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Dovonou A, Bolduc C, Soto Linan V, Gora C, Peralta Iii MR, Lévesque M. Animal models of Parkinson's disease: bridging the gap between disease hallmarks and research questions. Transl Neurodegener 2023; 12:36. [PMID: 37468944 PMCID: PMC10354932 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-023-00368-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. More than 200 years after its first clinical description, PD remains a serious affliction that affects a growing proportion of the population. Prevailing treatments only alleviate symptoms; there is still neither a cure that targets the neurodegenerative processes nor therapies that modify the course of the disease. Over the past decades, several animal models have been developed to study PD. Although no model precisely recapitulates the pathology, they still provide valuable information that contributes to our understanding of the disease and the limitations of our treatment options. This review comprehensively summarizes the different animal models available for Parkinson's research, with a focus on those induced by drugs, neurotoxins, pesticides, genetic alterations, α-synuclein inoculation, and viral vector injections. We highlight their characteristics and ability to reproduce PD-like phenotypes. It is essential to realize that the strengths and weaknesses of each model and the induction technique at our disposal are determined by the research question being asked. Our review, therefore, seeks to better aid researchers by ensuring a concrete discernment of classical and novel animal models in PD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axelle Dovonou
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Cyril Bolduc
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Victoria Soto Linan
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Charles Gora
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Modesto R Peralta Iii
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Martin Lévesque
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada.
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Kajero JA, Seedat S, Ohaeri JU, Akindele A, Aina O. The effects of cannabidiol on behavioural and oxidative stress parameters induced by prolonged haloperidol administration. Acta Neuropsychiatr 2022:1-11. [PMID: 36328984 DOI: 10.1017/neu.2022.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We investigated the influence of oral cannabidiol (CBD) on vacuous chewing movements (VCM) and oxidative stress parameters induced by short- and long-term administration of haloperidol in a rat model of tardive dyskinesia (TD). METHODS Haloperidol was administered either sub-chronically via the intraperitoneal (IP) route or chronically via the intramuscular (IM) route to six experimental groups only or in combination with CBD. VCM and oxidative stress parameters were assessed at different time points after the last dose of medication. RESULTS Oral CBD (5 mg/kg) attenuated the VCM produced by sub-chronic administration of haloperidol (5 mg/kg) but had minimal effects on the VCM produced by chronic administration of haloperidol (50 mg/kg). In both sub-chronic and chronic haloperidol groups, there were significant changes in brain antioxidant parameters compared with CBD only and the control groups. The sub-chronic haloperidol-only group had lower glutathione activity compared with sub-chronic haloperidol before CBD and the control groups; also, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl activities were increased in the sub-chronic (IP) haloperidol only group compared with the CBD only and control groups. Nitric oxide activity was increased in sub-chronic haloperidol-only group compared to the other groups; however, the chronic haloperidol group had increased malondialdehyde activity compared to the other groups. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that CBD ameliorated VCM in the sub-chronic haloperidol group before CBD, but marginally in the chronic haloperidol group before CBD. There was increased antioxidant activity in the sub-chronic group compared to the chronic group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaiyeola Abiola Kajero
- Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Soraya Seedat
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jude U Ohaeri
- Department of Psychological Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Nigeria Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria
| | - Abidemi Akindele
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Oluwagbemiga Aina
- Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
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Tsermpini EE, Redenšek S, Dolžan V. Genetic Factors Associated With Tardive Dyskinesia: From Pre-clinical Models to Clinical Studies. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:834129. [PMID: 35140610 PMCID: PMC8819690 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.834129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tardive dyskinesia is a severe motor adverse event of antipsychotic medication, characterized by involuntary athetoid movements of the trunk, limbs, and/or orofacial areas. It affects two to ten patients under long-term administration of antipsychotics that do not subside for years even after the drug is stopped. Dopamine, serotonin, cannabinoid receptors, oxidative stress, plasticity factors, signaling cascades, as well as CYP isoenzymes and transporters have been associated with tardive dyskinesia (TD) occurrence in terms of genetic variability and metabolic capacity. Besides the factors related to the drug and the dose and patients’ clinical characteristics, a very crucial variable of TD development is individual susceptibility and genetic predisposition. This review summarizes the studies in experimental animal models and clinical studies focusing on the impact of genetic variations on TD occurrence. We identified eight genes emerging from preclinical findings that also reached statistical significance in at least one clinical study. The results of clinical studies are often conflicting and non-conclusive enough to support implementation in clinical practice.
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Riluzole Administration to Rats with Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia Leads to Loss of DNA Methylation in Neuronal Genes. Cells 2021; 10:cells10061442. [PMID: 34207710 PMCID: PMC8228416 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dyskinesias are characterized by abnormal repetitive involuntary movements due to dysfunctional neuronal activity. Although levodopa-induced dyskinesia, characterized by tic-like abnormal involuntary movements, has no clinical treatment for Parkinson’s disease patients, animal studies indicate that Riluzole, which interferes with glutamatergic neurotransmission, can improve the phenotype. The rat model of Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia is a unilateral lesion with 6-hydroxydopamine in the medial forebrain bundle, followed by the repeated administration of levodopa. The molecular pathomechanism of Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia is still not deciphered; however, the implication of epigenetic mechanisms was suggested. In this study, we investigated the striatum for DNA methylation alterations under chronic levodopa treatment with or without co-treatment with Riluzole. Our data show that the lesioned and contralateral striata have nearly identical DNA methylation profiles. Chronic levodopa and levodopa + Riluzole treatments led to DNA methylation loss, particularly outside of promoters, in gene bodies and CpG poor regions. We observed that several genes involved in the Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia underwent methylation changes. Furthermore, the Riluzole co-treatment, which improved the phenotype, pinpointed specific methylation targets, with a more than 20% methylation difference relative to levodopa treatment alone. These findings indicate potential new druggable targets for Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia.
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Nuclear Receptor Nr4a1 Regulates Striatal Striosome Development and Dopamine D 1 Receptor Signaling. eNeuro 2019; 6:ENEURO.0305-19.2019. [PMID: 31541002 PMCID: PMC6787343 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0305-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The GABAergic medium-size spiny neuron (MSN), the striatal output neuron, may be classified into striosome, also known as patch, and matrix, based on neurochemical differences between the two compartments. At this time, little is known regarding the regulation of the development of the two compartments. Nr4a1, primarily described as a nuclear receptor/immediate early gene involved in the homeostasis of the dopaminergic system, is a striosomal marker. Using Nr4a1-overexpressing and Nr4a1-null mice, we sought to determine whether Nr4a1 is necessary and/or sufficient for striosome development. We report that in vivo and in vitro, Nr4a1 and Oprm1 mRNA levels are correlated. In the absence of Nr4a, there is a decrease in the percentage of striatal surface area occupied by striosomes. Alterations in Nr4a1 expression leads to dysregulation of multiple mRNAs of members of the dopamine receptor D1 signal transduction system. Constitutive overexpression of Nr4a1 decreases both the induction of phosphorylation of ERK after a single cocaine exposure and locomotor sensitization following chronic cocaine exposure. Nr4a1 overexpression increases MSN excitability but reduces MSN long-term potentiation. In the resting state, type 5 adenylyl cyclase (AC5) activity is normal, but the ability of AC5 to be activated by Drd1 G-protein-coupled receptor inputs is decreased. Our results support a role for Nr4a1 in determination of striatal patch/matrix structure and in regulation of dopaminoceptive neuronal function.
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Rouillard C, Baillargeon J, Paquet B, St-Hilaire M, Maheux J, Lévesque C, Darlix N, Majeur S, Lévesque D. Genetic disruption of the nuclear receptor Nur77 (Nr4a1) in rat reduces dopamine cell loss and l-Dopa-induced dyskinesia in experimental Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Deficient striatal adaptation in aminergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission is associated with tardive dyskinesia in non-human primates exposed to antipsychotic drugs. Neuroscience 2017; 361:43-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Rodríguez-Calvo R, Tajes M, Vázquez-Carrera M. The NR4A subfamily of nuclear receptors: potential new therapeutic targets for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2017; 21:291-304. [PMID: 28055275 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2017.1279146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Prolonged inflammatory response contributes to the pathogenesis of chronic disease-related disturbances. Among nuclear receptors (NRs), the orphan NR4A subfamily, which includes Nur77 (NR4A1), Nurr1 (NR4A2) and NOR1 (NR4A3), has recently emerged as a therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammation. Areas covered: This review focuses on the capacity of NR4A receptors to counter-regulate the development of the inflammatory response, with a special focus on the molecular transrepression mechanisms. Expert opinion: Recent studies have highlighted the role of NR4A receptors as significant regulators of the inflammatory response. NR4A receptors are rapidly induced by inflammatory stimuli, thus suggesting that they are required for the initiation of inflammation. Nevertheless, NR4A anti-inflammatory properties indicate that this acute regulation could be a protective reaction aimed at resolving inflammation in the later stages. Therefore, NR4A receptors are involved in a negative feedback mechanism to maintain the inflammatory balance. However, the underlying mechanisms are not entirely clear. Only a small number of NR4A-target genes have been identified, and the transcriptional repression mechanisms are only beginning to emerge. Despite further research is needed to fully understand the role of NR4A receptors in inflammation, these NRs should be considered as targets for new therapeutic approaches to inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Rodríguez-Calvo
- a Vascular Medicine and Metabolism Unit, Research Unit on Lipids and Atherosclerosis, Sant Joan University Hospital, Pere Virgili Health Research Institute (IISPV) and Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Disorders (CIBERDEM)-Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences , Rovira i Virgili University , Reus , Spain
| | - Marta Tajes
- b Heart Diseases Biomedical Research Group, Inflammatory and Cardiovascular Disorders Program , Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Parc de Salut Mar , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Manuel Vázquez-Carrera
- c Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Institut de Recerca Pediàtrica-Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, and Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Disorders (CIBERDEM)-Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Faculty of Pharmacy, Diagonal 643 , University of Barcelona , Barcelona , Spain
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Safe S, Jin UH, Morpurgo B, Abudayyeh A, Singh M, Tjalkens RB. Nuclear receptor 4A (NR4A) family - orphans no more. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 157:48-60. [PMID: 25917081 PMCID: PMC4618773 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The orphan nuclear receptors NR4A1, NR4A2 and NR4A3 are immediate early genes induced by multiple stressors, and the NR4A receptors play an important role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and disease. There is increasing evidence for the role of these receptors in metabolic, cardiovascular and neurological functions and also in inflammation and inflammatory diseases and in immune functions and cancer. Despite the similarities of NR4A1, NR4A2 and NR4A3 and their interactions with common cis-genomic elements, they exhibit unique activities and cell-/tissue-specific functions. Although endogenous ligands for NR4A receptors have not been identified, there is increasing evidence that structurally-diverse synthetic molecules can directly interact with the ligand binding domain of NR4A1 and act as agonists or antagonists, and ligands for NR4A2 and NR4A3 have also been identified. Since NR4A receptors are key factors in multiple diseases, there are opportunities for the future development of NR4A ligands for clinical applications in treating multiple health problems including metabolic, neurologic and cardiovascular diseases, other inflammatory conditions, and cancer.
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MESH Headings
- Arthritis/metabolism
- Cardiovascular Diseases/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Homeostasis
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular
- Inflammation/metabolism
- Ligands
- Metabolic Diseases/genetics
- Metabolic Diseases/metabolism
- Neoplasms/metabolism
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1/genetics
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1/metabolism
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 2/genetics
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 2/metabolism
- Receptors, Steroid/metabolism
- Receptors, Thyroid Hormone/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Safe
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Un-Ho Jin
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Benjamin Morpurgo
- Texas A&M Institute for Genomic Medicine, Texas A&M University, 670 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Ala Abudayyeh
- Department of General Internal Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mandip Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, USA
| | - Ronald B Tjalkens
- Department of Toxicology and Neuroscience, Colorado State University, 1680Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1680, USA
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Jenner P. A late appearance by the dopamine D-3 receptor. Mov Disord 2014; 29:1094-6. [PMID: 25044342 DOI: 10.1002/mds.25958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Jenner
- Neurodegenerative Disease Research Group, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, King's College, London, United Kingdom
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Mahmoudi S, Lévesque D, Blanchet PJ. Upregulation of dopamine D3, not D2, receptors correlates with tardive dyskinesia in a primate model. Mov Disord 2014; 29:1125-33. [PMID: 24838395 DOI: 10.1002/mds.25909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a delayed and potentially irreversible motor complication arising in patients chronically exposed to centrally active dopamine D2 receptor antagonists, including antipsychotic drugs and metoclopramide. The classical dopamine D2 receptor supersensitivity hypothesis in TD, which stemmed from rodent studies, lacks strong support in humans. To investigate the neurochemical basis of TD, we chronically exposed adult capuchin monkeys to haloperidol (median, 18.5 months; n = 11) or clozapine (median, 6 months; n = 6). Six unmedicated animals were used as controls. Five haloperidol-treated animals developed mild TD movements, and no TD was observed in the clozapine group. Using receptor autoradiography, we measured striatal dopamine D1, D2, and D3 receptor levels. We also examined the D3 receptor/preprotachykinin messenger RNA (mRNA) co-expression, and quantified preproenkephalin mRNA levels, in striatal sections. Unlike clozapine, haloperidol strongly induced dopamine D3 receptor binding sites in the anterior caudate-putamen, particularly in TD animals, and binding levels positively correlated with TD intensity. Interestingly, the D3 receptor upregulation was observed in striatonigral neurons. In contrast, D2 receptor binding was comparable to controls, and dopamine D1 receptor binding was reduced in the anterior putamen. Enkephalin mRNA widely increased in all animals, but to a greater extent in TD-free animals. These results suggest for the first time that upregulated striatal D3 receptors correlate with TD in nonhuman primates, adding new insights to the dopamine receptor supersensitivity hypothesis. The D3 receptor could provide a novel target for drug intervention in human TD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souha Mahmoudi
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universite de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Campos-Melo D, Galleguillos D, Sánchez N, Gysling K, Andrés ME. Nur transcription factors in stress and addiction. Front Mol Neurosci 2013; 6:44. [PMID: 24348325 PMCID: PMC3844937 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2013.00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Nur transcription factors Nur77 (NGFI-B, NR4A1), Nurr1 (NR4A2), and Nor-1 (NR4A3) are a sub-family of orphan members of the nuclear receptor superfamily. These transcription factors are products of immediate early genes, whose expression is rapidly and transiently induced in the central nervous system by several types of stimuli. Nur factors are present throughout the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis where are prominently induced in response to stress. Drugs of abuse and stress also induce the expression of Nur factors in nuclei of the motivation/reward circuit of the brain, indicating their participation in the process of drug addiction and in non-hypothalamic responses to stress. Repeated use of addictive drugs and chronic stress induce long-lasting dysregulation of the brain motivation/reward circuit due to reprogramming of gene expression and enduring alterations in neuronal function. Here, we review the data supporting that Nur transcription factors are key players in the molecular basis of the dysregulation of neuronal circuits involved in chronic stress and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danae Campos-Melo
- Nucleus Millennium in Stress and Addiction, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago, Chile
| | - Danny Galleguillos
- Nucleus Millennium in Stress and Addiction, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago, Chile
| | - Natalia Sánchez
- Nucleus Millennium in Stress and Addiction, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago, Chile
| | - Katia Gysling
- Nucleus Millennium in Stress and Addiction, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago, Chile
| | - María E Andrés
- Nucleus Millennium in Stress and Addiction, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago, Chile
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17β-estradiol delays 6-OHDA-induced apoptosis by acting on Nur77 translocation from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Neurotox Res 2013; 25:124-34. [PMID: 24277157 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-013-9442-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear receptors (Nurs) represent a large family of gene expression regulating proteins. Gathering evidence indicates an important role for Nurs as transcription factors in dopamine neurotransmission. Nur77, a member of the Nur superfamily, plays a role in mediating the effects of antiparkinsonian and neuroleptic drugs. Besides, Nur77 survival and apoptotic roles depend largely on its subcellular localization. Estrogens are known for their neuroprotective properties, as demonstrated in animal and clinical studies. However, their action on Nur77 translocation pertaining to neuroprotection has not been investigated yet. The aim of our study was to perform a kinetic study on the effect of neurotoxic 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and 17β-estradiol (E2) on the subcellular localization of Nur77 with reference to the modulation of apoptosis in PC12 cells. Our results demonstrate that E2 administration alone does not affect Nur77 cytoplasmic/nuclear ratio, mRNA levels, or apoptosis in PC12 cells. The neurotoxin 6-OHDA significantly enhances cytoplasmic localization of Nur77 after merely 3 h, while precipitating apoptosis. 6-OHDA also increases Nur77 transcription, which could partly explain the rise in cytoplasmic localization of the protein. Finally, treatment with both E2 and 6-OHDA delays Nur77 accumulation in the cytoplasm and delays cell death for a few hours in our cellular paradigm. Pre-treatment with E2 does not alter the increase in levels of Nur77 mRNA produced by 6-OHDA, suggesting that a raise in nuclear translocation is likely responsible for the stabilization of the cytoplasmic/nuclear ratio until 6 h. These results suggest an intriguing cooperation between E2 and Nur77 toward cellular fate guidance.
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Rana AQ, Chaudry ZM, Blanchet PJ. New and emerging treatments for symptomatic tardive dyskinesia. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2013; 7:1329-40. [PMID: 24235816 PMCID: PMC3825689 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s32328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this review is to assess new, emerging, and experimental treatment options for tardive dyskinesia (TD). The methods to obtain relevant studies for review included a MEDLINE search and a review of studies in English, along with checking reference lists of articles. The leading explanatory models of TD development include dopamine receptor supersensitivity, GABA depletion, cholinergic deficiency, neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, changes in synaptic plasticity, and defective neuroadaptive signaling. As such, a wide range of treatment options are available. To provide a complete summary of choices we review atypical antipsychotics along with resveratrol, botulinum toxin, Ginkgo biloba, tetrabenazine, clonazepam, melatonin, essential fatty acids, zonisamide, levetiracetam, branched-chain amino acids, drug combinations, and invasive surgical treatments. There is currently no US Food and Drug Administration-approved treatment for TD; however, prudent use of atypical antipsychotics with routine monitoring remain the cornerstone of therapy, with experimental treatment options available for further management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Qayyum Rana
- Parkinson's Clinic of Eastern Toronto and Movement Disorders Centre, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Scarborough Memory Program, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Journal of Parkinsonism and RLS, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Bulletin of World Parkinson's Program, Toronto, ON, Canada
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