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Aziz N, Wal P, Patel A, Prajapati H. A comprehensive review on the pharmacological role of gut microbiome in neurodegenerative disorders: potential therapeutic targets. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024:10.1007/s00210-024-03109-4. [PMID: 38734839 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-024-03109-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Neurological disorders, including Alzheimer and Parkinson's, pose significant challenges to public health due to their complex etiologies and limited treatment options. Recent advances in research have highlighted the intricate bidirectional communication between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system (CNS), revealing a potential therapeutic avenue for neurological disorders. Thus, this review aims to summarize the current understanding of the pharmacological role of gut microbiome in neurological disorders. Mounting evidence suggests that the gut microbiome plays a crucial role in modulating CNS function through various mechanisms, including the production of neurotransmitters, neuroactive metabolites, and immune system modulation. Dysbiosis, characterized by alterations in gut microbial composition and function, has been observed in many neurological disorders, indicating a potential causative or contributory role. Pharmacological interventions targeting the gut microbiome have emerged as promising therapeutic strategies for neurological disorders. Probiotics, prebiotics, antibiotics, and microbial metabolite-based interventions have shown beneficial effects in animal models and some human studies. These interventions aim to restore microbial homeostasis, enhance microbial diversity, and promote the production of beneficial metabolites. However, several challenges remain, including the need for standardized protocols, identification of specific microbial signatures associated with different neurological disorders, and understanding the precise mechanisms underlying gut-brain communication. Further research is necessary to unravel the intricate interactions between the gut microbiome and the CNS and to develop targeted pharmacological interventions for neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namra Aziz
- PSIT-Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology (Pharmacy), NH-19, Kanpur, UP, 209305, India
| | - Pranay Wal
- PSIT-Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology (Pharmacy), NH-19, Kanpur, UP, 209305, India.
| | - Aman Patel
- PSIT-Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology (Pharmacy), NH-19, Kanpur, UP, 209305, India
| | - Harshit Prajapati
- PSIT-Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology (Pharmacy), NH-19, Kanpur, UP, 209305, India
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Lassarén P, Conley G, Boucher ML, Conley AN, Morriss NJ, Qiu J, Mannix RC, Thelin EP. Optimizing Choice and Timing of Behavioral Outcome Tests After Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Machine Learning-Based Approach on Multiple Pre-Clinical Experiments. J Neurotrauma 2023; 40:1762-1778. [PMID: 36738227 PMCID: PMC10458377 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2022.0486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) is a potentially debilitating condition with long-term sequelae. Animal models are used to study rmTBI in a controlled environment, but there is currently no established standard battery of behavioral tests used. Primarily, we aimed to identify the best combination and timing of behavioral tests to distinguish injured from uninjured animals in rmTBI studies, and secondarily, to determine whether combinations of independent experiments have better behavioral outcome prediction accuracy than individual experiments. Data from 1203 mice from 58 rmTBI experiments, some of which have already been published, were used. In total, 11 types of behavioral tests were measured by 37 parameters at 13 time points during the first 6 months after injury. Univariate regression analyses were used to identify optimal combinations of behavioral tests and whether the inclusion of multiple heterogenous experiments improved accuracy. k-means clustering was used to determine whether a combination of multiple tests could distinguish mice with rmTBI from uninjured mice. We found that a combination of behavioral tests outperformed individual tests alone when distinguishing animals with rmTBI from uninjured animals. The best timing for most individual behavioral tests was 3-4 months after first injury. Overall, Morris water maze (MWM; hidden and probe frequency) was the behavioral test with the best capability of detecting injury effects (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.98). Combinations of open field tests and elevated plus mazes also performed well (AUC = 0.92), as did the forced swim test alone (AUC = 0.90). In summary, multiple heterogeneous experiments tended to predict outcome better than individual experiments, and MWM 3-4 months after injury was the optimal test, also several combinations also performed well. In order to design future pre-clinical rmTBI trials, we have included an interactive application available online utilizing the data from the study via the Supplementary URL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Lassarén
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Grace Conley
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Masen L. Boucher
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ashley N. Conley
- School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nicholas J. Morriss
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Duke University School of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jianhua Qiu
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rebekah C. Mannix
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Eric Peter Thelin
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neurology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Viney TJ, Sarkany B, Ozdemir AT, Hartwich K, Schweimer J, Bannerman D, Somogyi P. Spread of pathological human Tau from neurons to oligodendrocytes and loss of high-firing pyramidal neurons in aging mice. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111646. [PMID: 36384116 PMCID: PMC9681663 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular aggregation of hyperphosphorylated Tau (pTau) in the brain is associated with cognitive and motor impairments, and ultimately neurodegeneration. We investigate how human pTau affects cells and network activity in the hippocampal formation of the THY-Tau22 tauopathy model mice in vivo. We find that pTau preferentially accumulates in deep-layer pyramidal neurons, leading to neurodegeneration, and we establish that pTau spreads to oligodendrocytes. During goal-directed virtual navigation in aged transgenic mice, we detect fewer high-firing prosubicular pyramidal cells, but the firing population retains its coupling to theta oscillations. Analysis of network oscillations and firing patterns of pyramidal and GABAergic neurons recorded in head-fixed and freely moving mice suggests preserved neuronal coordination. In spatial memory tests, transgenic mice have reduced short-term familiarity, but spatial working and reference memory are surprisingly normal. We hypothesize that unimpaired subcortical network mechanisms maintain cortical neuronal coordination, counteracting the widespread pTau aggregation, loss of high-firing cells, and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim J Viney
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK.
| | - Barbara Sarkany
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK
| | - A Tugrul Ozdemir
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Katja Hartwich
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Judith Schweimer
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK
| | - David Bannerman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, UK
| | - Peter Somogyi
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK
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Low-Dose Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol as Beneficial Treatment for Aged APP/PS1 Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052757. [PMID: 35269905 PMCID: PMC8910894 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies on the effective and safe therapeutic dosage of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have been sparse due to the concern about THC’s psychotropic activity. The present study focused on demonstrating the beneficial effect of low-dose THC treatment in preclinical AD models. The effect of THC on amyloid-β (Aβ) production was examined in N2a/AβPPswe cells. An in vivo study was conducted in aged APP/PS1 transgenic mice that received an intraperitoneal injection of THC at 0.02 and 0.2 mg/kg every other day for three months. The in vitro study showed that THC inhibited Aβ aggregation within a safe dose range. Results of the radial arm water maze (RAWM) test demonstrated that treatment with 0.02 and 0.2 mg/kg of THC for three months significantly improved the spatial learning performance of aged APP/PS1 mice in a dose-dependent manner. Results of protein analyses revealed that low-dose THC treatment significantly decreased the expression of Aβ oligomers, phospho-tau and total tau, and increased the expression of Aβ monomers and phospho-GSK-3β (Ser9) in the THC-treated brain tissues. In conclusion, treatment with THC at 0.2 and 0.02 mg/kg improved the spatial learning of aged APP/PS1 mice, suggesting low-dose THC is a safe and effective treatment for AD.
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Çakmak G, Kaplan DS, Yıldırım C, Ulusal H, Tarakçıoğlu M, Öztürk ZA. Improvement of cognitive deficit of curcumin on scopolamine-induced Alzheimer's disease models. CASPIAN JOURNAL OF INTERNAL MEDICINE 2022; 13:16-22. [PMID: 35178203 PMCID: PMC8797824 DOI: 10.22088/cjim.13.1.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been suggested that curcumin may be useful in diseases with cognitive dysfunction because it slows the progression and leads to the improvement of cognitive functions. In this study, the protective effects of curcumin on scopolamine-induced rat models of cognitive impairment were evaluated. METHODS 21 male Wistar Albino rats, 1 year old, 200±25 grams, were included in the study. They were divided into three groups (n: 7 in each group); the untreated control group, scopolamine group, and the group treated with curcumin and then exposed to scopolamine. Animals were evaluated for behavioral tasks with the Morris Water Maze test. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), total oxidative status (TOS), and total antioxidative status (TAS) were measured in hippocampal tissues. CRP levels were measured in serum specimens. RESULTS We found that the length to reach the platform was the highest in the scopolamine group, and the lowest in the curcumin group (p<0.001). Time to reach the platform was the longest in the scopolamine group, and the shortest in the curcumin group (P=0.002). The length to reach the platform was the highest in the scopolamine group, and the lowest in the control group in the probe test (p<0.001). IL-6 levels were higher in the scopolamine group than the curcumin group (P=0.017) and the control group (P=0.005). CONCLUSION We revealed that curcumin provides a protective effect on scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment mimicking Alzheimer's disease. The use of curcumin for the protection of cognition in individuals at risk of developing AD may be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Güzin Çakmak
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Davut Sinan Kaplan
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Caner Yıldırım
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Hasan Ulusal
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Tarakçıoğlu
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Zeynel Abidin Öztürk
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Gaziantep, Turkey
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Sherwood MW, Oliet SHR, Panatier A. NMDARs, Coincidence Detectors of Astrocytic and Neuronal Activities. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7258. [PMID: 34298875 PMCID: PMC8307462 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic plasticity is an extensively studied cellular correlate of learning and memory in which NMDARs play a starring role. One of the most interesting features of NMDARs is their ability to act as a co-incident detector. It is unique amongst neurotransmitter receptors in this respect. Co-incident detection is possible because the opening of NMDARs requires membrane depolarisation and the binding of glutamate. Opening of NMDARs also requires a co-agonist. Although the dynamic regulation of glutamate and membrane depolarization have been well studied in coincident detection, the role of the co-agonist site is unexplored. It turns out that non-neuronal glial cells, astrocytes, regulate co-agonist availability, giving them the ability to influence synaptic plasticity. The unique morphology and spatial arrangement of astrocytes at the synaptic level affords them the capacity to sample and integrate information originating from unrelated synapses, regardless of any pre-synaptic and post-synaptic commonality. As astrocytes are classically considered slow responders, their influence at the synapse is widely recognized as modulatory. The aim herein is to reconsider the potential of astrocytes to participate directly in ongoing synaptic NMDAR activity and co-incident detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W. Sherwood
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-3300 Bordeaux, France;
| | | | - Aude Panatier
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-3300 Bordeaux, France;
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Phasuk S, Jasmin S, Pairojana T, Chang HK, Liang KC, Liu IY. Lack of the peroxiredoxin 6 gene causes impaired spatial memory and abnormal synaptic plasticity. Mol Brain 2021; 14:72. [PMID: 33874992 PMCID: PMC8056661 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00779-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Peroxiredoxin 6 (PRDX6) is expressed dominantly in the astrocytes and exerts either neuroprotective or neurotoxic effects in the brain. Although PRDX6 can modulate several signaling cascades involving cognitive functions, its physiological role in spatial memory has not been investigated yet. This study aims to explore the function of the Prdx6 gene in spatial memory formation and synaptic plasticity. We first tested Prdx6-/- mice on a Morris water maze task and found that their memory performance was defective, along with reduced long-term potentiation (LTP) in CA3-CA1 hippocampal synapses recorded from hippocampal sections of home-caged mice. Surprisingly, after the probe test, these knockout mice exhibited elevated hippocampal LTP, higher phosphorylated ERK1/2 level, and decreased reactive astrocyte markers. We further reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation by administering MEK inhibitor, U0126, into Prdx6-/- mice before the probe test, which reversed their spatial memory deficit. This study is the first one to report the role of PRDX6 in spatial memory and synaptic plasticity. Our results revealed that PRDX6 is necessary for maintaining spatial memory by modulating ERK1/2 phosphorylation and astrocyte activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarayut Phasuk
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sureka Jasmin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tanita Pairojana
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Hsueh-Kai Chang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Chi Liang
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Ingrid Y Liu
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.
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Dempsey-Jones H, Steudte-Schmiedgen S, Browning M, Makin TR, Woud ML, Harmer CJ, Margraf J, Reinecke A. Human perceptual learning is delayed by the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor partial agonist D-cycloserine. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:253-264. [PMID: 33570017 PMCID: PMC7924109 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120986349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The optimisation of learning has long been a focus of scientific research, particularly in relation to improving psychological treatment and recovery of brain function. Previously, partial N-methyl-D-aspartate agonists have been shown to augment reward learning, procedural learning and psychological therapy, but many studies also report no impact of these compounds on the same processes. AIMS Here we investigate whether administration of an N-methyl-D-aspartate partial agonist (D-cycloserine) modulates a previously unexplored process - tactile perceptual learning. Further, we use a longitudinal design to investigate whether N-methyl-D-aspartate-related learning effects vary with time, thereby providing a potentially simple explanation for apparent mixed effects in previous research. METHODS Thirty-four volunteers were randomised to receive one dose of 250 mg D-cycloserine or placebo 2 h before tactile sensitivity training. Tactile perception was measured using psychophysical methods before and after training, and 24/48 h later. RESULTS The placebo group showed immediate within-day tactile perception gains, but no further improvements between-days. In contrast, tactile perception remained at baseline on day one in the D-cycloserine group (no within-day learning), but showed significant overnight gains on day two. Both groups were equivalent in tactile perception by the final testing - indicating N-methyl-D-aspartate effects changed the timing, but not the overall amount of tactile learning. CONCLUSIONS In sum, we provide first evidence for modulation of perceptual learning by administration of a partial N-methyl-D-aspartate agonist. Resolving how the effects of such compounds become apparent over time will assist the optimisation of testing schedules, and may help resolve discrepancies across the learning and cognition domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet Dempsey-Jones
- Wellcome Centre for Integrated Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Susann Steudte-Schmiedgen
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Browning
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, UK
| | - Tamar R Makin
- Wellcome Centre for Integrated Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Marcella L Woud
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Catherine J Harmer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, UK
| | - Juergen Margraf
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Maugard M, Vigneron PA, Bolaños JP, Bonvento G. l-Serine links metabolism with neurotransmission. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 197:101896. [PMID: 32798642 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Brain energy metabolism is often considered as a succession of biochemical steps that metabolize the fuel (glucose and oxygen) for the unique purpose of providing sufficient ATP to maintain the huge information processing power of the brain. However, a significant fraction (10-15 %) of glucose is shunted away from the ATP-producing pathway (oxidative phosphorylation) and may be used to support other functions. Recent studies have pointed to the marked compartmentation of energy metabolic pathways between neurons and glial cells. Here, we focused our attention on the biosynthesis of l-serine, a non-essential amino acid that is formed exclusively in glial cells (mostly astrocytes) by re-routing the metabolic fate of the glycolytic intermediate, 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). This metabolic pathway is called the phosphorylated pathway and transforms 3PG into l-serine via three enzymatic reactions. We first compiled the available data on the mechanisms that regulate the flux through this metabolic pathway. We then reviewed the current evidence that is beginning to unravel the roles of l-serine both in the healthy and diseased brain, leading to the notion that this specific metabolic pathway connects glial metabolism with synaptic activity and plasticity. We finally suggest that restoring astrocyte-mediated l-serine homeostasis may provide new therapeutic strategies for brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Maugard
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, MIRCen, Laboratoire des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Pierre-Antoine Vigneron
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, MIRCen, Laboratoire des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), Universidad de Salamanca, CSIC, Salamanca, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Gilles Bonvento
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, MIRCen, Laboratoire des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.
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Fisher EMC, Bannerman DM. Mouse models of neurodegeneration: Know your question, know your mouse. Sci Transl Med 2020; 11:11/493/eaaq1818. [PMID: 31118292 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aaq1818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Many mutant mouse strains have been developed as models to investigate neurodegenerative disease in humans. However, variability in results among studies using these mouse strains has led to questions about the value of these models. Here, we appraise various mouse models for dissecting neurodegenerative disease mechanisms and emphasize the importance of asking appropriate research questions. In therapeutic studies, we suggest that understanding variability among and within mouse models is crucial for preventing translational failures in human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M C Fisher
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - David M Bannerman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK.
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Eleutheroside E attenuates isoflurane-induced cognitive dysfunction by regulating the α7-nAChR-NMDAR pathway. Neuroreport 2019; 30:188-194. [PMID: 30585907 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000001182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
There is growing evidence that cognitive dysfunction induced by anesthetics is adversely affecting a large number of elderly surgical patients. Eleutheroside E (EE), a principal component of Eleutherococcus senticosus, exerts obvious protective effects on cognition. The aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of EE on isoflurane (ISO)-induced cognitive dysfunction and explore the possible mechanisms. Learning and memory are assessed in novel object recognition and Morris water maze. We found that with ISO exposure, aged rats had a lower preference for the new object and spent less time in the target quarter. However, the amnesia can be alleviated by EE (50 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). Further research focused on the possible protective molecules associated with learning and memory, such as acetylcholine (ACh) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7-nAChR), and NR2B, is required. The ACh in the hippocampus and serum was decreased after ISO exposure; meanwhile, the expression of ChAT, α7-nAChRs, and NR2B was downregulated. This abnormal state can be reversed by the administration of EE. Here, our results suggested that EE may be a potential therapeutic agent against ISO-induced cognitive dysfunction. The possible mechanism can be attributed to its neuroprotection through enhancing ChAT, which promotes the synthesis of ACh, further influencing the expression of the α7-nAChR-NR2B complex.
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12
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Mahmoud GS, Sayed SA, Abdelmawla SN, Amer MA. Positive effects of systemic sodium benzoate and olanzapine treatment on activities of daily life, spatial learning and working memory in ketamine-induced rat model of schizophrenia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 11:21-30. [PMID: 31149324 PMCID: PMC6526385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sodium Benzoate (SB) significantly improved positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms as add on treatment in schizophrenia. Olanzapine (Ola), the most effective atypical antipsychotic drug, has been linked to hepatic steatosis, acute kidney injury, reproductive side effects and poor effect on negative symptoms in some patients. GOALS is to compare the efficacy and check the safety of long-term monotherapy with SB 0.01 mg/Kg versus Ola on male cognitive, memory, hepatic, renal and testicular functions in rat model of schizophrenia. METHODS 48 young adult male rats were divided into 6 groups; C: control; O: received Ola; SB: received SB; K: received single IP ketamine (Ket) injection; K+O: received Ola and Ket and K+SB: received SB and Ket. Ola and SB given orally for 3 or 10 weeks for behavioral or serological studies respectively. We measured activities of daily life (ADL), spatial learning and memory in radial arm water maze (RAWM), serum parameters of hepatic, renal and testicular functions. RESULTS Both Ola and SB significantly improved hoarding and burrowing, caused significant decrease in time to reach target (TRT), working memory errors (WME) in K+O and K+SB groups compared to K group. Ola caused significant increase in ALT, AST and creatinine and decrease in serum LH, testosterone compared to controls. SB caused significant rise in serum LH, ALT, AST and decrease in protein and albumin compared to both C and O groups. CONCLUSION Both Ola and SB improved ADL, cognitive and memory functions. Although SB saved testicular and renal functions, it worsened liver function compared to Ola.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghada S Mahmoud
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut UniversityAssiut, Egypt
| | - Sally A Sayed
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut UniversityAssiut, Egypt
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Paarmann K, Prakash SR, Krohn M, Möhle L, Brackhan M, Brüning T, Eiriz I, Pahnke J. French maritime pine bark treatment decelerates plaque development and improves spatial memory in Alzheimer's disease mice. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 57:39-48. [PMID: 30668321 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plant extracts are increasingly investigated as potential drugs against Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia in general. Pycnogenol is an extract from the bark of the French maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Aiton subsp. atlantica) with known anti-oxidative and neuroprotective effects. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE Pycnogenol is thought to improve cognitive functions in elderly. We wanted to investigate and quantify these effects in a model system of cerebral ß-amyloidosis/AD. STUDY DESIGN/METHODS This study experimentally assessed the effects of Pycnogenol on AD-related pathology in a ß-amyloidosis mouse model. APP-transgenic mice and controls were treated orally in a pre-onset and post-onset treatment paradigm. The effects of Pycnogenol were characterized by analysing ß-amyloid (Aß) plaques, number of neurons, glia coverage, myelination pattern, and cortical coverage with axons using immunohistochemistry. Aß levels were quantified using ELISA and gene expression levels of APP-processing enzymes ADAM10, BACE1 and IDE protein levels were determined by Western blot. Behavioural changes in circadian rhythm were monitored and spatial memory / cognition was assessed using a water maze test. RESULTS Pycnogenol significantly decreased the number of plaques in both treatment paradigms but did not alter levels of soluble Aß or the gene expression of APP-processing enzymes. The morphological analyses revealed no changes in the number of neurons, astrocytes, microglia, the myelination pattern, or the morphology of axons. Behavioural testing revealed an improvement of the spatial memory in the pre-onset treatment paradigm only. CONCLUSION Our results suggest to evaluate clinically a potential use of Pycnogenol in the prevention or in early stages of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Paarmann
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway; LIED, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - S R Prakash
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
| | - M Krohn
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
| | - L Möhle
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway; Department for Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz-Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle, Germany
| | - M Brackhan
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
| | - T Brüning
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
| | - I Eiriz
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
| | - J Pahnke
- Department of Neuro-/Pathology, Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway; LIED, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany; Department for Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz-Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle, Germany; Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Latvia, Rīga, Latvia.
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14
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Sri S, Pegasiou CM, Cave CA, Hough K, Wood N, Gomez-Nicola D, Deinhardt K, Bannerman D, Perry VH, Vargas-Caballero M. Emergence of synaptic and cognitive impairment in a mature-onset APP mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2019; 7:25. [PMID: 30795807 PMCID: PMC6387506 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-019-0670-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The synaptic changes underlying the onset of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are poorly understood. In contrast to the well documented inhibition of long-term potentiation (LTP) in CA3-CA1 synapses by acute Aβ application in adult neurons from rodents, young amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mouse models often, surprisingly, show normal LTP. This suggests that there may be important differences between mature-onset and developmental-onset APP expression/ Aβ accumulation and the ensuing synaptic and behavioural phenotype. Here, in agreement with previous studies, we observed that developmental expression of APPSw,Ind (3–4 month old mice from line 102, PLoS Med 2:e355, 2005), resulted in reduced basal synaptic transmission in CA3-CA1 synapses, normal LTP, impaired spatial working memory, but normal spatial reference memory. To analyse early Aβ-mediated synaptic dysfunction and cognitive impairment in a more mature brain, we used controllable mature-onset APPSw,Ind expression in line 102 mice. Within 3 weeks of mature-onset APPSw,Ind expression and Aβ accumulation, we detected the first synaptic dysfunction: an impairment of LTP in hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses. Cognitively, at this time point, we observed a deficit in short-term memory. A reduction in basal synaptic strength and deficit in long-term associative spatial memory were only evident following 12 weeks of APPSw,Ind expression. Importantly, the plasticity impairment observed after 3 weeks of mature-onset APP expression is reversible. Together, these findings demonstrate important differences between developmental and mature-onset APP expression. Further research targeted at this early stage of synaptic dysfunction could help identify mechanisms to treat cognitive impairment in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and early AD.
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15
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Bygrave AM, Kilonzo K, Kullmann DM, Bannerman DM, Kätzel D. Can N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Hypofunction in Schizophrenia Be Localized to an Individual Cell Type? Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:835. [PMID: 31824347 PMCID: PMC6881463 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypofunction of N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptors (NMDARs), whether caused by endogenous factors like auto-antibodies or mutations, or by pharmacological or genetic manipulations, produces a wide variety of deficits which overlap with-but do not precisely match-the symptom spectrum of schizophrenia. In order to understand how NMDAR hypofunction leads to different components of the syndrome, it is necessary to take into account which neuronal subtypes are particularly affected by it in terms of detrimental functional alterations. We provide a comprehensive overview detailing findings in rodent models with cell type-specific knockout of NMDARs. Regarding inhibitory cortical cells, an emerging model suggests that NMDAR hypofunction in parvalbumin (PV) positive interneurons is a potential risk factor for this disease. PV interneurons display a selective vulnerability resulting from a combination of genetic, cellular, and environmental factors that produce pathological multi-level positive feedback loops. Central to this are two antioxidant mechanisms-NMDAR activity and perineuronal nets-which are themselves impaired by oxidative stress, amplifying disinhibition. However, NMDAR hypofunction in excitatory pyramidal cells also produces a range of schizophrenia-related deficits, in particular maladaptive learning and memory recall. Furthermore, NMDAR blockade in the thalamus disturbs thalamocortical communication, and NMDAR ablation in dopaminergic neurons may provoke over-generalization in associative learning, which could relate to the positive symptom domain. Therefore, NMDAR hypofunction can produce schizophrenia-related effects through an action on various different circuits and cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei M Bygrave
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kasyoka Kilonzo
- Institute of Applied Physiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Dimitri M Kullmann
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David M Bannerman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis Kätzel
- Institute of Applied Physiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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16
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Direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into neural stem cells by single non-neural progenitor transcription factor Ptf1a. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2865. [PMID: 30030434 PMCID: PMC6054649 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05209-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Induced neural stem cells (iNSCs) reprogrammed from somatic cells have great potentials in cell replacement therapies and in vitro modeling of neural diseases. Direct conversion of fibroblasts into iNSCs has been shown to depend on a couple of key neural progenitor transcription factors (TFs), raising the question of whether such direct reprogramming can be achieved by non-neural progenitor TFs. Here we report that the non-neural progenitor TF Ptf1a alone is sufficient to directly reprogram mouse and human fibroblasts into self-renewable iNSCs capable of differentiating into functional neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and improving cognitive dysfunction of Alzheimer’s disease mouse models when transplanted. The reprogramming activity of Ptf1a depends on its Notch-independent interaction with Rbpj which leads to subsequent activation of expression of TF genes and Notch signaling required for NSC specification, self-renewal, and homeostasis. Together, our data identify a non-canonical and safer approach to establish iNSCs for research and therapeutic purposes. Fibroblasts can be reprogrammed into induced neural stem cells (iNSCs) using transcription factors expressed in neural progenitors. Here the authors show that Ptf1a, which is normally expressed in postmitotic neurons, can reprogram fibroblasts to iNSCs through Notch independent interaction with Rbpj.
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17
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Chogtu B, Arivazhahan A, Kunder SK, Tilak A, Sori R, Tripathy A. Evaluation of Acute and Chronic Effects of D-Galactose on Memory and Learning in Wistar Rats. CLINICAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 16:153-160. [PMID: 29739128 PMCID: PMC5953014 DOI: 10.9758/cpn.2018.16.2.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Objective D-galactose has been commonly used in rodent models to induce accelerated effects of aging, including those on learning, memory, and muscular tone and coordination. This is normally seen on chronic administration of D-galactose. However, there is minimal suggestive evidence on the short-term effects of the same. The aim of the study was to study the acute and chronic effects of D-galactose on learning and memory in Wistar rats. Methods Twenty four male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to the control, standard (rivastigmine), oral D-galactose (200 mg/kg/day) and subcutaneous D-galactose (200 mg/kg/day) for a total duration of 8 weeks. Effects on learning and memory were assessed at 2 weeks, 4 weeks and 8 weeks by Morris water maze model and passive avoidance testing. Results Both oral and subcutaneous D-galactose showed positive effects on learning and memory on acute dosing, whereas this beneficial effect was lost during chronic dosing. Conclusion Short-term administration of D-galactose showed positive effects, while long-term administration nullified these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharti Chogtu
- Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal, India
| | - Avinash Arivazhahan
- Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal, India
| | - Sushil Kiran Kunder
- Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal, India
| | - Amod Tilak
- Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal, India
| | - Ravi Sori
- Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal, India
| | - Amruta Tripathy
- Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal, India
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18
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O'Tuathaigh CMP, Moran PM, Zhen XC, Waddington JL. Translating advances in the molecular basis of schizophrenia into novel cognitive treatment strategies. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:3173-3190. [PMID: 28667666 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence and severity of cognitive symptoms, including working memory, executive dysfunction and attentional impairment, contributes materially to functional impairment in schizophrenia. Cognitive symptoms have proved to be resistant to both first- and second-generation antipsychotic drugs. Efforts to develop a consensus set of cognitive domains that are both disrupted in schizophrenia and are amenable to cross-species validation (e.g. the National Institute of Mental Health Cognitive Neuroscience Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia and Research Domain Criteria initiatives) are an important step towards standardization of outcome measures that can be used in preclinical testing of new drugs. While causative genetic mutations have not been identified, new technologies have identified novel genes as well as hitherto candidate genes previously implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and/or mechanisms of antipsychotic efficacy. This review comprises a selective summary of these developments, particularly phenotypic data arising from preclinical genetic models for cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia, with the aim of indicating potential new directions for pro-cognitive therapeutics. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Pharmacology of Cognition: a Panacea for Neuropsychiatric Disease? To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.19/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colm M P O'Tuathaigh
- School of Medicine, University College Cork, Brookfield Health Sciences Complex, Cork, Ireland
| | - Paula M Moran
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Xuechu C Zhen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research & Therapy for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - John L Waddington
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research & Therapy for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Molecular and Cellular Therapeutics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
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19
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Li S, Li S, Li Y, Yan H, Huang C, Liu Q. Influence of circadian disorder on structures and functions of neurons in hippocampus of mice. BIOL RHYTHM RES 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/09291016.2017.1299368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Songbing Li
- West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chendu, China
| | - Shuaizhen Li
- College of Electronic Engineering, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chendu, China
| | - Yonghong Li
- College of Electronic Engineering, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chendu, China
| | - Hongli Yan
- College of Electronic Engineering, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chendu, China
| | - Changquan Huang
- College of Electronic Engineering, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chendu, China
- Department of Gynecology, Third People Hospital Mianyang City, Mianyang, China
| | - Qingxiu Liu
- Department of Gynecology, Third People Hospital Mianyang City, Mianyang, China
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20
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Pellegrino RM, Boda E, Montarolo F, Boero M, Mezzanotte M, Saglio G, Buffo A, Roetto A. Transferrin Receptor 2 Dependent Alterations of Brain Iron Metabolism Affect Anxiety Circuits in the Mouse. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30725. [PMID: 27477597 PMCID: PMC4967901 DOI: 10.1038/srep30725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Transferrin Receptor 2 (Tfr2) modulates systemic iron metabolism through the regulation of iron regulator Hepcidin (Hepc) and Tfr2 inactivation causes systemic iron overload. Based on data demonstrating Tfr2 expression in brain, we analysed Tfr2-KO mice in order to examine the molecular, histological and behavioural consequences of Tfr2 silencing in this tissue. Tfr2 abrogation caused an accumulation of iron in specific districts in the nervous tissue that was not accompanied by a brain Hepc response. Moreover, Tfr2-KO mice presented a selective overactivation of neurons in the limbic circuit and the emergence of an anxious-like behaviour. Furthermore, microglial cells showed a particular sensitivity to iron perturbation. We conclude that Tfr2 is a key regulator of brain iron homeostasis and propose a role for Tfr2 alpha in the regulation of anxiety circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Maria Pellegrino
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,AOU San Luigi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Enrica Boda
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Montarolo
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Martina Boero
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,AOU San Luigi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Mariarosa Mezzanotte
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,AOU San Luigi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Saglio
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,AOU San Luigi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Annalisa Buffo
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
| | - Antonella Roetto
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,AOU San Luigi Regione Gonzole 10043 Orbassano Turin, Italy
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