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TLR4 and MD2 variation among horses with differential TNFα baseline concentrations and response to intravenous lipopolysaccharide infusion. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1486. [PMID: 36707633 PMCID: PMC9883502 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27956-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Gram-negative bacterial septicemia is mediated through binding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to mammalian toll-like receptor protein 4 (TLR4). TLR4 and its cognate protein, myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) form a heterodimeric complex after binding LPS. This complex induces a cascade of reactions that results in increased proinflammatory cytokine gene expression, including TNFα, which leads to activation of innate immunity. In horses, the immune response to LPS varies widely. To determine if this variation is due to differences in TLR4 or MD2, DNA from 15 healthy adult horses with different TNFα dynamics after experimental intravenous LPS infusion was sequenced across exons of TLR4 and MD2. Haplotypes were constructed for both genes using all identified variants. Four haplotypes were observed for each gene. No significant associations were found between either TNFα baseline concentrations or response to LPS and haplotype; however, there was a significant association (P value = 0.0460) between the baseline TNFα concentration and one MD2 missense variant. Three-dimensional structures of the equine TLR4-MD2-LPS complex were built according to haplotype combinations observed in the study horses, and the implications of missense variants on LPS binding were modeled. Although the sample size was small, there was no evidence that variation in TLR4 or MD2 explains the variability in TNFα response observed after LPS exposure in horses.
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2
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Biomarkers of sepsis in pigs, horses and cattle: from acute phase proteins to procalcitonin. Anim Health Res Rev 2022; 23:82-99. [PMID: 35795920 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252322000019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Sepsis is a complex clinical syndrome triggered by an inflammatory host response to an infection. It is usually complicated to detect and diagnose, and has severe consequences in human and veterinary health, especially when treatment is not started early. Therefore, efforts to detect sepsis accurately are needed. In addition, its proper diagnosis could reduce the misuse of antibiotics, which is essential fighting against antimicrobial resistance. This case is a particular issue in farm animals, as antibiotics have been traditionally given massively, but now they are becoming increasingly restricted. When sepsis is suspected in animals, the most frequently used biomarkers are acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and haptoglobin, but their concentrations can increase in other inflammatory conditions. In human patients, the most promising biomarkers to detect sepsis are currently procalcitonin and presepsin, and there is a wide range of other biomarkers under study. However, there is little information on the application of these biomarkers in veterinary species. This review aims to describe the general concepts of sepsis and the current knowledge about the biomarkers of sepsis in pigs, horses, and cattle and to discuss possible advances in the field.
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3
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Gibbs R, Duz M, Shipman E. A survey of non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug use in the post‐operative period following equine colic surgery. EQUINE VET EDUC 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Gibbs
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Leicestershire UK
| | - Marco Duz
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Leicestershire UK
| | - Emma Shipman
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Leicestershire UK
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4
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Scavone D, Sgorbini M, Borges AS, Oliveira-Filho JP, Vitale V, Paltrinieri S. Serial measurements of Paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) activity in horses with experimentally induced endotoxemia. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:422. [PMID: 33148245 PMCID: PMC7641807 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02629-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) is an antioxidant enzyme, whose activity decreases during the acute phase response in many species. Little is known about PON-1 and its role as a negative acute phase protein during septic inflammation in horses, but promising findings about its utility in diagnosing SIRS and predicting the outcome in diseased horses, were recently highlighted. The objective of the study was to investigate the behaviour of PON-1 in horses after experimentally induced endotoxemia. To this aim, PON-1 activity was measured on 66 plasma samples collected from six clinically healthy mares, previously included in another study, before and at multiple time points between 12 and 240 h after intravenous infusion of Escherichia coli O55:B5 lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Results Compared with baseline values, a progressive transient decrease of PON-1 activity was observed starting from 24 h post-infusion, with lowest values observed between 3 to 7 days post-infusion, followed by a normalisation to pre-infusion levels the tenth day. Conclusions The results of this study suggest that measurement and monitoring of PON-1 activity might be useful to evaluate progression and recovery from endotoxemia in horses. Further studies in horses with naturally occurring sepsis are warranted. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-020-02629-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Scavone
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Milan, Lodi, Italy
| | - Micaela Sgorbini
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Univeristy of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Alexandre S Borges
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, School of Veterynary Medicine and Animal Sicence, Sao PAulo State University (Unesp), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - José P Oliveira-Filho
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, School of Veterynary Medicine and Animal Sicence, Sao PAulo State University (Unesp), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Valentina Vitale
- School of Veterinary Science, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Saverio Paltrinieri
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Milan, Lodi, Italy
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Kilcoyne I, Nieto JE, Watson JL, Galuppo LD, Borjesson DL. Do allogeneic bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells diminish the inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide infusion in horses? A pilot study. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020; 231:110146. [PMID: 33221572 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Endotoxemia is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the equine industry, with colic being the most common cause of endotoxemia in horses. The objective of this study was to evaluate the safety and potential efficacy of a single dose of allogeneic equine bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) in horses after the IV administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Six horses were administered an IV infusion of 30 ng/kg LPS (O55:B5 Escherichia coli) in 500 ml saline over 30 min. Immediately after infusion test horses (n = 3) were administered 100 × 106 allogeneic BM-MSCs diluted in saline IV and control horses (n = 3) were administered saline. Clinicopathological data, pro-inflammatory cytokine measurements and sCD14 concentrations were compared between groups. No adverse reactions were observed in horses administered BM-MSCs intravenously. There were no significant differences between test and control horses with regard to clinicopathological values or pro-inflammatory cytokine production. At no time point did concentrations of sCD14 exceed the reference range in any horse. Results suggest that administration of a single IV dose of freshly cultured MSCs is safe and well-tolerated in horses with induced endotoxemia. Further study to evaluate their efficacy as a potential therapeutic in a larger number of horses with clinical disease is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Kilcoyne
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, CA, United States.
| | - Jorge E Nieto
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, CA, United States
| | - Johanna L Watson
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, CA, United States
| | - Larry D Galuppo
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, CA, United States
| | - Dori L Borjesson
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, CA, United States
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6
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Page AE, Adam E, Stewart JC, Gonzales C, Barker V, Horohov DW. Alterations of peripheral gene expression in response to lipopolysaccharide-induced synovitis as a model for inflammation in horses. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020; 225:110058. [PMID: 32442811 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
While the use of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce inflammation has been well described in the horse, the object of this study was to evaluate the effect of repeated intra-articular LPS injections and determine whether this method may be of use to assess changes in gene expression related to inflammation. Six mixed breed horses were utilized for this study, with three horses aged 10-17 years (older group) and three horses aged 3 years (younger group). One milliliter of phosphate-buffered saline containing 3 μg of LPS from Escherichia coli O111:B4 was aseptically injected into either the radiocarpal or front fetlock joint a total of four times, with at least two weeks between each injection and a different joint injected each time. Serum for protein concentration quantification and whole blood for expression analysis of 20 different genes were collected before each injection, as well as at multiple times post-injection. Statistical analysis was performed using analysis of variance (one-way and two-way) (P < 0.05). All horses experienced minimal or non-weight bearing lameness at 4-6 hours post-LPS injection, which generally improved by 24 h and resolved by 48 h. Multiple genes exhibited significantly differential expression when compared to both the pre-injection and sham injection time points, including CD14, TLR4, MMP1, MMP9, IL-1β, IL1RN, IL-10, ALOX5AP, IL-8, TNFα, CCL8, IGF1, and PTGS2. Additionally, multiple genes exhibited increased expression in horses where the radiocarpal joint was injected when compared to the fetlock joint, as well as in younger horses compared to older horses. Serum concentrations of serum amyloid A (SAA) were negative prior to injection while all horses demonstrated an increase by 9 h post-injection, which often remained until at least 144 h. Attempts to measure in vivo serum cytokine levels using a multiplex assay were not successful and believed to be due to the lower limits of detection for the assays. The measurement of mRNA expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory genes provide sensitive and rapid information regarding the inflammatory response to an acute, localized stimulus, although care must be taken when selecting target joints or age groups of horses as the transcriptional response may vary based on these choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen E Page
- University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY 40546, United States.
| | - Emma Adam
- University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY 40546, United States
| | - John C Stewart
- University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY 40546, United States
| | | | - Virginia Barker
- University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY 40546, United States
| | - David W Horohov
- University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY 40546, United States
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Ziegler AL, Blikslager AT. Sparing the gut: COX-2 inhibitors herald a new era for treatment of horses with surgical colic. EQUINE VET EDUC 2019; 32:611-616. [PMID: 34305336 DOI: 10.1111/eve.13189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used to manage a wide variety of conditions in horses, including management of colic. Flunixin meglumine is by far the most commonly used drug in the control of colic pain and inflammation and has become a go-to for not only veterinarians but also horse-owners and nonmedical equine professionals. NSAID use, however, has always been controversial in critical cases due to a high risk of adverse effects associated with their potent cyclo-oxygenase (COX) inhibition. There are two important COX isoenzymes: COX-1 is generally beneficial for normal renal and gastrointestinal functions and COX-2 is associated with the pain and inflammation of disease. Newer selective NSAIDs can target COX-2-driven pathology while sparing important COX-1-driven physiology, which is of critical importance in horses with severe gastrointestinal disease. Emerging research suggests that firocoxib, a COX-2-selective NSAID labelled for use in horses, may be preferable for use in colic cases in spite of the decades-long dogma that flunixin saves lives.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Ziegler
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.,Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - A T Blikslager
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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8
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Perkins G, Babasyan S, Stout AE, Freer H, Rollins A, Wimer CL, Wagner B. Intranasal IgG4/7 antibody responses protect horses against equid herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) infection including nasal virus shedding and cell-associated viremia. Virology 2019; 531:219-232. [PMID: 30928700 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Equid herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) outbreaks continue despite widely used vaccination. We demonstrated previously that an ORF1/ORF71 gene deletion mutant of the EHV-1 strain Ab4 (Ab4ΔORF1/71) is less virulent than its parent Ab4 virus. Here, we describe the Ab4 challenge infection evaluating protection induced by the Ab4ΔORF1/71 vaccine candidate. Susceptible control horses developed respiratory disease, fever, nasal shedding, and viremia. Full protection after challenge infection was observed in 5/5 previously Ab4 infected horses and 3/5 Ab4ΔORF1/71 horses. Two Ab4ΔORF1/71 horses developed short-lasting viremia and/or virus shedding. Protective immunity in the respiratory tract was characterized by pre-existing EHV-1-specific IgG4/7 antibodies, the absence of IFN-α secretion and rapidly increasing IgG4/7 upon challenge infection. Pre-existing systemic EHV-1-specific IgG4/7 highly correlated with protection. T-cell immunity was overall low. In conclusion, protective immunity against EHV-1 infection including prevention of viremia was associated with robust systemic and intranasal IgG4/7 antibodies suggesting immediate virus neutralization at the local site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian Perkins
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
| | - Susanna Babasyan
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
| | - Alison E Stout
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
| | - Heather Freer
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
| | - Alicia Rollins
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
| | - Christine L Wimer
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
| | - Bettina Wagner
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States.
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Sheats MK. A Comparative Review of Equine SIRS, Sepsis, and Neutrophils. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:69. [PMID: 30931316 PMCID: PMC6424004 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The most recent definition of sepsis in human medicine can be summarized as organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. In equine medicine, although no consensus definition is available, sepsis is commonly described as a dysregulated host systemic inflammatory response to infection. Defense against host infection is the primary role of innate immune cells known as neutrophils. Neutrophils also contribute to host injury during sepsis, making them important potential targets for sepsis prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. This review will present both historical and updated perspectives on the systemic inflammatory response (SIRS) and sepsis; it will also discuss the impact of sepsis on neutrophils, and the impact of neutrophils during sepsis. Future identification of clinically relevant sepsis diagnosis and therapy depends on a more thorough understanding of disease pathogenesis across species. To gain this understanding, there is a critical need for research that utilizes a clearly defined, and consistently applied, classification system for patients diagnosed with, and at risk of developing, sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Katie Sheats
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States
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10
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Ziegler AL, Fogle CA, Burke M, Blikslager AT. Letter to the Editor: Bias in statistics or bias in equine veterinary medicine? Equine Vet J 2019; 51:423. [PMID: 30811658 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A L Ziegler
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - C A Fogle
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - M Burke
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - A T Blikslager
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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11
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Freeman DE. Letter to the Editor: Multicentre, blinded, randomised clinical trial comparing the use of flunixin meglumine with firocoxib in horses with small intestinal strangulating obstruction. Equine Vet J 2019; 51:422. [PMID: 30714186 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D E Freeman
- University of Florida, College of Veterinary Medicine, Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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12
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Ziegler AL, Freeman CK, Fogle CA, Burke MJ, Davis JL, Cook VL, Southwood LL, Blikslager AT. Multicentre, blinded, randomised clinical trial comparing the use of flunixin meglumine with firocoxib in horses with small intestinal strangulating obstruction. Equine Vet J 2018; 51:329-335. [PMID: 30156312 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Small intestinal strangulating obstruction (SISO) is associated with endotoxaemia which leads to an increased risk of death. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to treat signs of endotoxaemia by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenases (COX). COX-1 is expressed constitutively and promotes gut barrier function, whereas COX-2 is inducible and contributes to the signs of endotoxaemia. In preclinical SISO trials, intestinal barrier recovery was more complete with reductions in endotoxin permeability in horses treated with COX-2 selective NSAIDs as compared with horses treated with flunixin meglumine. OBJECTIVES We hypothesised that treatment of post-surgical SISO horses with firocoxib (COX-2 selective) would reduce the signs of endotoxaemia to a greater extent than flunixin meglumine (nonselective COX inhibitor) while continuing to provide similar levels of pain control. STUDY DESIGN Blinded randomised clinical trial. METHODS In addition to clinical monitoring, preoperative and 12-, 24- and 48-h post-operative plasma samples were assessed for prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ), thromboxane B2 (TXB2 ), TNF⍺ and soluble CD14 (sCD14). RESULTS In 56 recruited SISO horses, either flunixin meglumine (1.1 mg/kg, i.v., q12h) or firocoxib (0.3 mg/kg, i.v. loading dose; 0.1 mg/kg, i.v., q24h) was given in the post-operative period in three university hospitals from 2015 to 2017. COX-2 selectivity was confirmed by a relative lack of inhibition of the COX-1 prostanoid TXB2 by firocoxib and significant inhibition by flunixin meglumine (P = 0.014). Both drugs inhibited the COX-2 prostanoid PGE2 . There were no significant differences in pain scores between groups (P = 0.2). However, there was a 3.23-fold increased risk (P = 0.04) of increased plasma sCD14 in horses treated with flunixin meglumine, a validated biomarker of equine endotoxaemia. MAIN LIMITATIONS Horses were all treated with flunixin meglumine prior to referral. In addition, many horses were treated with lidocaine, which has been shown to mitigate the deleterious effects of flunixin meglumine. CONCLUSIONS In SISO cases, firocoxib reduced a biomarker of endotoxaemia as compared with flunixin meglumine while continuing to provide similar levels of pain control.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Ziegler
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - C K Freeman
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - C A Fogle
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - M J Burke
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - J L Davis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - V L Cook
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - L L Southwood
- Department of Clinical Studies, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - A T Blikslager
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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Burke M, Blikslager A. Advances in Diagnostics and Treatments in Horses with Acute Colic and Postoperative Ileus. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2018; 34:81-96. [PMID: 29402479 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2017.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiating between medical and surgical causes of colic is one of the primary goals of the colic workup, because early surgical intervention improves prognosis in horses requiring surgery. Despite the increasing availability of advanced diagnostics (hematologic analyses, abdominal ultrasound imaging, etc), the most accurate indicators of the need for surgery remain the presence of moderate to severe signs of abdominal pain, recurrence of pain after appropriate analgesic therapy, and the absence of intestinal borborygmi. Investigation of novel biomarkers, which may help to differentiate surgical lesions from those that can be managed medically, continues to be an active area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Burke
- NC State Veterinary Hospital, North Carolina State University, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA.
| | - Anthony Blikslager
- NC State Veterinary Hospital, North Carolina State University, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA
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Abstract
The equine intestinal mucosa is intimately involved in maintaining homeostasis both on a systemic level by controlling extracellular fluid movement and at the local level to maintain barrier function. Horses are particularly susceptible to the clinical syndrome of colic, with the most severe cases involving strangulating obstruction that induces ischemia. Because of the mucosal vascular architecture, the mucosal epithelium is particularly susceptible to ischemic injury. The potential for reperfusion injury has been investigated and found to play a minimal role. However, inflammation does affect mucosal repair. Mechanisms of repair, including villus contraction, epithelial restitution, and tight junction closure, are critical to reforming the mucosal barrier. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have an impact on this repair, particularly at the level of the tight junctions. Completion of mucosal regeneration requires proliferation, which is now being actively studied in equine enteroids. All of these aspects of equine mucosal pathobiology are reviewed in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Blikslager
- Center for Gastrointestinal Biology and Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA;
| | - Liara Gonzalez
- Center for Gastrointestinal Biology and Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA;
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