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Dyson S, Phillips K, Zheng S, Aleman M. Congenital variants of the ventral laminae of the sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae are not associated with clinical signs or other radiological abnormalities of the cervicothoracic region in Warmblood horses. Equine Vet J 2024. [PMID: 38938125 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is controversy about the clinical relevance of congenital variants of the ventral laminae of the sixth (C6) and seventh (C7) cervical vertebrae and their relationship with other radiological abnormalities. OBJECTIVES To document the prevalence of congenital variants of C6 and C7 and that of other radiological abnormalities from C6 to the second thoracic vertebra (T2). STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional. METHODS The study included Warmblood horses ≥3 years of age undergoing clinical assessment at two referral institutions: 127 control horses and 96 cases (neurologic, neck pain or stiffness, or neck-related forelimb lameness). All horses underwent a standardised orthopaedic and neurologic examination. Lateral-lateral and lateral 45°-55° ventral-lateral dorsal (left to right and right to left) radiographic views of C5 to T2 were acquired and assessed blinded to the horse's clinical category using a predetermined grading system. RESULTS The ventral profile of C7 was abnormal in 54 horses (24.2%). Cases were less likely to have congenital variants than control horses, p = 0.0002, relative risk (RR): 0.63 (95% confidence intervals [CIs]: 0.4, 1.0). There was no association between the presence of a congenital variant of C7 and the presence of modelling of the articular processes (APs) of C6-C7, C7-T1 or T1-T2. Cases were more likely to have severe modelling of the APs at C6-C7, p = 0.01, RR: 1.94, CI: 1.1, 3.5 and C7-T1, p = 0.04, RR: 1.97, CI: 1.2, 3.2 compared with control horses. MAIN LIMITATIONS Radiographs were read by one assessor independently at each institution. CONCLUSIONS There was no association between the presence of congenital variants of C7 and any other radiological findings. Congenital variants occurred less frequently in cases compared with control horses. There was no association between the presence or absence of a congenital variant and the type of case.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kathryn Phillips
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Shichen Zheng
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Monica Aleman
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
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2
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May-Davis S, Eckelbarger PB, Dzingle D, Saber E. Characterization and Association of the Missing Ventral Tubercle(s) from the Sixth Cervical Vertebra and Transpositions on the Ventral Surface of the Seventh Cervical Vertebra in Modern Equus ferus caballus. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1830. [PMID: 38929448 PMCID: PMC11200614 DOI: 10.3390/ani14121830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, equine complex vertebral malformation (ECVM) has been of concern in the equine community, with studies identifying numerous associative morphological variations. Here, we examine the morphological association between C6 and C7 for dependency in ECVM cases, where the partially absent ventral process of C6 transposes on the ventral surface of C7. A C6 ventral process presents two tubercles, one cranial (CrVT) and one caudal (CVT). In this study, the C6 osseous specimens (n = 85) demonstrated a partial or completely absent CVT (aCVT) graded 1-4 that often extended cranially creating a partially absent cranial ventral tubercle (aCrVT) graded 1-3. In the 85 C6 osseous specimens examined, the corresponding C7s demonstrated either a complete or incomplete transposition of the ventral process from C6 in 44/85, with 30/44 replicating a transverse foramen. A strong statistical dependency existed between C6 grade 4 aCVTs and grades 1-3 aCrVTs and C7 transpositions with replicated transverse foramen. Sidedness was also demonstrated, where a left sided absent C6 associated with transposition on the left ventral surface of C7. This likewise applied to right sidedness and most bilateral cases. These findings might benefit practitioners when radiographing the extent of the ECVM configuration in patients presenting caudal cervical pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon May-Davis
- Canine and Equine Research Group, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
| | | | - Diane Dzingle
- Equus Soma—Equine Osteology and Anatomy Learning Center, Aiken, SC 29805, USA; (P.B.E.); (D.D.)
| | - Elle Saber
- Biological Data Science Institute, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia;
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Journée SL, Journée HL, Bergmann W, Chantziaras I, Vanderperren K, Raes E, Reed SM, de Bruijn CM, Berends HI, Delesalle CJG. Evaluation of the diagnostic value of transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) to assess neuronal functional integrity in horses. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1342803. [PMID: 38665290 PMCID: PMC11043471 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1342803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Medical imaging allows for the visualization of spinal cord compression sites; however, it is impossible to assess the impact of visible stenotic sites on neuronal functioning, which is crucial information to formulate a correct prognosis and install targeted therapy. It is hypothesized that with the transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) technique, neurological impairment can be reliably diagnosed. Objective To evaluate the ability of the TES technique to assess neuronal functional integrity in ataxic horses by recording TES-induced muscular evoked potentials (MEPs) in three different muscles and to structurally involve multiple ancillary diagnostic techniques, such as clinical neurological examination, plain radiography (RX) with ratio assessment, contrast myelography, and post-mortem gross and histopathological examination. Methods Nine ataxic horses, showing combined fore and hindlimb ataxia (grades 2-4), were involved, together with 12 healthy horses. TES-induced MEPs were recorded bilaterally at the level of the trapezius (TR), the extensor carpi radialis (ECR), and tibialis cranialis (TC) muscles. Two Board-certified radiologists evaluated intra- and inter-sagittal diameter ratios on RX, reductions of dorsal contrast columns, and dural diameters (range skull-T1). Post-mortem gross pathological and segmental histopathological examination was also performed by a Board-certified pathologist. Results TES-MEP latencies were significantly prolonged in both ECR and TC in all ataxic horses as opposed to the healthy horses. The TR showed a mixed pattern of normal and prolonged latency times. TES-MEP amplitudes were the least discriminative between healthy and ataxic horses. Youden's cutoff latencies for ataxic horses were 24.6 ms for the ECR and 45.5 ms for the TC (sensitivity and specificity of 100%). For healthy horses, maximum latency values were 22 and 37 ms, respectively. RX revealed spinal cord compression in 8 out of 9 involved ataxic horses with positive predictive values of 0-100%. All ataxic horses showed multi-segmental Wallerian degeneration. All pathological changes recorded in the white matter of the spinal cord were widely dispersed across all cervical segments, whereas gray matter damage was more localized at the specific segmental level. Conclusion TES-MEP latencies are highly sensitive to detect impairment of spinal cord motor functions for mild-to-severe ataxia (grades 2-4).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne Lotte Journée
- Equine Diagnostics, Wijns, Netherlands
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Research Group of Comparative Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Henricus Louis Journée
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Orthopedics, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wilhelmina Bergmann
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Division of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ilias Chantziaras
- Department of Internal Medicine, Reproduction and Population Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Katrien Vanderperren
- Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Els Raes
- Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Stephen Michael Reed
- Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY, United States
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | | | - Hanneke Irene Berends
- Department of Orthopedics, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Cathérine John Ghislaine Delesalle
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Research Group of Comparative Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Horne CR, Tufts S. Advances in Imaging Techniques to Guide Therapies and Monitor Response to the Treatment of Musculoskeletal Injuries. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2023; 39:489-501. [PMID: 37482520 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2023.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Continual advancements in diagnostic imaging have allowed for more accurate and complete diagnoses of injuries in the performance horse. The use of several different imaging tools has further allowed the equine sports medicine clinician to more carefully direct treatment options, monitor response to therapy and guide rehabilitation recommendations. The advancements in diagnostic imaging and novel treatment options have led to the improvement in the overall prognosis of many injuries that affect the horse and their performance. The purpose of this section is to review the advancements made in diagnostic imaging of the horse and to aid the practitioner in the selection of the appropriate modality and how best to use them to guide treatment and monitoring decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn R Horne
- North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA.
| | - Sara Tufts
- North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA
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Swagemakers JH, Van Daele P, Mageed M. Percutaneous full endoscopic foraminotomy for treatment of cervical spinal nerve compression in horses using a uniportal approach: Feasibility study. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:788-797. [PMID: 36572912 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cervical spinal nerve insult can be a sequel of osteoarthropathy in horses due to enlargement of the articular processes (AP). OBJECTIVES To describe the percutaneous endoscopic cervical foraminotomy procedure in horses. STUDY DESIGN Ex vivo experimental study and clinical case report. METHODS The technique was performed in three equine cadavers and in two clinical cases with history of forelimb lameness located in the caudal cervical region. Briefly, the horse was positioned in lateral recumbency, with the affected AP joint uppermost. Under fluoroscopic guidance, the endoscopic instruments (Ø 6.9 mm, length 207 mm, 25° angle of vision) were positioned at the dorsal bony margin of the intervertebral foramen (IVF). The bone was freed from soft tissues and removed using diamond various burrs, hence widening the IVF. The bone drilling was continued until the medial cortical surface of the caudal AP was removed. Thereafter, the endoscope was removed and the skin portal was closed. RESULTS The average of operation time in clinical cases was 98 ± 24 min. The horses recovered smoothly from the operation. At 12-month follow-up, the clinical signs had resolved completely without recurrence. MAIN LIMITATION Small number of clinical cases and absence of post-mortem examination or histopathology performed in the cadaver study to assess possible iatrogenic injuries. CONCLUSION Cervical spinal nerve decompression via minimal invasive foraminotomy is feasible in horses. More research is required before this procedure can be recommended in clinical cases.
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Scilimati N, Angeli G, Di Meo A, Dall’Aglio C, Pepe M, Beccati F. Post-Mortem Computed Tomographic Features of the Most Caudal Lumbar Vertebrae, Anatomical Variations and Acquired Osseous Pathological Changes, in a Mixed Population of Horses. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040743. [PMID: 36830530 PMCID: PMC9951930 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The radiographic, ultrasonographic, and scintigraphic findings of horses with thoracolumbosacral pain have been previously reported. In this study, the computed tomographic appearance of anatomical variations and pathological changes of the equine caudal lumbar region through a post-mortem examination were investigated. A total of 40 horses that had died or were submitted for euthanasia, for reasons unrelated to the study, were included in the study. From all the specimens, the modified vertebral system was adopted to evaluate and describe the four most caudal lumbar vertebrae, which were numbered from a caudal reference point (lumbosacral junction), with the segment number designated within parentheses (i.e., L(i)-L(iv)). Contact of the spinous processes was detected in 21 specimens (54%) and fusion in 6 specimens (15%). Lumbar spondylosis was seen in 17 specimens (42.5%), more commonly on the lateral aspect or on both ventral and lateral aspects in 12 specimens (71%). The presence of spondylosis was found more commonly in older horses (p < 0.001). There was no difference in bony density in specimens with spondylosis or spinous processes contact compared to specimens without. The highest prevalence of bony changes was found at L(ii)-L(i) intertransverse joints in 28 specimens (97%) on the left and in 22 specimens (96%) on the right side. Spondylolisthesis and partial fusion of the L(ii)-L(i) vertebral disc were found in association with degenerative pathologies. This study showed a high frequency of several anatomical variations and acquired osseous pathological changes in the most caudal lumbar vertebrae via a CT examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Scilimati
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Giovanni Angeli
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Antonio Di Meo
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Cecilia Dall’Aglio
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Marco Pepe
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
- Sport Horse Research Centre, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Francesca Beccati
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
- Sport Horse Research Centre, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, PG, Italy
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7
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Schulze N, Werpy N, Gernhardt J, Fritsch G, Hildebrandt T, Vanderperren K, Klopfleisch R, Ben Romdhane R, Lischer C, Ehrle A. Dynamic three-dimensional computed tomographic imaging facilitates evaluation of the equine cervical articular process joint in motion. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:83-91. [PMID: 35043993 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dynamic computed tomography (CT) imaging has been introduced in human orthopaedics and is continuing to gain popularity. With dynamic CT, video sequences of anatomical structures can be evaluated in motion. OBJECTIVES To investigate the feasibility of dynamic CT for diagnostic imaging of the equine cervical articular process joints (APJs) and to give a detailed description of the APJ movement pattern. STUDY DESIGN Descriptive cadaver imaging. METHODS Cervical specimens of twelve Warmblood horses were included. A custom-made motorised testing device was used to position and manipulate the neck specimens and perform dynamic 2D and 3D CT imaging. Images were obtained with a 320-detector-row CT scanner with a 160 mm wide-area (2D) solid-state detector design that allows image acquisition of a volumetric axial length of 160 mm without moving the CT couch. Dynamic videos were acquired and divided into four phases of movement. Three blinded observers used a subjective scale of 1 (excellent) to 4 (poor) to grade the overall image quality in each phases of motion cycle. RESULTS With an overall median score of 1 the image quality, a significantly lower score was observed in the dynamic 3D videos over the four phases by the three observers compared with the 2D videos for both flexion (3D 95% CI: 1-2 and 2D 95% CI: 1-3; P = .007) and extension movement (3D 95% CI: 1-2 and 2D 95% CI: 1-3; P = .008). Median Translational displacement of the APJ surface was significantly greater in flexion than in extension movement (P = .002). MAIN LIMITATIONS The small number of specimens included. Excision of spines and removal of musculature. CONCLUSIONS The study is a first step in the investigation of the potential of dynamic 3D CT in veterinary medicine, a technique that has only begun to be explored and leaves much room for refinement prior to its introduction in routine practice. CT with a detector coverage of 16 cm and a rotation speed of 0.32 seconds provides high-quality images of moving objects and gives new insight into the movement pattern of equine cervical APJs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Schulze
- Equine Clinic, Surgery and Radiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Natasha Werpy
- Equine Diagnostic Imaging Inc., Archer, Florida, USA
| | - Jennifer Gernhardt
- Equine Clinic, Surgery and Radiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Guido Fritsch
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V., Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Hildebrandt
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V., Berlin, Germany
| | - Katrien Vanderperren
- Department of Veterinary Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Robert Klopfleisch
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Racem Ben Romdhane
- Institute for Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Anna Ehrle
- Equine Clinic, Surgery and Radiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Kondo T, Sato F, Tsuzuki N, Yamada K. Sex differences in cervical spinal cord and spinal canal development in Thoroughbred horses. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:1363-1367. [PMID: 35944983 PMCID: PMC9586035 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM), a common cause of cervical spinal cord compression, is a neurological disease characterized by general proprioceptive ataxia and weakness of hindlimbs that tends to develop in young adult Thoroughbred horses. Although male horses seem to be at increased risk for CVSM, the mechanism for the occurrence of sex differences in the prevalence of CVSM is still poorly understood. Hence, we hypothesized that sex differences in the development of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal would affect the development of CVSM. This study aimed to evaluate sex differences in the development of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal in Thoroughbred horses. A total of 29 Thoroughbred horses underwent computed tomographic myelography. Thereafter, the volumes of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal were calculated. Accordingly, male horses had significantly lager cervical spinal cord volume and cervical spinal cord-to-spinal canal volume ratio than those of female horses (P<0.05). Sex differences in the cervical spinal cord-to-spinal canal volume ratio gradually decreased until around 1,400 days of age. Younger male horses have narrower interspace between the cervical spinal cord and spinal canal than younger female horses, suggesting that an imbalanced cervical spinal cord and spinal canal growth is one of the causes of CVSM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Kondo
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University
| | - Fumio Sato
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association
| | - Nao Tsuzuki
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
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Garrett KS. Special Diagnostic Techniques in Equine Neurology (Radiography, Ultrasonography, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2022; 38:171-188. [PMID: 35810148 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnostic imaging is often an important part of the diagnostic approach to neurologic disease. Advanced imaging techniques such as myelography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provide more information than radiography and ultrasonography but are more limited in their availability. The clinician should be cognizant of the findings of the clinical examination when interpreting diagnostic imaging findings.
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10
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Kernot N, Butler R, Randle H. A systematic review of clinical signs associated with degenerative conditions and morphological variations of the equine caudal neck. J Equine Vet Sci 2022; 116:104054. [PMID: 35787449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2022.104054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Conditions of the equine caudal neck (C5-C7) are thought to be associated with various clinical signs. However, little investigation has been undertaken to isolate clinical indicators associated with specific conditions of the equine caudal cervical spine. This systematic review aimed to evaluate associations of clinical signs with anatomical malformation of caudal cervical vertebrae, spinal cord compression of the caudal cervical spine, and arthropathy of the caudal cervical articular process joints (APJs). A literature search was carried out using Google Scholar in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Studies were selected for inclusion in this systematic review according to a set of inclusion criteria, resulting in a small group of eligible studies (n=12) that addressed clinical signs associated with caudal cervical spine conditions in horses. The results of the included studies indicate that there are grounds for further investigation of clinical presentations of specific conditions of the equine caudal neck such as anatomical variations, myelopathy, and alteration to the APJs.
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11
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Berner D. Diagnostic imaging of the equine cervical spine – Are radiographs enough? EQUINE VET EDUC 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Berner
- Equine Referral Hospital Department of Clinical Science and Services Royal Veterinary College University of London Hatfield UK
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12
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Garrett KS. When radiography and ultrasonography are not enough: the use of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for equine lameness cases. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 260:1113-1123. [PMID: 35544423 DOI: 10.2460/javma.22.03.0136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
MRI and CT have enhanced our diagnostic abilities for equine lameness beyond what is available using radiography and ultrasonography. This has allowed veterinarians to better prognosticate and treat lameness conditions, improving patient outcomes. This article discusses the basic principles behind MRI and CT, their advantages and disadvantages, the different types of equipment available for clinical use in horses, the typical diagnostic workup prior to pursuing advanced imaging, and common regions where MRI and CT are used clinically. The companion Currents in One Health by Spriet, AJVR, July 2022, discusses even more advanced equine imaging in the form of positron emission tomography. Combined, these future directions of MRI, CT, and positron emission tomography may include improved ability to image standing horses or screen for injury prevention.
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13
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Kondo T, Sato F, Tsuzuki N, Watanabe K, Horiuchi N, Kobayashi Y, Yamada K. Characteristic computed tomographic myelography findings in 23 Thoroughbred horses. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:525-532. [PMID: 35197397 PMCID: PMC9096043 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this observational study was to determine the characteristic computed
tomographic (CT) myelography findings of cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM)
lesions in Thoroughbred horses. A total of 23 Thoroughbred horses (age range, 155–717 days
on CT examination; mean, 410.9 days) were analyzed. All 23 Thoroughbred horses underwent
unenhanced radiography, radiographic myelography, and CT myelography. Unenhanced
radiographs were observed the presence of cervical vertebral malalignment and osseous
lesions. Radiographic myelograms were observed for signs of cervical spinal cord
compression; additionally, CT myelograms were used to detect cervical vertebral osseous
lesions. Ventral compressions were frequently observed in the cranial cervical vertebrae
(C2–C4), whereas dorsal compressions were frequently observed in the caudal cervical
vertebrae (C5–C7). Furthermore, osseous lesions of the caudal articular process developed
more frequently than those of the cranial articular process. CT myelography in
Thoroughbred horses is a useful method for detecting CVSM changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Kondo
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Fumio Sato
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Nao Tsuzuki
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Kenichi Watanabe
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Horiuchi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Yoshiyasu Kobayashi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Kazutaka Yamada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Kanagawa, Japan
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Fairburn AJ, Fews D, Mair TS. Acquired scoliosis of the cervical spine secondary to vertebral neoplasia in an aged pony gelding. EQUINE VET EDUC 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - D. Fews
- Abbey Veterinary Services Newton Abbot Devon UK
| | - T. S. Mair
- Bell Equine Veterinary Clinic Mereworth Kent UK
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15
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Kondo T, Sato F, Tsuzuki N, Chen C, Yamada K. An objective index for spinal cord compression on computed tomography in Thoroughbred horses. Vet Med Sci 2022; 8:1072-1078. [PMID: 35152552 PMCID: PMC9122387 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Computed tomographic myelography can be a useful tool for evaluating vertebral canal stenosis. However, an index of spinal cord compression is yet to be established. Objectives This observational descriptive study aimed to establish an index for spinal cord compression using computed tomography (CT). Methods Twenty‐three Thoroughbred horses (age, 155–717 days; weight, 205–523 kg) with suspected cervical vertebral malformation were subjected to computed tomographic myelography in dorsal recumbency using large‐bore gantry CT to define the entire cervical vertebrae from C1 to C7. Subsequently, the height of the spinal cord was measured in the sagittal plane reformatted using curved multi‐planar reformation (MPR), thereby comparing it with stenotic ratio (i.e. dividing the area of spinal cord by that of the subarachnoid space) measured in the transverse plane. The measurement was performed at the level of each of six intervertebral spaces, for a total of 138 sites. Accordingly, the appropriate cut‐off value for spinal cord height was determined using the receiver‐operating characteristic curve, from which the area under the curve with 95% confidence interval was estimated. Results The spinal cord compression cut‐off value was 7.06 mm, with an area under curve of 0.84. A weak relationship was observed between spinal cord height and stenotic ratio (R2 = 0.08, p < 0.05). Conclusions Following curved MPR, a cut‐off value of 7.06 mm may serve as an index for spinal cord compression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Kondo
- School of Veterinary Medicine Azabu University Sagamihara Japan
| | - Fumio Sato
- Equine Research Institute Japan Racing Association Shimotsuke Japan
| | - Nao Tsuzuki
- Department of Veterinary Medicine Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Obihiro Japan
| | - Chun‐Jen Chen
- School of Veterinary Medicine Azabu University Sagamihara Japan
| | - Kazutaka Yamada
- School of Veterinary Medicine Azabu University Sagamihara Japan
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Geller M, Slater R, Graham‐Williams E, Wolf T, Spriet M, Berryhill E, Skipper L, Aleman M. Imaging of equine septic discospondylitis using MRI, CT and post‐mortem radiographs. EQUINE VET EDUC 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Geller
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - R. Slater
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - E. Graham‐Williams
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - T. Wolf
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - M. Spriet
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - E. Berryhill
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - L. Skipper
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
| | - M. Aleman
- University of California Davis California USA
- The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Davis California USA
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17
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KONDO T, MASHIMO Y, SATO F, TSUZUKI N, YAMADA K. Investigation of a contributing factor for cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy using computed tomography for measuring the cervical vertebral volume. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:1084-1087. [PMID: 35675981 PMCID: PMC9412063 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Taro KONDO
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University
| | | | - Fumio SATO
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association
| | - Nao TSUZUKI
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
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18
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Tucker R, Parker RA, Meredith LE, Hughes TK, Foote AK. Surgical removal of intra-articular loose bodies from the cervical articular process joints in 5 horses. Vet Surg 2021; 51:173-181. [PMID: 34791668 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the surgical removal of intra-articular loose bodies (LBs) from the cervical articular process joints (APJs) in five horses and to describe the outcome of the surgery. STUDY DESIGN Short case series. ANIMALS Five client-owned horses with naturally occurring LBs within the cervical APJs. METHODS Medical records were reviewed of horses that were diagnosed with LBs of the cervical APJs on computed tomography (CT), where the LBs were subsequently removed surgically. Details of case selection and surgical technique were reviewed along with postoperative complications and clinical outcome. Histopathology was performed on LBs in some cases. RESULTS Surgery was performed on six APJs in five horses. Of the 14 LBs identified with CT, 13 were successfully removed from the C4/C5, C5/C6 and C6/C7 articulations. No surgical complications were encountered, and clinical signs of cervical dysfunction improved in all horses. All clinical cases returned to ridden work by 6 months post surgery. Histopathologic examination revealed the removed structures to be osteochondral or chondral loose bodies consisting of cartilaginous proliferation with or without ossification and central necrosis. CONCLUSIONS Surgical removal of LBs is achievable from the cervical APJs and can result in the resolution of cervical pain. This procedure offers a new treatment option for management of selected horses with cervical pain, following thorough assessment and CT imaging.
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19
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Rovel T, Zimmerman M, Duchateau L, Adriaensen E, Mariën T, Saunders JH, Vanderperren K. Computed tomographic myelography for assessment of the cervical spinal cord in ataxic warmblood horses: 26 cases (2015-2017). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2021; 259:1188-1195. [PMID: 34727080 DOI: 10.2460/javma.20.11.0614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To quantify the degree of dural compression and assess the association between site and direction of compression and articular process (AP) size and degree of dural compression with CT myelography. ANIMALS 26 client-oriented horses with ataxia. PROCEDURES Spinal cord-to-dura and AP-to-cross-sectional area of the C6 body ratios (APBRs) were calculated for each noncompressive site and site that had > 50% compression of the subarachnoid space. Site of maximum compression had the largest spinal cord-to-dura ratio. Fisher exact test and linear regression analyses were used to assess the association between site and direction of compression and mean or maximum APBR and spinal cord-todura ratio, respectively. RESULTS Mean ± SD spinal cord-to-dura ratio was 0.31 ± 0.044 (range, 0.20 to 0.41) for noncompressive sites and 0.44 ± 0.078 (0.29 to 0.60) for sites of maximum compression. Sites of maximum compression were intervertebral and extra-dural, most frequently at C6 through 7 (n = 10), followed by C3 through 4 (6). Thirteen horses had dorsolateral and lateral compression at the AP joints, secondary to AP (n = 7) or soft tissue proliferation (6). Site significantly affected direction of compression, and directions of compression from occiput through C4 were primarily ventral and lateral, whereas from C6 through T1 were primarily dorsal and dorsolateral. No linear relationship was identified between mean or maximum APBR and spinal cord-to-dura ratio. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE CT myelography may be useful for examination of horses with suspected cervical compressive myelopathy. Degree of compression can be assessed quantitatively, and site of compression significantly affected direction of compression.
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20
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Bailey J, Bowen IM, Anghileri B, Baiker K, Henson FMD. Unilateral degenerative joint disease of a cervical articular process joint between the fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae causing asymmetrical ataxia in a young horse. EQUINE VET EDUC 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Bailey
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Nottingham UK
| | - I. M. Bowen
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Nottingham UK
| | | | - K. Baiker
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Nottingham UK
| | - F. M. D. Henson
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Nottingham UK
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21
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Stewart HL, Siewerdsen JH, Nelson BB, Kawcak CE. Use of cone-beam computed tomography for advanced imaging of the equine patient. Equine Vet J 2021; 53:872-885. [PMID: 34053096 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Access to volumetric imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT), has increased over the past decade and has revolutionised the way clinicians evaluate equine anatomy. More recent advancements have resulted in the development of multiple commercially available cone-beam CT (CBCT) scanners for equine use. CBCT scanners modify the traditional fan-shaped beam of ionising radiation into a three-dimensional pyramidal- or cone-shaped beam of radiation. This modification enables the scanner to acquire sufficient data to create diagnostic images of a region of interest after a single rotation of the gantry. The rapid acquisition of data and divergent X-ray beam causes some artifacts to be more prominent on CBCT images-as well as the unique cone-beam artifact-resulting in decreased contrast resolution. While the use of CT for evaluation of the equine musculoskeletal anatomy is not new, there is a paucity of literature and scientific studies on the capabilities of CBCT for equine imaging. CBCT units do not require a specialised table for imaging and in some cases are portable for imaging in the standing or anaesthetised patient. This review article summarises the basic physics of CT technology, including how CBCT imaging differs, and provides objective information about the strengths and limitations of this modality. Finally, potential future applications and techniques for imaging with CT which will need to be explored in order to fully consider the capabilities of CT imaging in the horse are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly L Stewart
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Jeffery H Siewerdsen
- The Russel H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Brad B Nelson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Christopher E Kawcak
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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22
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Equine Cervical Pain and Dysfunction: Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020422. [PMID: 33562089 PMCID: PMC7915466 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Neck pain and dysfunction in the horse is becoming an increasingly important topic among riders, trainers and veterinarians. Some horses may present for a subtle performance decline, while others may show dramatic, dangerous behavior. It is important to recognize how to carefully evaluate the horse in an effort to understand the different types of pain that may be contributing to the different behaviors. The musculoskeletal and nervous systems may both play a role in the development of clinical signs. Recognizing that there are many diagnostic options as well as several treatments choices is important. This synopsis covers the disease processes that may contribute to the development of neck pain and dysfunction in the horse, as well as several possible diagnostic and treatment options. Abstract Interest in the cervical spine as a cause of pain or dysfunction is increasingly becoming the focus of many equine practitioners. Many affected horses are presented for poor performance, while others will present with dramatic, sometimes dangerous behavior. Understanding and distinguishing the different types of neck pain is a starting point to comprehending how the clinical presentations can vary so greatly. There are many steps needed to systematically evaluate the various tissues of the cervical spine to determine which components are contributing to cervical pain and dysfunction. Osseous structures, soft tissues and the central and the peripheral nervous system may all play a role in these various clinical presentations. After completing the clinical evaluation, several imaging modalities may be implemented to help determine the underlying pathologic processes. There are multiple treatment options available and each must be carefully chosen for an individual horse. Provided is a synopsis of the current knowledge as to different disease processes that can result in cervical pain and dysfunction, diagnostic approaches and treatment strategies. Improving the knowledge in these areas will ideally help to return horses to a state of well-being that can be maintained over time and through the rigors of their job or athletic endeavors.
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Tucker R, Hall YS, Hughes TK, Parker RA. Osteochondral fragmentation of the cervical articular process joints; prevalence in horses undergoing CT for investigation of cervical dysfunction. Equine Vet J 2020; 54:106-113. [PMID: 33368552 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Computed tomography (CT) imaging of the cervical spine of mature horses under general anaesthesia is becoming increasingly accessible. Osteochondral fragmentation (OF) of the cervical articular process joints (APJs) has been identified on CT imaging; the prevalence, clinical features and significance of this finding are currently unknown. OBJECTIVES To describe the prevalence and clinical features of a population of horses with CT evidence of OF within the cervical APJs. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective, descriptive case series. METHODS The study population consisted of all horses undergoing CT imaging of the entire cervical spine between April 2016 and December 2019 at Liphook Equine Hospital for investigation of clinical signs localised to this region. CT scans were examined for evidence of OF within the APJs and additional case features were recorded. RESULTS A total of 55 horses underwent CT imaging during the study period. OF was identified in 13 horses, giving a CT prevalence of 24% in the study population. OF occurred in a range of ages, breeds and uses of equine, presenting with varied clinical signs. It was identified at every level of the neck. Additional cervical pathology was identified in 11/13 OF cases. MAIN LIMITATIONS Retrospective analysis of a clinical caseload with a lack of clinically normal controls or post mortem confirmation of imaging findings. Low case numbers. CONCLUSIONS OF within the cervical APJs is recognised on CT imaging in horses with cervical dysfunction. Fragments are commonly identified in combination with additional cervical pathology. Further investigation is required to confirm their clinical significance and develop potential treatment options where necessary.
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