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Colgate VA, Newton JR. Equine influenza bi-annual boosters: What does the evidence tell us? Equine Vet J 2023; 55:147-152. [PMID: 36382414 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A Colgate
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - J Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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Abstract
Influenza is an extremely contagious respiratory disease, which predominantly affects the upper respiratory tract. There are four types of influenza virus, and pigs and chickens are considered two key reservoirs of this virus. Equine influenza (EI) virus was first identified in horses in 1956, in Prague. The influenza A viruses responsible for EI are H7N7 and H3N8. Outbreaks of EI are characterized by their visible and rapid spread, and it has been possible to isolate and characterize H3N8 outbreaks in several countries. The clinical diagnosis of this disease is based on the clinical signs presented by the infected animals, which can be confirmed by performing complementary diagnostic tests. In the diagnosis of EI, in the field, rapid antigen detection tests can be used for a first approach. Treatment is based on the management of the disease and rest for the animal. Regarding the prognosis, it will depend on several factors, such as the animal's vaccination status. One of the important points in this disease is its prevention, which can be done through vaccination. In addition to decreasing the severity of clinical signs and morbidity during outbreaks, vaccination ensures immunity for the animals, reducing the economic impact of this disease.
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Bambra W, Daly JM, Kendall NR, Gardner DS, Brennan M, Kydd JH. Equine influenza vaccination as reported by horse owners and factors influencing their decision to vaccinate or not. Prev Vet Med 2020; 180:105011. [PMID: 32438206 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza virus is a highly contagious respiratory pathogen that causes pyrexia, anorexia, lethargy and coughing in immunologically naïve horses. Vaccines against equine influenza are available and vaccination is mandatory for horses that participate in affiliated competitions, but this group forms a small proportion of the total horse population. The aims of this study were to: i) identify the equine influenza vaccination rate as reported in 2016 by horse owners in the United Kingdom (UK); ii) examine the demographics of owners and horses which were associated with significantly lower influenza vaccination rates and iii) explore factors that influence horse owners' decisions around influenza vaccine uptake. RESULTS Responses from 4837 UK horse owners who were responsible for 10,501 horses were analysed. An overall equine influenza vaccination rate of 80% (8385/10501) was reported. Several owner demographic characteristics were associated with significantly lower (p<0.05) reported equine influenza vaccination rates including: some geographical locations, increasing horse owner age, annual household income of less that £15,000 and owning more than one horse. Horse-related features which were associated with significantly lower reported equine influenza vaccination rates included age ranges of <4 years and > 20 years, use as a companion or breeding animal or leaving their home premises either never or at most once a year. The most common reasons cited for failing to vaccinate horses was no competition activity, lack of exposure to influenza and expense of vaccines. In contrast, the most common underlying reasons given by horse owners who vaccinated their horse were protection of the individual horse against disease, veterinary advice and to protect the national herd. Owners of vaccinated horses had less previous experience of an influenza outbreak or adverse reaction to vaccination compared with owners of unvaccinated horses. CONCLUSIONS This study documented a high rate of equine influenza vaccination as reported by owners in a substantial number of horses in the UK, but this does not reflect the level of protection. Sub-populations of horses which were less likely to be vaccinated and the factors that influence each owner's decision around vaccination of their horses against equine influenza were identified, but may alter following the 2019 European influenza outbreak. This information may nevertheless help veterinary surgeons identify "at-risk" patients and communicate more personalised advice to their horse-owning clients. It may also influence educational campaigns about equine influenza directed to horse owners, which aim to improve uptake of vaccination against this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Bambra
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - J M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - N R Kendall
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - D S Gardner
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - M Brennan
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - J H Kydd
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
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Olguin-Perglione C, Vissani MA, Alamos F, Tordoya MS, Barrandeguy M. Multifocal outbreak of equine influenza in vaccinated horses in Argentina in 2018: Epidemiological aspects and molecular characterisation of the involved virus strains. Equine Vet J 2020; 52:420-427. [PMID: 31494962 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza is an important cause of respiratory disease of horses worldwide. The equine influenza virus (EIV) undergoes antigenic drift through the accumulation of amino acid substitutions in the viral proteins, which may lead to vaccine breakdown. OBJECTIVES To describe the epidemiological findings and the molecular characteristics of the EIV detected during the multifocal outbreak that occurred in Argentina between March and July 2018 and evidence a vaccine breakdown. STUDY DESIGN Observational, descriptive study. METHODS Virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs using real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes were obtained from EIV positive nasopharyngeal swabs, and phylogenetic analysis was undertaken. Amino acid sequences were compared against the current World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)-recommended Florida clade 1 vaccine strain and strain components of vaccines used in Argentina. Serum samples were tested using haemagglutination inhibition test. RESULTS Equine influenza virus infection was confirmed using real-time RT-PCR and serological testing. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA and NA genes revealed that all the EIV identified during the outbreak belong to the H3N8 subtype, Florida clade 1. Multiple amino acid changes, some of them at antigenic sites, were observed in the circulating virus when compared with the strains included in the most commonly used vaccine in Argentina. Seventy-six percent of the affected horses had been vaccinated with this vaccine, suggesting the occurrence of vaccine breakdown. MAIN LIMITATIONS The study does not include antigenic characterisation and full genome sequencing of Argentinian strains, that could provide additional information. CONCLUSIONS The occurrence of this multifocal equine influenza outbreak in regularly vaccinated horses is a field evidence of vaccine breakdown, reinforcing the necessity of keeping vaccine strains updated according to OIE recommendations. It also underlines the importance of the implementation of appropriate quarantine measures and restriction of horse movement in the face of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Olguin-Perglione
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M A Vissani
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - F Alamos
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M S Tordoya
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Barrandeguy
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Milwid RM, O'Sullivan TL, Poljak Z, Laskowski M, Greer AL. Comparing the effects of non-homogenous mixing patterns on epidemiological outcomes in equine populations: A mathematical modelling study. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3227. [PMID: 30824806 PMCID: PMC6397169 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40151-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Disease transmission models often assume homogenous mixing. This assumption, however, has the potential to misrepresent the disease dynamics for populations in which contact patterns are non-random. A disease transmission model with an SEIR structure was used to compare the effect of weighted and unweighted empirical equine contact networks to weighted and unweighted theoretical networks generated using random mixing. Equine influenza was used as a case study. Incidence curves generated with the unweighted empirical networks were similar in epidemic duration (5-8 days) and peak incidence (30.8-46.4%). In contrast, the weighted empirical networks resulted in a more pronounced difference between the networks in terms of the epidemic duration (8-15 days) and the peak incidence (5-25%). The incidence curves for the empirical networks were bimodal, while the incidence curves for the theoretical networks were unimodal. The incorporation of vaccination and isolation in the model caused a decrease in the cumulative incidence for each network, however, this effect was only seen at high levels of vaccination and isolation for the complete network. This study highlights the importance of using empirical networks to describe contact patterns within populations that are unlikely to exhibit random mixing such as equine populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael M Milwid
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Terri L O'Sullivan
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Zvonimir Poljak
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Marek Laskowski
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Amy L Greer
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
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Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1941. [PMID: 30237788 PMCID: PMC6135912 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Among all the emerging and re-emerging animal diseases, influenza group is the prototype member associated with severe respiratory infections in wide host species. Wherein, Equine influenza (EI) is the main cause of respiratory illness in equines across globe and is caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV-A) which has impacted the equine industry internationally due to high morbidity and marginal morality. The virus transmits easily by direct contact and inhalation making its spread global and leaving only limited areas untouched. Hitherto reports confirm that this virus crosses the species barriers and found to affect canines and few other animal species (cat and camel). EIV is continuously evolving with changes at the amino acid level wreaking the control program a tedious task. Until now, no natural EI origin infections have been reported explicitly in humans. Recent advances in the diagnostics have led to efficient surveillance and rapid detection of EIV infections at the onset of outbreaks. Incessant surveillance programs will aid in opting a better control strategy for this virus by updating the circulating vaccine strains. Recurrent vaccination failures against this virus due to antigenic drift and shift have been disappointing, however better understanding of the virus pathogenesis would make it easier to design effective vaccines predominantly targeting the conserved epitopes (HA glycoprotein). Additionally, the cold adapted and canarypox vectored vaccines are proving effective in ceasing the severity of disease. Furthermore, better understanding of its genetics and molecular biology will help in estimating the rate of evolution and occurrence of pandemics in future. Here, we highlight the advances occurred in understanding the etiology, epidemiology and pathobiology of EIV and a special focus is on designing and developing effective diagnostics, vaccines and control strategies for mitigating the emerging menace by EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raj K. Singh
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kumaragurubaran Karthik
- Central University Laboratory, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India
| | - Rekha Khandia
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | - Ashok Munjal
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | | | - Sandip Chakraborty
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, West Tripura, India
| | - Yashpal S. Malik
- Division of Biological Standardization, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Rajendra Singh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Muhammad Munir
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Johannes H. van der Kolk
- Division of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern and Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
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