Natural single amino acid polymorphism (F19Y) in human galectin-8: detection of structural alterations and increased growth-regulatory activity on tumor cells

Role of Globotriaosylceramide in Physiology and Pathology

At first glance, the biological function of globoside (Gb) clusters appears to be that of glycosphingolipid (GSL) receptors for bacterial toxins that mediate host-pathogen interaction. Indeed, certain bacterial toxin families have been evolutionarily arranged so that they can enter eukaryotic cells through GSL receptors. A closer look reveals this molecular arrangement allocated on a variety of eukaryotic cell membranes, with its role revolving around physiological regulation and pathological processes. What makes Gb such a ubiquitous functional arrangement? Perhaps its peculiarity is underpinned by the molecular structure itself, the nature of Gb-bound ligands, or the intracellular trafficking unleashed by those ligands. Moreover, Gb biological conspicuousness may not lie on intrinsic properties or on its enzymatic synthesis/degradation pathways. The present review traverses these biological aspects, focusing mainly on globotriaosylceramide (Gb3), a GSL molecule present in cell membranes of distinct cell types, and proposes a wrap-up discussion with a phylogenetic view and the physiological and pathological functional alternatives.

Imitating evolution's tinkering by protein engineering reveals extension of human galectin-7 activity

Wild-type lectins have distinct types of modular design. As a step to explain the physiological importance of their special status, hypothesis-driven protein engineering is used to generate variants. Concerning adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins, non-covalently associated homodimers are commonly encountered in vertebrates. The homodimeric galectin-7 (Gal-7) is a multifunctional context-dependent modulator. Since the possibility of conversion from the homodimer to hybrids with other galectin domains, i.e. from Gal-1 and Gal-3, has recently been discovered, we designed Gal-7-based constructs, i.e. stable (covalently linked) homo- and heterodimers. They were produced and purified by affinity chromatography, and the sugar-binding activity of each lectin unit proven by calorimetry. Inspection of profiles of binding of labeled galectins to an array-like platform with various cell types, i.e. sections of murine epididymis and jejunum, and impact on neuroblastoma cell proliferation revealed no major difference between natural and artificial (stable) homodimers. When analyzing heterodimers, acquisition of altered properties was seen. Remarkably, binding properties and activity as effector can depend on the order of arrangement of lectin domains (from N- to C-termini) and on the linker length. After dissociation of the homodimer, the Gal-7 domain can build new functionally active hybrids with other partners. This study provides a clear direction for research on defining the full range of Gal-7 functionality and offers the perspective of testing applications for engineered heterodimers.

How galectins have become multifunctional proteins

Having identified glycans of cellular glycoconjugates as versatile molecular messages, their recognition by sugar receptors (lectins) is a fundamental mechanism within the flow of biological information. This type of molecular interplay is increasingly revealed to be involved in a wide range of (patho)physiological processes. To do so, it is a vital prerequisite that a lectin (and its expression) can develop more than a single skill, that is the general ability to bind glycans. By studying the example of vertebrate galectins as a model, a total of five relevant characteristics is disclosed: i) access to intra- and extracellular sites, ii) fine-tuned gene regulation (with evidence for co-regulation of counterreceptors) including the existence of variants due to alternative splicing or single nucleotide polymorphisms, iii) specificity to distinct glycans from the glycome with different molecular meaning, iv) binding capacity also to peptide motifs at different sites on the protein and v) diversity of modular architecture. They combine to endow these lectins with the capacity to serve as multi-purpose tools. Underscoring the arising broad-scale significance of tissue lectins, their numbers in terms of known families and group members have steadily grown by respective research that therefore unveiled a well-stocked toolbox. The generation of a network of (ga)lectins by evolutionary diversification affords the opportunity for additive/synergistic or antagonistic interplay in situ, an emerging aspect of (ga)lectin functionality. It warrants close scrutiny. The realization of the enormous potential of combinatorial permutations using the five listed features gives further efforts to understand the rules of functional glycomics/lectinomics a clear direction.

How presence of a signal peptide affects human galectins-1 and -4: Clues to explain common absence of a leader sequence among adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins

BACKGROUND

Galectins are multifunctional effectors, which all share absence of a signal sequence. It is not clear why galectins belong to the small set of proteins, which avoid the classical export route.

METHODS

Products of recombinant galectin expression in P. pastoris were analyzed by haemagglutination, gel filtration and electrophoresis and lectin blotting as well as mass spectrometry on the level of tryptic peptides and purified glycopeptides(s). Density gradient centrifugation and confocal laser scanning microscopy facilitated localization in transfected human and rat cells, proliferation assays determined activity as growth mediator.

RESULTS

Directing galectin-1 to the classical secretory pathway in yeast produces N-glycosylated protein that is active. It cofractionates and -localizes with calnexin in human cells, only Gal-4 is secreted. Presence of N-glycan(s) reduces affinity of cell binding and growth regulation by Gal-1.

CONCLUSIONS

Folding and activity of a galectin are maintained in signal-peptide-directed routing, N-glycosylation occurs. This pathway would deplete cytoplasm and nucleus of galectin, presence of N-glycans appears to interfere with lattice formation.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Availability of glycosylated galectins facilitates functional assays to contribute to explain why galectins invariably avoid classical routing for export.

The sugar code: letters and vocabulary, writers, editors and readers and biosignificance of functional glycan-lectin pairing

Ubiquitous occurrence in Nature, abundant presence at strategically important places such as the cell surface and dynamic shifts in their profile by diverse molecular switches qualifies the glycans to serve as versatile biochemical signals. However, their exceptional structural complexity often prevents one noting how simple the rules of objective-driven assembly of glycan-encoded messages are. This review is intended to provide a tutorial for a broad readership. The principles of why carbohydrates meet all demands to be the coding section of an information transfer system, and this at unsurpassed high density, are explained. Despite appearing to be a random assortment of sugars and their substitutions, seemingly subtle structural variations in glycan chains by a sophisticated enzymatic machinery have emerged to account for their specific biological meaning. Acting as 'readers' of glycan-encoded information, carbohydrate-specific receptors (lectins) are a means to turn the glycans' potential to serve as signals into a multitude of (patho)physiologically relevant responses. Once the far-reaching significance of this type of functional pairing has become clear, the various modes of spatial presentation of glycans and of carbohydrate recognition domains in lectins can be explored and rationalized. These discoveries are continuously revealing the intricacies of mutually adaptable routes to achieve essential selectivity and specificity. Equipped with these insights, readers will gain a fundamental understanding why carbohydrates form the third alphabet of life, joining the ranks of nucleotides and amino acids, and will also become aware of the importance of cellular communication via glycan-lectin recognition.

The Impact of Natural Selection on the Evolution and Function of Placentally Expressed Galectins

Immunity genes have repeatedly experienced natural selection during mammalian evolution. Galectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that regulate diverse immune responses, including maternal-fetal immune tolerance in placental pregnancy. Seven human galectins, four conserved across vertebrates and three specific to primates, are involved in placental development. To comprehensively study the molecular evolution of these galectins, both across mammals and within humans, we conducted a series of between- and within-species evolutionary analyses. By examining patterns of sequence evolution between species, we found that primate-specific galectins showed uniformly high substitution rates, whereas two of the four other galectins experienced accelerated evolution in primates. By examining human population genomic variation, we found that galectin genes and variants, including variants previously linked to immune diseases, showed signatures of recent positive selection in specific human populations. By examining one nonsynonymous variant in Galectin-8 previously associated with autoimmune diseases, we further discovered that it is tightly linked to three other nonsynonymous variants; surprisingly, the global frequency of this four-variant haplotype is ∼50%. To begin understanding the impact of this major haplotype on Galectin-8 protein structure, we modeled its 3D protein structure and found that it differed substantially from the reference protein structure. These results suggest that placentally expressed galectins experienced both ancient and more recent selection in a lineage- and population-specific manner. Furthermore, our discovery that the major Galectin-8 haplotype is structurally distinct from and more commonly found than the reference haplotype illustrates the significance of understanding the evolutionary processes that sculpted variants associated with human genetic disease.

Lectinology 4.0: Altering modular (ga)lectin display for functional analysis and biomedical applications

BACKGROUND

Recognition of glycans by lectins is emerging as (patho)physiologically broadly used mode of cellular information transfer. Whereas the direct ligand-receptor contact is often already thoroughly characterized, the functional relevance of aspects of architecture such as modular design and valence of lectins is less well defined.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

Following an introduction to modular lectin design, three levels of methodology are then reviewed that delineate lectin structure-activity relationships beyond glycan binding, with emphasis on domain shuffling.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Engineering of variants by modular transplantation facilitates versatile Nature-inspired design switches and access to new combinations with translational potential, as exemplified for human adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

To gain an understanding of the functional significance of natural variations in quaternary structure and modular design within a protein family is a current challenge. Strategic application of methods of the described phases is a means to respond to this challenge.

Galectin-8 induces functional disease markers in human osteoarthritis and cooperates with galectins-1 and -3

The reading of glycan-encoded signals by tissue lectins is considered a major route of the flow of biological information in many (patho)physiological processes. The arising challenge for current research is to proceed from work on a distinct protein to family-wide testing of lectin function. Having previously identified homodimeric galectin-1 and chimera-type galectin-3 as molecular switches in osteoarthritis progression, we here provide proof-of-principle evidence for an intra-network cooperation of galectins with three types of modular architecture. We show that the presence of tandem-repeat-type galectin-8 significantly correlated with cartilage degeneration and that it is secreted by osteoarthritic chondrocytes. Glycan-inhibitable surface binding of galectin-8 to these cells increased gene transcription and the secretion of functional disease markers. The natural variant galectin-8 (F19Y) was less active than the prevalent form. Genome-wide array analysis revealed induction of a pro-degradative/inflammatory gene signature, largely under control of NF-κB signaling. This signature overlapped with respective gene-expression patterns elicited by galectins-1 and -3, but also presented supplementary features. Functional assays with mixtures of galectins that mimic the pathophysiological status unveiled cooperation between the three galectins. Our findings shape the novel concept to consider individual galectins as part of a so far not realized teamwork in osteoarthritis pathogenesis, with relevance beyond this disease.

Glycan Chains of Gangliosides: Functional Ligands for Tissue Lectins (Siglecs/Galectins)

Molecular signals on the cell surface are responsible for adhesion and communication. Of relevance in this respect, their chemical properties endow carbohydrates with the capacity to store a maximum of information in a minimum of space. One way to present glycans on the cell surface is their covalent conjugation to a ceramide anchor. Among the resulting glycosphingolipids, gangliosides are special due to the presence of at least one sialic acid in the glycan chains. Their spatial accessibility and the dynamic regulation of their profile are factors that argue in favor of a role of glycans of gangliosides as ligands (counterreceptors) for carbohydrate-binding proteins (lectins). Indeed, as discovered first for a bacterial toxin, tissue lectins bind gangliosides and mediate contact formation (trans) and signaling (cis). While siglecs have a preference for higher sialylated glycans, certain galectins also target the monosialylated pentasaccharide of ganglioside GM1. Enzymatic interconversion of ganglioside glycans by sialidase action, relevant for neuroblastoma cell differentiation and growth control in vitro, for axonogenesis and axon regeneration, as well as for proper communication between effector and regulatory T cells, changes lectin-binding affinity profoundly. The GD1a-to-GM1 "editing" is recognized by such lectins, for example, myelin-associated glycoprotein (siglec-4) losing affinity and galectin-1 gaining reactivity, and then translated into postbinding signaling. Orchestrations of loss/gain of affinity, of ganglioside/lectin expression, and of lectin presence in a network offer ample opportunities for fine-tuning. Thus glycans of gangliosides such as GD1a and GM1 are functional counterreceptors by a pairing with tissue lectins, an emerging aspect of ganglioside and lectin functionality.

Exploring functional pairing between surface glycoconjugates and human galectins using programmable glycodendrimersomes

Cells are decorated with charged and uncharged carbohydrate ligands known as glycans, which are responsible for several key functions, including their interactions with proteins known as lectins. Here, a platform consisting of synthetic nanoscale vesicles, known as glycodendrimersomes, which can be programmed with cell surface-like structural and topological complexity, is employed to dissect design aspects of glycan presentation, with specificity for lectin-mediated bridging. Aggregation assays reveal the extent of cross-linking of these biomimetic nanoscale vesicles—presenting both anionic and neutral ligands in a bioactive manner—with disease-related human and other galectins, thus offering the possibility of unraveling the nature of these fundamental interactions.

Precise translation of glycan-encoded information into cellular activity depends critically on highly specific functional pairing between glycans and their human lectin counter receptors. Sulfoglycolipids, such as sulfatides, are important glycolipid components of the biological membranes found in the nervous and immune systems. The optimal molecular and spatial design aspects of sulfated and nonsulfated glycans with high specificity for lectin-mediated bridging are unknown. To elucidate how different molecular and spatial aspects combine to ensure the high specificity of lectin-mediated bridging, a bottom-up toolbox is devised. To this end, negatively surface-charged glycodendrimersomes (GDSs), of different nanoscale dimensions, containing sulfo-lactose groups are self-assembled in buffer from a synthetic sulfatide mimic: Janus glycodendrimer (JGD) containing a 3′-O-sulfo-lactose headgroup. Also prepared for comparative analysis are GDSs with nonsulfated lactose, a common epitope of human membranes. These self-assembled GDSs are employed in aggregation assays with 15 galectins, comprising disease-related human galectins, and other natural and engineered variants from four families, having homodimeric, heterodimeric, and chimera architectures. There are pronounced differences in aggregation capacity between human homodimeric and heterodimeric galectins, and also with respect to their responsiveness to the charge of carbohydrate-derived ligand. Assays reveal strong differential impact of ligand surface charge and density, as well as lectin concentration and structure, on the extent of surface cross-linking. These findings demonstrate how synthetic JGD-headgroup tailoring teamed with protein engineering and network assays can help explain how molecular matchmaking operates in the cellular context of glycan and lectin complexity.

Chicken GRIFIN: Structural characterization in crystals and in solution

Despite its natural abundance in lenses of vertebrates the physiological function(s) of the galectin-related inter-fiber protein (GRIFIN) is (are) still unclear. The same holds true for the significance of the unique interspecies (fish/birds vs mammals) variability in the capacity to bind lactose. In solution, ultracentrifugation and small angle X-ray scattering (at concentrations up to 9 mg/mL) characterize the protein as compact and stable homodimer without evidence for aggregation. The crystal structure of chicken (C-)GRIFIN at seven pH values from 4.2 to 8.5 is reported, revealing compelling stability. Binding of lactose despite the Arg71Val deviation from the sequence signature of galectins matched the otherwise canonical contact pattern with thermodynamics of an enthalpically driven process. Upon lactose accommodation, the side chain of Arg50 is shifted for hydrogen bonding to the 3-hydroxyl of glucose. No evidence for a further ligand-dependent structural alteration was obtained in solution by measuring hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometrically in peptic fingerprints. The introduction of the Asn48Lys mutation, characteristic for mammalian GRIFINs that have lost lectin activity, lets labeled C-GRIFIN maintain capacity to stain tissue sections. Binding is no longer inhibitable by lactose, as seen for the wild-type protein. These results establish the basis for detailed structure-activity considerations and are a step to complete the structural description of all seven members of the galectin network in chicken.

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First crystal structure of an eye lens GRIFIN defines differences to galectins.

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pH screening discloses high degree of structural stability in crystals.

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Hydrogen-deuterium exchange reveals unusually rigid structure in solution.

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Lectin histochemical assays identify critical sites for in situ ligand binding.

Emerging Diagnostic and Therapeutic Potentials of Human Hair Proteomics

The use of noninvasive human substrates to interrogate pathophysiological conditions has become essential in the post- Human Genome Project era. Due to its high turnover rate, and its long term capability to incorporate exogenous and endogenous substances from the circulation, hair testing is emerging as a key player in monitoring long term drug compliance, chronic alcohol abuse, forensic toxicology, and biomarker discovery, among other things. Novel high-throughput 'omics based approaches like proteomics have been underutilized globally in comprehending human hair morphology and its evolving use as a diagnostic testing substrate in the era of precision medicine. There is paucity of scientific evidence that evaluates the difference in drug incorporation into hair based on lipid content, and very few studies have addressed hair growth rates, hair forms, and the biological consequences of hair grooming or bleaching. It is apparent that protein-based identification using the human hair proteome would play a major role in understanding these parameters akin to DNA single nucleotide polymorphism profiling, up to single amino acid polymorphism resolution. Hence, this work seeks to identify and discuss the progress made thus far in the field of molecular hair testing using proteomic approaches, and identify ways in which proteomics would improve the field of hair research, considering that the human hair is mostly composed of proteins. Gaps in hair proteomics research are identified and the potential of hair proteomics in establishing a historic medical repository of normal and disease-specific proteome is also discussed.

Studying the Structural Significance of Galectin Design by Playing a Modular Puzzle: Homodimer Generation from Human Tandem-Repeat-Type (Heterodimeric) Galectin-8 by Domain Shuffling

Tissue lectins are emerging (patho)physiological effectors with broad significance. The capacity of adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins to form functional complexes with distinct cellular glycoconjugates is based on molecular selection of matching partners. Engineering of variants by changing the topological display of carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs) provides tools to understand the inherent specificity of the functional pairing. We here illustrate its practical implementation in the case of human tandem-repeat-type galectin-8 (Gal-8). It is termed Gal-8 (NC) due to presence of two different CRDs at the N- and C-terminal positions. Gal-8N exhibits exceptionally high affinity for 3'-sialylated/sulfated β-galactosides. This protein is turned into a new homodimer, i.e., Gal-8 (NN), by engineering. The product maintained activity for lactose-inhibitable binding of glycans and glycoproteins. Preferential association with 3'-sialylated/sulfated (and 6-sulfated) β-galactosides was seen by glycan-array analysis when compared to the wild-type protein, which also strongly bound to ABH-type epitopes. Agglutination of erythrocytes documented functional bivalency. This result substantiates the potential for comparative functional studies between the variant and natural Gal-8 (NC)/Gal-8N.

The sugar code: Why glycans are so important

The cell surface is the platform for presentation of biochemical signals that are required for intercellular communication. Their profile necessarily needs to be responsive to internal and external factors in a highly dynamic manner. The structural features of the signals must meet the criterion of high-density information coding in a minimum of space. Thus, only biomolecules that can generate many different oligomers ('words') from few building blocks ('letters') qualify to meet this challenge. Examining the respective properties of common biocompounds that form natural oligo- and polymers comparatively, starting with nucleotides and amino acids (the first and second alphabets of life), comes up with sugars as clear frontrunner. The enzymatic machinery for the biosynthesis of sugar chains can indeed link monosaccharides, the letters of the third alphabet of life, in a manner to reach an unsurpassed number of oligomers (complex carbohydrates or glycans). Fittingly, the resulting glycome of a cell can be likened to a fingerprint. Conjugates of glycans with proteins and sphingolipids (glycoproteins and glycolipids) are ubiquitous in Nature. This implies a broad (patho)physiologic significance. By looking at the signals, at the writers and the erasers of this information as well as its readers and ensuing consequences, this review intends to introduce a broad readership to the principles of the concept of the sugar code.

Galectin-8 as an immunosuppressor in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and a target of human early prognostic antibodies in multiple sclerosis

Galectin-8 (Gal-8) is a member of a glycan-binding protein family that regulates the immune system, among other functions, and is a target of antibodies in autoimmune disorders. However, its role in multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS), remains unknown. We study the consequences of Gal-8 silencing on lymphocyte subpopulations and the development of experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), to then assess the presence and clinical meaning of anti-Gal-8 antibodies in MS patients. Lgals8/Lac-Z knock-in mice lacking Gal-8 expression have higher polarization toward Th17 cells accompanied with decreased CCR6⁺ and higher CXCR3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) frequency. These conditions result in exacerbated MOG_35-55 peptide-induced EAE. Gal-8 eliminates activated Th17 but not Th1 cells by apoptosis and ameliorates EAE in C57BL/6 wild-type mice. β-gal histochemistry reflecting the activity of the Gal-8 promoter revealed Gal-8 expression in a wide range of CNS regions, including high expression in the choroid-plexus. Accordingly, we detected Gal-8 in human cerebrospinal fluid, suggesting a role in the CNS immune-surveillance circuit. In addition, we show that MS patients generate function-blocking anti-Gal-8 antibodies with pathogenic potential. Such antibodies block cell adhesion and Gal-8-induced Th17 apoptosis. Furthermore, circulating anti-Gal-8 antibodies associate with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), and not with progressive MS phenotypes, predicting clinical disability at diagnosis within the first year of follow-up. Our results reveal that Gal-8 has an immunosuppressive protective role against autoimmune CNS inflammation, modulating the balance of Th17 and Th1 polarization and their respective Tregs. Such a role can be counteracted during RRMS by anti-Gal-8 antibodies, worsening disease prognosis. Even though anti-Gal-8 antibodies are not specific for MS, our results suggest that they could be a potential early severity biomarker in RRMS.

Mimicking Complex Biological Membranes and Their Programmable Glycan Ligands with Dendrimersomes and Glycodendrimersomes

Synthetic vesicles have been assembled and coassembled from phospholipids, their modified versions, and other single amphiphiles into liposomes, and from block copolymers into polymersomes. Their time-consuming synthesis and preparation as stable, monodisperse, and biocompatible liposomes and polymersomes called for the elaboration of new synthetic methodologies. Amphiphilic Janus dendrimers (JDs) and glycodendrimers (JGDs) represent the most recent self-assembling amphiphiles capable of forming monodisperse, stable, and multifunctional unilamellar and multilamellar onion-like vesicles denoted dendrimersomes (DSs) and glycodendrimersomes (GDSs), dendrimercubosomes (DCs), glycodendrimercubosomes (GDCs), and other complex architectures. Amphiphilic JDs consist of hydrophobic dendrons connected to hydrophilic dendrons and can be thought of as monodisperse oligomers of a single amphiphile. They can be functionalized with a variety of molecules such as dyes, and, in the case of JGDs, with carbohydrates. Their iterative modular synthesis provides efficient access to sequence control at the molecular level, resulting in topologies with specific epitope sequence and density. DSs, GDSs, and other architectures from JDs and JGDs serve as powerful tools for mimicking biological membranes and for biomedical applications such as targeted drug and gene delivery and theranostics. This Review covers all aspects of the synthesis of JDs and JGDs and their biological activity and applications after assembly in aqueous media.

Teaming up synthetic chemistry and histochemistry for activity screening in galectin-directed inhibitor design

A hallmark of endogenous lectins is their ability to select a few distinct glycoconjugates as counterreceptors for functional pairing from the natural abundance of cellular glycoproteins and glycolipids. As a consequence, assays to assess inhibition of lectin binding should necessarily come as close as possible to the physiological situation, to characterize an impact of a synthetic compound on biorelevant binding with pharmaceutical perspective. We here introduce in a proof-of-principle manner work with sections of paraffin-embedded tissue (jejunum, epididymis) and labeled adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins, harboring one (galectin-1 and galectin-3) or two (galectin-8) types of lectin domain. Six pairs of synthetic lactosides from tailoring of the headgroup (3'-O-sulfation) and the aglycone (β-methyl to aromatic S- and O-linked extensions) as well as three bi- to tetravalent glycoclusters were used as test compounds. Varying extents of reduction in staining intensity by synthetic compounds relative to unsubstituted/free lactose proved the applicability and sensitivity of the method. Flanking cytofluorimetric assays on lectin binding to native cells gave similar grading, excluding a major impact of tissue fixation. The experiments revealed cell/tissue binding of galectin-8 preferentially via one domain, depending on the cell type so that the effect of an inhibitor in a certain context cannot be extrapolated to other cells/tissues. Moreover, the work with the other galectins attests that this assay enables comprehensive analysis of the galectin network in serial tissue sections to determine overlaps and regional differences in inhibitory profiles.

Lectins: a primer for histochemists and cell biologists

An experimental observation on selecting binding partners underlies the introduction of the term 'lectin'. Agglutination of erythrocytes depending on their blood-group status revealed the presence of activities in plant extracts that act in an epitope-specific manner like antibodies. As it turned out, their binding partners on the cell surface are carbohydrates of glycoconjugates. By definition, lectins are glycan-specific (mono- or oligosaccharides presented by glycoconjugates or polysaccharides) receptors, distinguished from antibodies, from enzymes using carbohydrates as substrates and from transporters of free saccharides. They are ubiquitous in Nature and structurally widely diversified. More than a dozen types of folding pattern have evolved for proteins that bind glycans. Used as tool, this capacity facilitates versatile mapping of glycan presence so that plant/fungal and also animal/human lectins have found a broad spectrum of biomedical applications. The functional pairing with physiological counterreceptors is involved in a wide range of cellular activities from cell adhesion, glycoconjugate trafficking to growth regulation and lets lectins act as sensors/effectors in host defense.

Crystallization of Galectin-8 Linker Reveals Intricate Relationship between the N-terminal Tail and the Linker

Galectin-8 (Gal-8) plays a significant role in normal immunological function as well as in cancer. This lectin contains two carbohydrate recognition domains (CRD) connected by a peptide linker. The N-terminal CRD determines ligand binding specificity, whereas the linker has been proposed to regulate overall Gal-8 function, including multimerization and biological activity. Here, we crystallized the Gal-8 N-terminal CRD with the peptide linker using a crystallization condition that contains Ni²⁺. The Ni²⁺ ion was found to be complexed between two CRDs via crystal packing contacts. The coordination between Ni²⁺ and Asp25 plays an indirect role in determining the structure of β-strand F0 and in influencing the linker conformation which could not be defined due to its dynamic nature. The linker was also shortened in situ and crystallized under a different condition, leading to a higher resolution structure refined to 1.08 Å. This crystal structure allowed definition of a short portion of the linker interacting with the Gal-8 N-terminal tail via ionic interactions and hydrogen bonds. Observation of two Gal-8 N-terminal CRD structures implies that the N-terminal tail and the linker may influence each other’s conformation. In addition, under specific crystallization conditions, glycerol could replace lactose and was observed at the carbohydrate binding site. However, glycerol did not show inhibition activity in hemagglutination assay.

Large-scale assessment of the gliomasphere model system

BACKGROUND

Gliomasphere cultures are widely utilized for the study of glioblastoma (GBM). However, this model system is not well characterized, and the utility of current classification methods is not clear.

METHODS

We used 71 gliomasphere cultures from 68 individuals. Using gene expression-based classification, we performed unsupervised clustering and associated gene expression with gliomasphere phenotypes and patient survival.

RESULTS

Some aspects of the gene expression-based classification method were robust because the gliomasphere cultures retained their classification over many passages, and IDH1 mutant gliomaspheres were all proneural. While gene expression of a subset of gliomasphere cultures was more like the parent tumor than any other tumor, gliomaspheres did not always harbor the same classification as their parent tumor. Classification was not associated with whether a sphere culture was derived from primary or recurrent GBM or associated with the presence of EGFR amplification or rearrangement. Unsupervised clustering of gliomasphere gene expression distinguished 2 general categories (mesenchymal and nonmesenchymal), while multidimensional scaling distinguished 3 main groups and a fourth minor group. Unbiased approaches revealed that PI3Kinase, protein kinase A, mTOR, ERK, Integrin, and beta-catenin pathways were associated with in vitro measures of proliferation and sphere formation. Associating gene expression with gliomasphere phenotypes and patient outcome, we identified genes not previously associated with GBM: PTGR1, which suppresses proliferation, and EFEMP2 and LGALS8, which promote cell proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive assessment reveals advantages and limitations of using gliomaspheres to model GBM biology, and provides a novel strategy for selecting genes for future study.

Metal-Induced Stabilization and Activation of Plasmid Replication Initiator RepB

Initiation of plasmid rolling circle replication (RCR) is catalyzed by a plasmid-encoded Rep protein that performs a Tyr- and metal-dependent site-specific cleavage of one DNA strand within the double-strand origin (dso) of replication. The crystal structure of RepB, the initiator protein of the streptococcal plasmid pMV158, constitutes the first example of a Rep protein structure from RCR plasmids. It forms a toroidal homohexameric ring where each RepB protomer consists of two domains: the C-terminal domain involved in oligomerization and the N-terminal domain containing the DNA-binding and endonuclease activities. Binding of Mn²⁺ to the active site is essential for the catalytic activity of RepB. In this work, we have studied the effects of metal binding on the structure and thermostability of full-length hexameric RepB and each of its separate domains by using different biophysical approaches. The analysis of the temperature-induced changes in RepB shows that the first thermal transition, which occurs at a range of temperatures physiologically relevant for the pMV158 pneumococcal host, represents an irreversible conformational change that affects the secondary and tertiary structure of the protein, which becomes prone to self-associate. This transition, which is also shown to result in loss of DNA binding capacity and catalytic activity of RepB, is confined to its N-terminal domain. Mn²⁺ protects the protein from undergoing this detrimental conformational change and the observed protection correlates well with the high-affinity binding of the cation to the active site, as substituting one of the metal-ligands at this site impairs both the protein affinity for Mn²⁺and the Mn²⁺-driven thermostabilization effect. The level of catalytic activity of the protein, especially in the case of full-length RepB, cannot be explained based only on the high-affinity binding of Mn²⁺ at the active site and suggests the existence of additional, lower-affinity metal binding site(s), missing in the separate catalytic domain, that must also be saturated for maximal activity. The molecular bases of the thermostabilizing effect of Mn²⁺ on the N-terminal domain of the protein as well as the potential location of additional metal binding sites in the entire RepB are discussed.

X-ray reflectivity and grazing incidence diffraction studies of interaction between human adhesion/growth-regulatory galectin-1 and DPPE-GM1 lipid monolayer at an air/water interface

The specific interaction of ganglioside GM1 with the homodimeric (prototype) endogenous lectin galectin-1 triggers growth regulation in tumor and activated effector T cells. This proven biorelevance directed interest to studying association of the lectin to a model surface, i.e. a 1,2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine/ganglioside GM1 (80 : 20 mol%) monolayer, at a bioeffective concentration. Surface expansion by the lectin insertion was detected at a surface pressure of 20 mN/m. On combining the methods of grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and X-ray reflectivity, a transient decrease in lipid-ordered phase of the monolayer was observed. The measured electron density distribution indicated that galectin-1 is oriented with its long axis in the surface plane, ideal for cis-crosslinking. The data reveal a conspicuous difference to the way the pentameric lectin part of the cholera toxin, another GM1-specific lectin, is bound to the monolayer. They also encourage further efforts to monitor effects of structurally different members of the galectin family such as the functionally antagonistic chimera-type galectin-3.

Galectin-8 promotes migration and proliferation and prevents apoptosis in U87 glioblastoma cells

Background

Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive cancers of the brain. Malignant traits of glioblastoma cells include elevated migration, proliferation and survival capabilities. Galectins are unconventionally secreted glycan-binding proteins that modulate processes of cell adhesion, migration, proliferation and apoptosis by interacting with beta-galactosides of cell surface glycoproteins and the extracellular matrix. Galectin-8 is one of the galectins highly expressed in glioblastoma cells. It has a unique selectivity for terminally sialylated glycans recently found enhanced in these highly malignant cells. A previous study in glioblastoma cell lines reported that Gal-8 coating a plastic surface stimulates two-dimensional motility. Because in other cells Gal-8 arrests proliferation and induces apoptosis, here we extend its study by analyzing all of these processes in a U87 glioblastoma cell model.

Methods

We used immunoblot and RT-PCR for Gal-8 expression analysis, recombinant Gal-8 produced in a bacteria system for Gal-8 treatment of the cells, and shRNA in lentivirus transduction for Gal-8 silencing. Cell migration as assessed in transwell filters. Cell proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis were analyzed by FACS.

Results

Gal-8 as a soluble stimulus triggered chemotactic migration of U87 cells across the polycarbonate filter of transwell chambers, almost as intensively as fetal bovine serum. Unexpectedly, Gal-8 also enhanced U87 cell growth. Co-incubation of Gal-8 with lactose, which blocks galectin–glycan interactions, abrogated both effects. Immunoblot showed Gal-8 in conditioned media reflecting its secretion. U87 cells transduced with silencing shRNA in a lentiviral vector expressed and secreted 30–40 % of their normal Gal-8 levels. These cells maintained their migratory capabilities, but decreased their proliferation rate and underwent higher levels of apoptosis, as revealed by flow cytometry analysis of cell cycle, CFSE and activated caspase-3 staining. Proliferation seemed to be more sensitive than migration to Gal-8 expression levels.

Conclusions

Gal-8, either secreted or exogenously enriched in the media, and acting through extracellular glycan interactions, constitutes a strong stimulus of directional migration in glioblastoma U87 cells and for the first time emerges as a factor that promotes proliferation and prevents apoptosis in cancerous cells. These properties could potentially contribute to the exaggerated malignancy of glioblastoma cells.

Chicken GRIFIN: A homodimeric member of the galectin network with canonical properties and a unique expression profile

Occurrence of the adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins as family sets the challenge to achieve a complete network analysis. Along this route taken for a well-suited model organism (chicken), we fill the remaining gap to characterize its seventh member known from rat as galectin-related inter-fiber protein (GRIFIN) in the lens. Its single-copy gene is common to vertebrates, with one or more deviations from the so-called signature sequence for ligand (lactose) contact. The chicken protein is a homodimeric agglutinin with capacity to bind β-galactosides, especially the histo-blood group B tetrasaccharide, shown by solid-phase/cell assays and a glycan microarray. Mass spectrometric identification of two lactose-binding peptides after tryptic on-bead fragmentation suggests an interaction at the canonical region despite a sequence change from Arg to Val at the site, which impairs reactivity of human galectin-1. RT-PCR and Western blot analyses of specimen from adult chicken organs reveal restriction of expression to the lens, here immunohistochemically throughout its main body. This report sets the stage for detailed structure-activity studies to define factors relevant for affinity beyond the signature sequence and to perform the first complete network analysis of the galectin family in developing and adult organs of a vertebrate.

Multivalent Carbohydrate-Lectin Interactions: How Synthetic Chemistry Enables Insights into Nanometric Recognition

Glycan recognition by sugar receptors (lectins) is intimately involved in many aspects of cell physiology. However, the factors explaining the exquisite selectivity of their functional pairing are not yet fully understood. Studies toward this aim will also help appraise the potential for lectin-directed drug design. With the network of adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins as therapeutic targets, the strategy to recruit synthetic chemistry to systematically elucidate structure-activity relationships is outlined, from monovalent compounds to glyco-clusters and glycodendrimers to biomimetic surfaces. The versatility of the synthetic procedures enables to take examining structural and spatial parameters, alone and in combination, to its limits, for example with the aim to produce inhibitors for distinct galectin(s) that exhibit minimal reactivity to other members of this group. Shaping spatial architectures similar to glycoconjugate aggregates, microdomains or vesicles provides attractive tools to disclose the often still hidden significance of nanometric aspects of the different modes of lectin design (sequence divergence at the lectin site, differences of spatial type of lectin-site presentation). Of note, testing the effectors alone or in combination simulating (patho)physiological conditions, is sure to bring about new insights into the cooperation between lectins and the regulation of their activity.

Sweet complementarity: the functional pairing of glycans with lectins

Carbohydrates establish the third alphabet of life. As part of cellular glycoconjugates, the glycans generate a multitude of signals in a minimum of space. The presence of distinct glycotopes and the glycome diversity are mapped by sugar receptors (antibodies and lectins). Endogenous (tissue) lectins can read the sugar-encoded information and translate it into functional aspects of cell sociology. Illustrated by instructive examples, each glycan has its own ligand properties. Lectins with different folds can converge to target the same epitope, while intrafamily diversification enables functional cooperation and antagonism. The emerging evidence for the concept of a network calls for a detailed fingerprinting. Due to the high degree of plasticity and dynamics of the display of genes for lectins the validity of extrapolations between different organisms of the phylogenetic tree yet is inevitably limited.

Bioactive cell-like hybrids coassembled from (glyco)dendrimersomes with bacterial membranes

A library of amphiphilic Janus dendrimers including two that are fluorescent and one glycodendrimer presenting lactose were used to construct giant dendrimersomes and glycodendrimersomes. Coassembly with the components of bacterial membrane vesicles by a dehydration-rehydration process generated giant cell-like hybrid vesicles, whereas the injection of their ethanol solution into PBS produced monodisperse nanometer size assemblies. These hybrid vesicles contain transmembrane proteins including a small membrane protein, MgrB, tagged with a red fluorescent protein, lipopolysaccharides, and glycoproteins from the bacterium Escherichia coli. Incorporation of two colored fluorescent probes in each of the components allowed fluorescence microscopy to visualize and demonstrate coassembly and the incorporation of functional membrane channels. Importantly, the hybrid vesicles bind a human galectin, consistent with the display of sugar moieties from lipopolysaccharides or possibly glycosylated membrane proteins. The present coassembly method is likely to create cell-like hybrids from any biological membrane including human cells and thus may enable practical application in nanomedicine.

Engineering a therapeutic lectin by uncoupling mitogenicity from antiviral activity

A key effector route of the Sugar Code involves lectins that exert crucial regulatory controls by targeting distinct cellular glycans. We demonstrate that a single amino-acid substitution in a banana lectin, replacing histidine 84 with a threonine, significantly reduces its mitogenicity, while preserving its broad-spectrum antiviral potency. X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and glycocluster assays reveal that loss of mitogenicity is strongly correlated with loss of pi-pi stacking between aromatic amino acids H84 and Y83, which removes a wall separating two carbohydrate binding sites, thus diminishing multivalent interactions. On the other hand, monovalent interactions and antiviral activity are preserved by retaining other wild-type conformational features and possibly through unique contacts involving the T84 side chain. Through such fine-tuning, target selection and downstream effects of a lectin can be modulated so as to knock down one activity, while preserving another, thus providing tools for therapeutics and for understanding the Sugar Code.

NMR assignments of the C-terminal domain of human galectin-8

Galectins recognize β-galectosides to promote a variety of cellular functions. Despite their sequence variations, all galectins share the same carbohydrate recognition domains (CRD) and their modes of ligand recognition at a structural level are essentially identical. Human galectin 8 plays an important role in numerous cancer and immune responses. It consists of two CRDs that are connected via a flexible linker. The substrate affinities and specificities of the N- and C-terminal domains are quite different. In order to investigate the structural basis of their substrate specificities, we complete the NMR (1)H, (13)C, and (15)N chemical shift assignments of C-terminal domain of human galectin-8 (hG8C).

Unraveling functional significance of natural variations of a human galectin by glycodendrimersomes with programmable glycan surface

Surface-presented glycans (complex carbohydrates) are docking sites for adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins within cell-cell/matrix interactions. Alteration of the linker length in human galectin-8 and single-site mutation (F19Y) are used herein to illustrate the potential of glycodendrimersomes with programmable glycan displays as a model system to reveal the functional impact of natural sequence variations in trans recognition. Extension of the linker length slightly reduces lectin capacity as agglutinin and slows down aggregate formation at low ligand surface density. The mutant protein is considerably less active as agglutinin and less sensitive to low-level ligand presentation. The present results suggest that mimicking glycan complexity and microdomain occurrence on the glycodendrimersome surface can provide key insights into mechanisms to accomplish natural selectivity and specificity of lectins in structural and topological terms.

Structural significance of galectin design: impairment of homodimer stability by linker insertion and partial reversion by ligand presence

Lectins translate information encoded in glycan chains of cellular glycoconjugates into bioeffects. The topological presentation of contact sites for cognate sugar binding is a crucial factor toward this end. To dissect the significance of such phylogenetically conserved properties, the design and engineering of non-natural variants are attractive approaches. Here, a homodimeric human lectin, i.e. adhesion/growth-regulatory galectin-1, is converted into a tandem-repeat display by introducing the 33-amino-acid linker of another family member (i.e. galectin-8). The yield of variant was reduced by about a third. This protein had ∼10-fold higher activity in hemagglutination. Nearly complete sequence determination by mass-spectrometric in-source decay and fingerprinting excluded the presence of any modifications. When (1)H-(15)N heteronuclear single-quantum coherence data on the (15)N-labeled variant and wild-type protein were compared, changes in chemical shifts, signal intensities and resonance multiplicities revealed reduction of stability of interfacial contacts between the lectin domains and an increase in inter-domain flexibility. When both binding sites in the variant were loaded with ligand, association of the two carbohydrate recognition domains was enhanced, corroborated by gel filtration. Dynamic changes in the spatial presentation of the two lectin domains in the context of a tandem-repeat display can alter counterreceptor targeting relative to the fixed positions found in the proto-type galectin homodimer.

Comparative lectinology: Delineating glycan-specificity profiles of the chicken galectins using neoglycoconjugates in a cell assay

A major aspect of carbohydrate-dependent galectin functionality is their cross-linking capacity. Using a cell surface as biorelevant platform for galectin binding and a panel of 40 glycans as sensor part of a fluorescent polyacrylamide neoglycopolymer for profiling galectin reactivity, properties of related proteins can be comparatively analyzed. The group of the chicken galectins (CGs) is an especially suited system toward this end due to its relatively small size, compared with mammalian galectins. The experiments reveal particularly strong reactivity toward N-acetyllactosamine repeats for all tested CGs and shared reactivity of CG-1A and CG-2 to histo-blood group ABH determinants. In cross-species comparison, CG-1B's properties closely resembled those of human galectin-1, as was the case for the galectin-2 (but not galectin-3) ortholog pair. Although binding-site architectures are rather similar, reactivity patterns can well differ.

Preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of an engineered variant of human chimera-type galectin-3 with a shortened N-terminal domain

How lectins translate sugar-encoded information into cellular effects not only depends on glycan recognition. Other domains of the protein can contribute to the functional profile of a lectin. Human galectin-3 (Gal-3), an adhesion/growth-regulatory galectin, is composed of three different domains and is thus called a chimera-type protein. In addition to the carbohydrate-recognition domain, this lectin encompasses an N-terminal domain consisting of a peptide harbouring two phosphorylation sites and nine non-triple-helical collagen-like repeats. This region plays an as yet structurally undefined role in Gal-3 aggregation and ligand recognition. To date, crystallization of full-length Gal-3 has not been achieved. With the aim of providing structural insights into this modular organization, a Gal-3 variant was crystallized maintaining the terminal peptide and three of the nine collagen-like repeats. The crystals belonged to the orthorhombic space group P212121, with unit-cell parameters a = 94.04, b = 97.96, c = 236.20 Å, and diffracted to a resolution of 3.3 Å.

Thio- and selenoglycosides as ligands for biomedically relevant lectins: valency-activity correlations for benzene-based dithiogalactoside clusters and first assessment for (di)selenodigalactosides

Substitution of the oxygen atom in the glycosidic linkage by a disulfide bond or by selenium makes the resulting glycoside resistant to hydrolysis. To clarify the consequences for affinity to lectins we prepared benzene-based mono- to trivalent dithiogalactosides. Inhibitory capacity increased with valency for a plant toxin, the synthetic compounds potently blocking its binding to a lactose-presenting matrix and to cells. Human galectins were much less sensitive to the disulfides than the toxin. This differential response constitutes a beneficial effect to avoid cross-reactivity in vivo. Symmetrical selenodigalactoside and diselenodigalactoside were prepared and similarly tested. Both compounds proved rather equally bioactive for the toxin, graded activity was measured for human galectins. This result directs attention to further studies to relate Se-dependent alterations in bond angle and length as well as van der Waals radius to binding properties of selenoglycosides to biomedically relevant lectins.