCTION

Utility values are used in health economic modeling analyses of type 2 diabetes (T2D) to quantify the effect of acute and long-term complications on quality of life (QoL). For accurate modeling projections, it is important that the utility values used are up to date, accurate and representative of the simulated model cohort.

METHODS

A literature review was performed to identify utility values for health states representing acute and chronic T2D-related complications including cardiovascular complications, stroke, renal disease, ophthalmic complications, neuropathy, diabetic foot, amputation and hypoglycemia. Searches were performed using the PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library databases and limited to articles published since 2010. Supplementary searches were performed to identify data published at congresses in 2019-2023.

RESULTS

A total of 54 articles were identified that reported utility values for T2D-related complications. The most frequently used elicitation method/instrument was the EQ-5D (n = 42 studies) followed by the Short Form-6 dimensions (n = 6), time tradeoff (n = 5), the Health Utilities Index Mark 2 or Mark 3 (n = 2), 15D (n = 1), visual analog scale (n = 1) and standard gamble (n = 1). Stroke and amputation were consistently associated with the largest decrements in QoL. There is a lack of published data that distinguishes between severity of several complications including renal disease, retinopathy and neuropathy.

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetes-related complications can have a profound impact on QoL; therefore, it is important that these are captured accurately and appropriately in health economic models. Recently published utility values for diabetes-related complications that can be used to inform health economic models are summarized here.

Long-Term Effectiveness of Quadruple Combination Therapy with Empagliflozin Versus Basal Long-Acting Insulin Therapy in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: 3-Year Retrospective Observational Study

INTRODUCTION

Effective blood glucose control remains a constant problem in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), even if they are being properly treated with one or more currently available drugs. The present study was designed as a 3-year retrospective observational study to determine whether the use of either empagliflozin, a sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, or insulin would provide any improvement in the control of the blood glucose levels in patients with T2D who were already being treated with a cocktail of three different oral antidiabetic drugs.

METHODS

Adult patients with T2D were enrolled in this study if they exhibited suboptimal glycemic control (HbA1c 7.5-12.0%) despite being continuously treated for at least 3 months with metformin, dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 inhibitor, and glimepiride. Empagliflozin (25 mg/day, n = 154) or basal long-acting insulin (n = 147) was added as a fourth medication to the existing drug regimen. The major outcomes that were monitored in this study included the measurement of HbA1c, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), and general cardiometabolic and blood markers.

RESULTS

After the addition of empagliflozin or basal insulin to the existing oral anti-diabetic agent (OAD) regimen, the baseline levels of HbA1c were reduced after month 36 in both the empagliflozin (8.9 ± 1.0% to 7.4 ± 0.8%, P < 0.01) and insulin (9.0 ± 1.4% to 8.0 ± .1.4%, P < 0.05) groups. The HbA1c reduction was higher in the empagliflozin group to the end of the 36-month study period (7.4 ± 0.8% vs. 8.0 ± 1.4%, empagliflozin vs. insulin, P < 0.05). FPG showed a similar trend in the early period but it was not maintained at the end of study. Body weight decreased (P < 0.01) from baseline (70.4 ± 12.3 kg) to month 36 (65.6 ± 11.4 kg) in the empagliflozin group but not the insulin group. At 36 months, the body weight in the empagliflozin group (65.6 ± 11.4 kg) was significantly lower (P < 0.01) than that in the insulin treatment group (70.0 ± 10.9 kg).

CONCLUSION

Empagliflozin was shown to perform as well as better than insulin when used as part of a quadruple drug regimen for regulating blood glucose levels in suboptimally controlled patients with T2D.

CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER

NCT05103306 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

Evaluation of the cost and medical resource use outcomes associated with nasal glucagon versus injectable glucagon for treatment of severe hypoglycemia in people with diabetes in Canada: a modeling analysis

OBJECTIVES

Treatments for severe hypoglycemia aim to restore blood glucose through successful administration of rescue therapy, and choosing the most effective and cost-effective option will improve outcomes for patients and may reduce costs for healthcare payers. The present analysis aimed to compare costs and use of medical services with nasal glucagon and injectable glucagon in people with type 1 and 2 diabetes in Canada when used to treat severe hypoglycemic events when impaired consciousness precludes treatment with oral carbohydrates using an economic model, based on differences in the frequency of successful administration of the two interventions.

METHODS

A decision tree model was prepared in Microsoft Excel to project outcomes with nasal glucagon and injectable glucagon. The model structure reflected real-world decision-making and treatment outcomes, based on Canada-specific sources. The model captured the use of glucagon, emergency medical services (EMS), emergency room, inpatient stay, and follow-up care. Costs were accounted for in 2019 Canadian dollars (CAD).

RESULTS

Nasal glucagon was associated with reduced use of all medical services compared with injectable glucagon. EMS call outs were projected to be reduced by 45%, emergency room treatments by 52%, and inpatient stays by 13%. Use of nasal glucagon was associated with reduced direct, indirect, and combined costs of CAD 1,249, CAD 460, and CAD 1,709 per severe hypoglycemic event, respectively, due to avoided EMS call outs and hospital costs, resulting from a higher proportion of successful administrations.

CONCLUSIONS

When a patient with type 1 or type 2 diabetes is being treated for a severe hypoglycemic event when impaired consciousness precludes treatment with oral carbohydrate, use of nasal glucagon was projected to be dominant versus injectable glucagon in Canada reducing costs and use of medical services.

Association between sleep disorder and quality of life in patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

We investigated the association between sleep symptoms, which cause sleep disorder, and quality of life (QoL) among people with type 2 diabetes (T2D).

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study of 342 people with T2D, the Japan National Health and Wellness Survey (NHWS) database 2016 were used. We treated the respondents who reported experiencing any of the sleep symptoms as having sleep disorders. To examine health-related QoL (HRQoL), we used the physical component summary (PCS) and the mental component summary (MCS) from the 36-Item short-form and the EuroQol 5 Dimension (EQ-5D) survey instruments. Overall activity impairment was used for assessment of the effect on the individual's ability to perform regular daily activities. We used t-test and one-way ANOVA test for comparison QoL scores between the participants with and without sleep disorders.

RESULTS

66.4% of the participants with T2D reported having a sleep disorder. The PCS, MCS, EQ-5D, and overall activity impairment of people with sleep disorder was significantly poorer than those of the people without. Specific sleep symptoms, such as waking up to go to the bathroom, daytime sleepiness, and waking up too early (before the alarm clock), had high prevalence (35.4, 27.8 and 20.2%). The participants who experienced waking up to go to the bathroom or daytime sleepiness demonstrated significantly poorer QoL on all scores related to QoL, but those who experienced waking up too early only demonstrated significantly poorer QoL on the EQ-5D.

CONCLUSIONS

Two-thirds of people with T2D in this study suffer from sleep disorders. The people who experience waking up to go to the bathroom or daytime sleepiness had significantly poorer QoL than those without these symptoms. Thus, sleep disorders, especially the symptoms of waking up to go to the bathroom or daytime sleepiness, might be the treatment targets for QOL of people with T2DM.

Impact of severe hypoglycaemia on psychological outcomes in adults with Type 2 diabetes: a systematic review

AIM

Hypoglycaemia affects many people with Type 2 diabetes using insulin and other glucose-lowering therapies. This systematic review examined the impact of severe hypoglycaemia (episodes requiring external assistance) on psychological outcomes (e.g. emotional well-being, health status and quality of life) in adults with Type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

MEDLINE Complete, PsycINFO and CINAHL databases were searched for peer-reviewed empirical studies, published in English, reporting the occurrence and severity of hypoglycaemia and its relationship with patient-reported outcomes (PROs) in adults with Type 2 diabetes. Data were extracted from published reports and analysed.

RESULTS

Of 3756 potentially relevant abstracts, 29 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most reported cross-sectional data and sample sizes varied widely (N = 71 to 17 563). Although definitions of mild and severe hypoglycaemia were largely consistent between studies, additional non-standard categorizations (e.g. moderate, very severe) were apparent and recall periods varied. Overall, severe hypoglycaemia was associated with increased fear of hypoglycaemia and decreased emotional well-being, health status and diabetes-specific quality of life. Effect sizes show that the association with fear of hypoglycaemia was stronger than with general health status.

CONCLUSIONS

Notwithstanding the limitations of the empirical studies, these findings indicate that severe hypoglycaemia in adults with Type 2 diabetes (insulin- and non-insulin-treated) is associated with impaired psychological outcomes. Healthcare professionals should address the psychological impact of severe hypoglycaemia during clinical consultations, to support individuals to minimize exposure to, and the psychological consequences of, severe hypoglycaemia.

Reporting of hypoglycaemia in clinical trials of basal insulins: A need for consensus

Hypoglycaemia is a common side-effect of diabetes therapies, particularly insulin, and imposes a substantial burden on individuals and healthcare systems. Consequently, regulatory approval of newer basal insulin (BI) therapies has relied on demonstration of a balance between achievement of good glycaemic control and less hypoglycaemia. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for assessing efficacy and safety, including hypoglycaemia risk, of BIs and are invaluable for obtaining regulatory approval. However, their highly selected patient populations and their conditions lead to results that may not be representative of real-life situations. Real-world evidence (RWE) studies are more representative of clinical practice, but they also have limitations. As such, data both from RCTs and RWE studies provide a fuller picture of the hypoglycaemia risk with BI therapies. However, substantial differences exist in the way hypoglycaemia is reported across these studies, which confounds comparisons of hypoglycaemia frequency among different BIs. This problem is ongoing and persists in recent trials of second-generation BI analogues. Although they provide a lower risk of hypoglycaemia when compared with earlier BIs, they do not eliminate it. This review describes differences in the way hypoglycaemia is reported across RCTs and RWE studies of second-generation BI analogues and examines potential reasons for these differences. For studies of BIs, there is a need to standardize aspects of design, analysis and methods of reporting to better enable interpretation of the efficacy and safety of such insulins among studies; such aspects include length of follow-up, glycaemic targets, hypoglycaemia definitions and time intervals for determining nocturnal events.

Rates of Hypoglycemia Predicted in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes on Insulin Glargine 300 U/ml Versus First- and Second-Generation Basal Insulin Analogs: The Real-World LIGHTNING Study

INTRODUCTION

The LIGHTNING study applied conventional and advanced analytic approaches to model, predict, and compare hypoglycemia rates of people with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) on insulin glargine 300 U/ml (Gla-300) with those on first-generation (insulin glargine 100 U/ml [Gla-100]; insulin detemir [IDet]) or second-generation (insulin degludec [IDeg]) basal-insulin (BI) analogs, utilizing a large real-world database.

METHODS

Data were collected between 1 January 2007 and 31 March 2017 from the Optum Humedica US electronic health records [EHR] database. Patient-treatments, the period during which a patient used a specific BI, were analyzed for patients who switched from a prior BI or those who newly initiated BI therapy. Data were analyzed using two approaches: propensity score matching (PSM) and a predictive modeling approach using machine learning.

RESULTS

A total of 831,456 patients with T2DM receiving BI were included from the EHR data set. Following selection, 198,198 patient-treatments were available for predictive modeling. The analysis showed that rates of severe hypoglycemia (using a modified definition) were approximately 50% lower with Gla-300 than with Gla-100 or IDet in insulin-naïve individuals, and 30% lower versus IDet in BI switchers (all p < 0.05). Similar rates of severe hypoglycemia were predicted for Gla-300 and IDeg, regardless of prior insulin experience. Similar results to those observed in the overall cohorts were seen in analyses across subgroups at a particularly high risk of hypoglycemia. PSM (performed on 157,573 patient-treatments) revealed comparable reductions in HbA_1c with Gla-300 versus first- and second-generation BI analogs, alongside lower rates of severe hypoglycemia with Gla-300 versus first-generation BI analogs (p < 0.05) and similar rates versus IDeg in insulin-naïve and BI-switcher cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on real-world data, predicted rates of severe hypoglycemia with Gla-300 tended to be lower versus first-generation BI analogs and similar versus IDeg in a wide spectrum of patients with T2DM.

FUNDING

Sanofi, Paris, France.

Factors of occurrence and improvement methods of presenteeism attributed to diabetes: A systematic review

Objective

A systematic review was performed to study factors of occurrence and improvement methods of presenteeism attributed to diabetes.

Methods

We set 2 clinical questions; (a) how comorbidities and complications of diabetes induce presenteeism and (b) what interventions or conditions effectively improve presenteeism. Then, we conducted a comprehensive search with MEDLINE/PubMed and Scopus databases and extracted those that met the clinical questions.

Results

Eighteen papers studied occurrence of presenteeism by comorbidities and complications of diabetes. Most studies were cross‐sectional and had a low quality of evidence. However, the associations of hypoglycemia, diabetic neuropathy, and mood disorders with presenteeism were relatively well studied. The papers that discussed effective interventions or conditions for improving presenteeism were very limited.

Conclusions

Our review suggests that presenteeism attributed to diabetes is mainly caused by hypoglycemia, diabetic neuropathy, and mood disorders. There are very limited evidences, but available information suggests that improving glycemic control, adjusting treatment regimen by evaluating the impact on work, providing psychological support, and developing suitable work accommodations may effectively reduce presenteeism.

Effectiveness and safety of empagliflozin-based quadruple therapy compared with insulin glargine-based therapy in patients with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes: An observational study in clinical practice

This open-label, prospective study evaluated the effectiveness and safety of empagliflozin as add-on therapy in inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients (glycated haemoglobin [HbA1c], 7.5-12%) who were already using three other types of orally active antidiabetic agents. A total of 268 T2D patients were enrolled and divided into two groups, empagliflozin (EMPA 25 mg/d, n = 142) or insulin glargine (INS, n = 126), respectively. After the treatment period of 24 weeks, HbA1c and fasting plasma glucose (FPG) were significantly reduced (HbA1c, P = 0.004; FPG, P = 0.008, respectively) in the EMPA group compared to the INS group. Also, EMPA treatment evoked a significant reduction in body weight (P < 0.001) and systolic blood pressure (P = 0.017) compared to the INS group. Hypoglycaemic adverse events were significantly higher in the INS group compared to the EMPA group (P = 0.001). In conclusion, this study demonstrated that a regimen comprising four different orally active antidiabetic agents, including EMPA, was effective and safe as a therapeutic strategy for treating T2D patients for glycaemic control and improvement of other cardiovascular and metabolic indices.

Patients' perspective on the burden of migraine in Europe: a cross-sectional analysis of survey data in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom

Background

Migraine is a distinct neurological disease that imposes a significant burden on patients, society, and the healthcare system. This study aimed to characterize the incremental burden of migraine in individuals who suffer from ≥4 monthly headache days (MHDs) by examining health-related quality of life (HRQoL), impairments to work productivity and daily activities, and healthcare resource utilization (HRU) in the EU5 (France, Germany, Italy, Spain, United Kingdom).

Methods

This retrospective cross-sectional study used data from the 2016 National Health and Wellness Survey (NHWS; N = 80,600). Short-Form 36-Item Health Survey, version 2 (SF-36v2) physical and mental component summary scores (PCS and MCS), Short-form-6D (SF-6D), and EuroQoL (EQ-5D), impairments to work productivity and daily activities (Work Productivity and Activity Impairment Questionnaire (WPAI), and HRU were compared between migraine respondents suffering from ≥4 MHDs (n = 218) and non-migraine controls (n = 218) by propensity score matching using sociodemographic characteristics. Chi-square, T-tests, and Mann-Whitney tests were performed to determine significant differences between the groups after propensity score matching.

Results

HRQoL was lower in migraine individuals suffering from ≥4 MHDs compared with non-migraine controls, with reduced SF-36v2 PCS (46.00 vs 50.51) and MCS (37.69 vs 44.82), SF-6D health state utility score (0.62 vs 0.71), and EQ-5D score (0.68 vs 0.81) (for all, p < 0.001). Respondents with migraine suffering from ≥4 MHDs also reported higher levels of absenteeism from work (14.43% vs 9.46%; p = 0.001), presenteeism (35.52% vs 20.97%), overall work impairment (38.70% vs 23.27%), and activity impairment (44.17% vs 27.75%) than non-migraine controls (for all, p < 0.001). Additionally, HRU was significantly higher for individuals with ≥4 MHDs compared to their matched controls. Consistently, migraine subgroups (4–7 MHDs, 8–14 MHDs and CM) had lower HRQoL, greater overall work and activity impairment, and higher HRU compared to non-migraine controls.

Conclusions

Migraine of ≥4 MHDs was associated with poorer HRQoL, greater work productivity loss, and higher HRU compared with non-migraine controls. The findings of the study suggest that an unmet need exists among individuals suffering from ≥4 MHDs in the EU5 suggesting the need for effective prophylactic treatments to lessen the humanistic and economic burden of migraine.

Association of hypoglycaemia severity with clinical, patient-reported and economic outcomes in US patients with type 2 diabetes using basal insulin

AIMS

To evaluate the clinical and patient-reported outcomes and healthcare utilization and costs associated with patient-reported hypoglycaemia in US adults with type 2 diabetes (T2D) treated with basal insulin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was an observational, cross-sectional, survey-based study of adults with T2D on basal insulin ± oral antidiabetes drugs (OADs) or rapid-acting/premixed insulin, who had in the past ever experienced hypoglycaemia, using US data from the National Health and Wellness Survey. Eligible patients were categorized as having no hypoglycaemia (38.7%), non-severe hypoglycaemia (55.1%), or severe hypoglycaemia (6.2%) in the preceding 3 months. Outcomes included health-related quality of life (HRQoL), work productivity and activity impairment, healthcare resource utilization, and estimated direct and indirect costs. Multivariable regression models were performed to control for patient characteristics.

RESULTS

Patients who experienced severe hypoglycaemia had significantly (P < .05) lower HRQoL scores, greater overall impairment of work productivity and activity, greater healthcare resource utilization, and higher costs compared with those who experienced non-severe or no hypoglycaemia. Patients with non-severe hypoglycaemia also reported an impact on the number of provider visits, indirect costs, and HRQoL.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with T2D using basal insulin ± OADs or rapid-acting/premixed insulin in the United States who experienced severe hypoglycaemia had greater impairment of activity and work productivity, utilized more healthcare resources, and incurred higher associated costs than those with non-severe or no hypoglycaemia. The study also demonstrated the impact that non-severe hypoglycaemic events have on economic and HRQoL outcomes. Reducing the incidence and severity of hypoglycaemia could lead to clinically meaningful improvements in HRQoL and may result in lower healthcare utilization and associated costs.