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LaCava MEF, Griffiths JS, Ellison L, Carson EW, Hung T, Finger AJ. Loss of plasticity in maturation timing after ten years of captive spawning in a delta smelt conservation hatchery. Evol Appl 2023; 16:1845-1857. [PMID: 38029063 PMCID: PMC10681455 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to captivity in spawning programs can lead to unintentional consequences, such as domestication that results in reduced fitness in the wild. The timing of sexual maturation has been shown to be a trait under domestication selection in fish hatcheries, which affects a fish's access to mating opportunities and aligning their offspring's development with favorable environmental conditions. Earlier maturing fish may be favored in hatchery settings where managers provide artificially optimal growing conditions, but early maturation may reduce fitness in the wild if, for example, there is a mismatch between timing of reproduction and availability of resources that support recruitment. We investigated patterns of maturation timing in a delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) conservation hatchery by quantifying changes to the median age at maturity since the captive spawning program was initiated in 2008. Over the span of a decade, we observed a small, but significant increase in age at maturity among broodstock by 2.2 weeks. This trait had low heritability and was largely controlled by phenotypic plasticity that was dependent on the time of year fish were born. Fish that were born later in the year matured faster, potentially a carryover from selection favoring synchronous spawning in the wild. However, higher DI (domestication index) fish showed a loss of plasticity, we argue, as a result of hatchery practices that breed individuals past peak periods of female ripeness. Our findings suggest that the hatchery setting has relaxed selection pressures for fish to mature quickly at the end of the year and, consequently, has led to a loss of plasticity in age at maturity. Hatchery fish that are re-introduced in the wild may not be able to align maturation with population peaks if their maturation rates are too slow with reduced plasticity, potentially resulting in lower fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie E. F. LaCava
- Genomic Variation Laboratory, Department of Animal ScienceUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Joanna S. Griffiths
- Department of Environmental Toxicology and Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation BiologyUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Luke Ellison
- Fish Conservation and Culture Laboratory, Department of Biological and Agricultural EngineeringUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Evan W. Carson
- US Fish and Wildlife ServiceSan Francisco Bay‐Delta Fish and Wildlife OfficeSacramentoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Tien‐Chieh Hung
- Fish Conservation and Culture Laboratory, Department of Biological and Agricultural EngineeringUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Amanda J. Finger
- Genomic Variation Laboratory, Department of Animal ScienceUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
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2
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Gamble MM, Calsbeek RG. Sex-specific heritabilities for length at maturity among Pacific salmonids and their consequences for evolution in response to artificial selection. Evol Appl 2023; 16:1458-1471. [PMID: 37622093 PMCID: PMC10445087 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Artificial selection, whether intentional or coincidental, is a common result of conservation policies and natural resource management. To reduce unintended consequences of artificial selection, conservation practitioners must understand both artificial selection gradients on traits of interest and how those traits are correlated with others that may affect population growth and resilience. We investigate how artificial selection on male body size in Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) may influence the evolution of female body size and female fitness. While salmon hatchery managers often assume that selection for large males will also produce large females, this may not be the case-in fact, because the fastest-growing males mature earliest and at the smallest size, and because female age at maturity varies little, small males may produce larger females if the genetic architecture of growth rate is the same in both sexes. We explored this possibility by estimating sex-specific heritability values of and natural and artificial selection gradients on length at maturity in four populations representing three species of Pacific salmon. We then used the multivariate breeder's equation to project how artificial selection against small males may affect the evolution of female length and fecundity. Our results indicate that the heritability of length at maturity is greater within than between the sexes and that sire-daughter heritability values are especially small. Salmon hatchery policies should consider these sex-specific quantitative genetic parameters to avoid potential unintended consequences of artificial selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madilyn M. Gamble
- Graduate Program in Ecology, Evolution, Ecosystems, and SocietyDartmouth CollegeHanoverNew HampshireUSA
| | - Ryan G. Calsbeek
- Department of Biological SciencesDartmouth CollegeHanoverNew HampshireUSA
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3
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May SA, Hard JJ, Ford MJ, Naish KA, Ward EJ. Assortative mating for reproductive timing affects population recruitment and resilience in a quantitative genetic model. Evol Appl 2023; 16:657-672. [PMID: 36969143 PMCID: PMC10033844 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantitative models that simulate the inheritance and evolution of fitness-linked traits offer a method for predicting how environmental or anthropogenic perturbations can affect the dynamics of wild populations. Random mating between individuals within populations is a key assumption of many such models used in conservation and management to predict the impacts of proposed management or conservation actions. However, recent evidence suggests that non-random mating may be underestimated in wild populations and play an important role in diversity-stability relationships. Here we introduce a novel individual-based quantitative genetic model that incorporates assortative mating for reproductive timing, a defining attribute of many aggregate breeding species. We demonstrate the utility of this framework by simulating a generalized salmonid lifecycle, varying input parameters, and comparing model outputs to theoretical expectations for several eco-evolutionary, population dynamic scenarios. Simulations with assortative mating systems resulted in more resilient and productive populations than those that were randomly mating. In accordance with established ecological and evolutionary theory, we also found that decreasing the magnitude of trait correlations, environmental variability, and strength of selection each had a positive effect on population growth. Our model is constructed in a modular framework so that future components can be easily added to address pressing issues such as the effects of supportive breeding, variable age structure, differential selection by sex or age, and fishery interactions on population growth and resilience. With code published in a public Github repository, model outputs may easily be tailored to specific study systems by parameterizing with empirically generated values from long-term ecological monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A. May
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences University of Washington Seattle Washington USA
| | - Jeffrey J. Hard
- NOAA Fisheries Northwest Fisheries Science Center Seattle Washington USA
| | - Michael J. Ford
- NOAA Fisheries Northwest Fisheries Science Center Seattle Washington USA
| | - Kerry A. Naish
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences University of Washington Seattle Washington USA
| | - Eric J. Ward
- NOAA Fisheries Northwest Fisheries Science Center Seattle Washington USA
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4
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Snead AA, Alda F. Time-Series Sequences for Evolutionary Inferences. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:1771-1783. [PMID: 36104153 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Snead
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, 300 Hackberry Lane, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Fernando Alda
- Department of Biology, Geology and Environmental Science, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, 615 McCallie Ave, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA
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5
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Mikheev P, Kotsyuk D, Podorozhnyuk E, Koshelev V, Nikiforov A, Sheina T, Puzik AY, Baklanov M. The identification of individuals with hatchery and natural origin in a mixed sample of Amur River chum salmon by Otolith microchemistry. AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aaf.2021.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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6
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Environmentally triggered shifts in steelhead migration behavior and consequences for survival in the mid-Columbia River. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0250831. [PMID: 33970924 PMCID: PMC8109777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of Columbia River summer-run steelhead encounter high river temperatures (near or > 20°C) during their spawning migration. While some steelhead pass through the mid-Columbia River in a matter of days, others use tributary habitats as temperature refuges for periods that can last months. Using PIT tag detection data from adult return years 2004-2016, we fit 3-component mixture models to differentiate between "fast", "slow", and "overwintering" migration behaviors in five aggregated population groups. Fast fish migrated straight through the reach on average in ~7-9 days while slow fish delayed their migration for weeks to months, and overwintering fish generally took ~150-250 days. We then fit covariate models to examine what factors contributed to the probability of migration delay during summer months (slow or overwintering behaviors), and to explore how migration delay related to mortality. Finally, to account for the impact of extended residence times in the reach for fish that delayed, we compared patterns in estimated average daily rates of mortality between migration behaviors and across population groups. Results suggest that migration delay was primarily triggered by high river temperatures but temperature thresholds for delay were lowest just before the seasonal peak in river temperatures. While all populations groups demonstrated these general patterns, we documented substantial variability in temperature thresholds and length of average delays across population groups. Although migration delay was related to higher reach mortality, it was also related to lower average daily mortality rates due to the proportional increase in reach passage duration being larger than the associated increase in mortality. Lower daily mortality rates suggest that migration delay could help mitigate the impacts of harsh migration conditions, presumably through the use of thermal refuges, despite prolonged exposure to local fisheries. Future studies tracking individual populations from their migration through reproduction could help illuminate the full extent of the tradeoffs between different migration behaviors.
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7
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Nilsson E, Sadler-Riggleman I, Beck D, Skinner MK. Differential DNA methylation in somatic and sperm cells of hatchery vs wild (natural-origin) steelhead trout populations. ENVIRONMENTAL EPIGENETICS 2021; 7:dvab002. [PMID: 34040807 PMCID: PMC8132314 DOI: 10.1093/eep/dvab002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Environmental factors such as nutrition, stress, and toxicants can influence epigenetic programming and phenotypes of a wide variety of species from plants to humans. The current study was designed to investigate the impacts of hatchery spawning and rearing on steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) vs the wild fish on a molecular level. Additionally, epigenetic differences between feeding practices that allow slow growth (2 years) and fast growth (1 year) hatchery trout were investigated. The sperm and red blood cells (RBC) from adult male slow growth/maturation hatchery steelhead, fast growth/maturation hatchery steelhead, and wild (natural-origin) steelhead were collected for DNA preparation to investigate potential alterations in differential DNA methylation regions (DMRs) and genetic mutations, involving copy number variations (CNVs). The sperm and RBC DNA both had a large number of DMRs when comparing the hatchery vs wild steelhead trout populations. The DMRs were cell type specific with negligible overlap. Slow growth/maturation compared to fast growth/maturation steelhead also had a larger number of DMRs in the RBC samples. A number of the DMRs had associated genes that were correlated to various biological processes and pathologies. Observations demonstrate a major epigenetic programming difference between the hatchery and wild natural-origin fish populations, but negligible genetic differences. Therefore, hatchery conditions and growth/maturation rate can alter the epigenetic developmental programming of the steelhead trout. Interestingly, epigenetic alterations in the sperm allow for potential epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of phenotypic variation to future generations. The impacts of hatchery exposures are not only important to consider on the fish exposed, but also on future generations and evolutionary trajectory of fish in the river populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Nilsson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Ingrid Sadler-Riggleman
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Daniel Beck
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Michael K Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
- Correspondence address. Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA. Tel: +1-509-335-1524; E-mail:
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8
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Nelson BW, Shelton AO, Anderson JH, Ford MJ, Ward EJ. Ecological implications of changing hatchery practices for Chinook salmon in the Salish Sea. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin W. Nelson
- Contractor to the Northwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2725 Montlake Boulevard East Seattle Washington 98112 USA
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries University of British Columbia 2202 Main Mall Vancouver British Columbia V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Andrew O. Shelton
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2725 Montlake Boulevard East Seattle Washington 98112 USA
| | - Joseph H. Anderson
- Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife P.O. Box 43200 Olympia Washington 98504‐3200 USA
| | - Michael J. Ford
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2725 Montlake Boulevard East Seattle Washington 98112 USA
| | - Eric J. Ward
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2725 Montlake Boulevard East Seattle Washington 98112 USA
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9
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Singer MC, Parmesan C. Butterflies embrace maladaptation and raise fitness in colonizing novel host. Evol Appl 2019; 12:1417-1433. [PMID: 31417624 PMCID: PMC6691209 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
We illustrate an evolutionary host shift driven by increased fitness on a novel host, despite maladaptation to it in six separate host-adaptive traits. Here, local adaptation is defined as possession of traits that provide advantage in specific environmental contexts; thus individuals can have higher fitness in benign environments to which they are maladapted than in demanding environments to which they are well adapted. A population of the butterfly Euphydryas editha adapted to a long-lived, chemically well-defended host, Pedicularis, had traditionally been under natural selection to avoid the ephemeral, less-defended Collinsia. The lifespan of Collinsia was so short that it senesced before larvae entered diapause. After logging killed Pedicularis in clear-cut patches and controlled burning simultaneously extended Collinsia lifespan, insect fitness on Collinsia in clearings suddenly became higher than on Pedicularis in adjacent unlogged patches. Collinsia was rapidly colonized and preference for it evolved, but insects feeding on it retained adaptations to Pedicularis in alighting bias, two aspects of postalighting oviposition preference, dispersal bias, geotaxis, and clutch size, all acting as maladaptations to Collinsia. Nonetheless, populations boomed on Collinsia in clearings, creating sources that fed pseudosinks in unlogged patches where Pedicularis was still used. After c. 20 years, butterfly populations in clearings disappeared and the metapopulation reverted to Pedicularis-feeding. Here we show, via experimental manipulation of oviposition by local Pedicularis-adapted and imported Collinsia-adapted butterflies, that the highest survival at that time would have been from eggs laid in clearings by butterflies adapted to Collinsia. Second highest were locals on Pedicularis. In third place would have been locals on Collinsia in clearings, because local females maladaptively preferred senescent plants. Collinsia had been colonized despite maladaptation and, after successional changes, abandoned because of it. However, the abandoned Collinsia could still have provided the highest fitness, given appropriate adaptation. The butterflies had tumbled down an adaptive peak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Singer
- Theoretical and Experimental Ecology StationUMR 5321CNRS and Paul Sabatier UniversityMoulisFrance
- Biological and Marine Sciences, Portland Square BuildingUniversity of PlymouthPlymouthUK
| | - Camille Parmesan
- Theoretical and Experimental Ecology StationUMR 5321CNRS and Paul Sabatier UniversityMoulisFrance
- Biological and Marine Sciences, Portland Square BuildingUniversity of PlymouthPlymouthUK
- Geological SciencesUniversity of Texas at AustinAustinTexas
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10
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Brady SP, Bolnick DI, Angert AL, Gonzalez A, Barrett RD, Crispo E, Derry AM, Eckert CG, Fraser DJ, Fussmann GF, Guichard F, Lamy T, McAdam AG, Newman AE, Paccard A, Rolshausen G, Simons AM, Hendry AP. Causes of maladaptation. Evol Appl 2019; 12:1229-1242. [PMID: 31417611 PMCID: PMC6691215 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary biologists tend to approach the study of the natural world within a framework of adaptation, inspired perhaps by the power of natural selection to produce fitness advantages that drive population persistence and biological diversity. In contrast, evolution has rarely been studied through the lens of adaptation's complement, maladaptation. This contrast is surprising because maladaptation is a prevalent feature of evolution: population trait values are rarely distributed optimally; local populations often have lower fitness than imported ones; populations decline; and local and global extinctions are common. Yet we lack a general framework for understanding maladaptation; for instance in terms of distribution, severity, and dynamics. Similar uncertainties apply to the causes of maladaptation. We suggest that incorporating maladaptation-based perspectives into evolutionary biology would facilitate better understanding of the natural world. Approaches within a maladaptation framework might be especially profitable in applied evolution contexts - where reductions in fitness are common. Toward advancing a more balanced study of evolution, here we present a conceptual framework describing causes of maladaptation. As the introductory article for a Special Feature on maladaptation, we also summarize the studies in this Issue, highlighting the causes of maladaptation in each study. We hope that our framework and the papers in this Special Issue will help catalyze the study of maladaptation in applied evolution, supporting greater understanding of evolutionary dynamics in our rapidly changing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P. Brady
- Biology DepartmentSouthern Connecticut State UniversityNew HavenCTUSA
| | - Daniel I. Bolnick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ConnecticutMansfieldCTUSA
| | - Amy L. Angert
- Departments of Botany and ZoologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
| | - Andrew Gonzalez
- Department of BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Stewart BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
| | - Rowan D.H. Barrett
- Department of BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Stewart BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Redpath MuseumMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
| | - Erika Crispo
- Department of BiologyPace UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Alison M. Derry
- Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Stewart BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Département des sciences biologiquesUniversité du Québec à MontréalMontréalQCCanada
| | | | | | - Gregor F. Fussmann
- Department of BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Stewart BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
| | - Frederic Guichard
- Department of BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Stewart BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
| | - Thomas Lamy
- Département de sciences biologiquesUniversité de MontréalMontréalQCCanada
- Marine Science InstituteUniversity of CaliforniaSanta BarbaraCAUSA
| | - Andrew G. McAdam
- Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of GuelphGuelphONCanada
| | - Amy E.M. Newman
- Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of GuelphGuelphONCanada
| | | | - Gregor Rolshausen
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (SBiK‐F)Frankfurt am MainGermany
| | | | - Andrew P. Hendry
- Department of BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Stewart BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
- Redpath MuseumMcGill UniversityMontréalQCCanada
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Gering E, Incorvaia D, Henriksen R, Wright D, Getty T. Maladaptation in feral and domesticated animals. Evol Appl 2019; 12:1274-1286. [PMID: 31417614 PMCID: PMC6691326 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Selection regimes and population structures can be powerfully changed by domestication and feralization, and these changes can modulate animal fitness in both captive and natural environments. In this review, we synthesize recent studies of these two processes and consider their impacts on organismal and population fitness. Domestication and feralization offer multiple windows into the forms and mechanisms of maladaptation. Firstly, domestic and feral organisms that exhibit suboptimal traits or fitness allow us to identify their underlying causes within tractable research systems. This has facilitated significant progress in our general understandings of genotype-phenotype relationships, fitness trade-offs, and the roles of population structure and artificial selection in shaping domestic and formerly domestic organisms. Additionally, feralization of artificially selected gene variants and organisms can reveal or produce maladaptation in other inhabitants of an invaded biotic community. In these instances, feral animals often show similar fitness advantages to other invasive species, but they are also unique in their capacities to modify natural ecosystems through introductions of artificially selected traits. We conclude with a brief consideration of how emerging technologies such as genome editing could change the tempos, trajectories, and ecological consequences of both domestication and feralization. In addition to providing basic evolutionary insights, our growing understanding of mechanisms through which artificial selection can modulate fitness has diverse and important applications-from enhancing the welfare, sustainability, and efficiency of agroindustry, to mitigating biotic invasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eben Gering
- Department of Integrative Biology and Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior ProgramMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMichigan
| | - Darren Incorvaia
- Department of Integrative Biology and Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior ProgramMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMichigan
| | - Rie Henriksen
- IIFM Biology and AVIAN Behavioural Genomics and Physiology GroupLinköping UniversitySweden
| | - Dominic Wright
- IIFM Biology and AVIAN Behavioural Genomics and Physiology GroupLinköping UniversitySweden
| | - Thomas Getty
- Department of Integrative Biology and Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior ProgramMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMichigan
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