Autophagy and tumorigenesis

New insight in treating autoimmune diseases by targeting autophagy

Autophagy is a highly conserved biological process in eukaryotes, which degrades cellular misfolded proteins, damaged organelles and invasive pathogens in the lysosome-dependent manner. Autoimmune diseases caused by genetic elements, environments and aberrant immune responses severely impact patients' living quality and even threaten life. Recently, numerous studies have reported autophagy can regulate immune responses, and play an important role in autoimmune diseases. In this review, we summarised the features of autophagy and autophagy-related genes, enumerated some autophagy-related genes involved in autoimmune diseases, and further overviewed how to treat autoimmune diseases through targeting autophagy. Finally, we outlooked the prospect of relieving and curing autoimmune diseases by targeting autophagy pathway.

Illuminating intercellular autophagy: A comprehensive review of cell non-autonomous autophagy

Macro-autophagy (autophagy hereafter) is an evolutionarily conserved cellular process that has long been recognized as an intracellular mechanism for maintaining cellular homeostasis. It involves the formation of a membraned structure called the autophagosome, which carries cargo that includes toxic protein aggregates and dysfunctional organelles to the lysosome for degradation and recycling. Autophagy is primarily considered and studied as a cell-autonomous mechanism. However, recent studies have illuminated an underappreciated facet of autophagy, i.e., non-autonomously regulated autophagy. Non-autonomously regulated autophagy involves the degradation of autophagic components, including organelles, cargo, and signaling molecules, and is induced in neighboring cells by signals from primary adjacent or distant cells/tissues/organs. This review provides insight into the complex molecular mechanisms governing non-autonomously regulated autophagy, highlighting the dynamic interplay between cells within tissue/organ or distinct cell types in different tissues/organs. Emphasis is placed on modes of intercellular communication that include secreted molecules, including microRNAs, and their regulatory roles in orchestrating this phenomenon. Furthermore, we explore the multidimensional roles of non-autonomously regulated autophagy in various physiological contexts, spanning tissue development and aging, as well as its importance in diverse pathological conditions, including cancer and neurodegeneration. By studying the complexities of non-autonomously regulated autophagy, we hope to gain insights into the sophisticated intercellular dynamics within multicellular organisms, including mammals. These studies will uncover novel avenues for therapeutic intervention to modulate intercellular autophagic pathways in altered human physiology.

Nanotherapeutics targeting autophagy regulation for improved cancer therapy

The clinical efficacy of current cancer therapies falls short, and there is a pressing demand to integrate new targets with conventional therapies. Autophagy, a highly conserved self-degradation process, has received considerable attention as an emerging therapeutic target for cancer. With the rapid development of nanomedicine, nanomaterials have been widely utilized in cancer therapy due to their unrivaled delivery performance. Hence, considering the potential benefits of integrating autophagy and nanotechnology in cancer therapy, we outline the latest advances in autophagy-based nanotherapeutics. Based on a brief background related to autophagy and nanotherapeutics and their impact on tumor progression, the feasibility of autophagy-based nanotherapeutics for cancer treatment is demonstrated. Further, emerging nanotherapeutics developed to modulate autophagy are reviewed from the perspective of cell signaling pathways, including modulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, autophagy-related (ATG) and its complex expression, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitophagy, interference with autophagosome-lysosome fusion, and inhibition of hypoxia-mediated autophagy. In addition, combination therapies in which nano-autophagy modulation is combined with chemotherapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are also described. Finally, the prospects and challenges of autophagy-based nanotherapeutics for efficient cancer treatment are envisioned.

P53/NANOG balance; the leading switch between poorly to well differentiated status in liver cancer cells

Enforcing a well-differentiated state on cells requires tumor suppressor p53 activation as a key player in apoptosis induction and well differentiation. In addition, recent investigations showed a significant correlation between poorly differentiated status and higher expression of NANOG. Inducing the expression of NANOG and decreasing p53 level switch the status of liver cancer cells from well differentiated to poorly status. In this review, we highlighted p53 and NANOG cross-talk in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) which is regulated through mitophagy and makes it a novel molecular target to attenuate cancerous phenotype in the management of this tumor.

A Conversation with ChatGPT on Contentious Issues in Senescence and Cancer Research

Artificial intelligence (AI) platforms, such as Generative Pretrained Transformer (ChatGPT), have achieved a high degree of popularity within the scientific community due to their utility in providing evidence-based reviews of the literature. However, the accuracy and reliability of the information output and the ability to provide critical analysis of the literature, especially with respect to highly controversial issues, has generally not been evaluated. In this work, we arranged a question/answer session with ChatGPT regarding several unresolved questions in the field of cancer research relating to therapy-induced senescence (TIS), including the topics of senescence reversibility, its connection to tumor dormancy, and the pharmacology of the newly emerging drug class of senolytics. ChatGPT generally provided responses consistent with the available literature, although occasionally overlooking essential components of the current understanding of the role of TIS in cancer biology and treatment. Although ChatGPT, and similar AI platforms, have utility in providing an accurate evidence-based review of the literature, their outputs should still be considered carefully, especially with respect to unresolved issues in tumor biology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Artificial Intelligence platforms have provided great utility for researchers to investigate biomedical literature in a prompt manner. However, several issues arise when it comes to certain unresolved biological questions, especially in the cancer field. This work provided a discussion with ChatGPT regarding some of the yet-to-be-fully-elucidated conundrums of the role of therapy-induced senescence in cancer treatment and highlights the strengths and weaknesses in utilizing such platforms for analyzing the scientific literature on this topic.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-driven strategies for diagnosis and therapy of vascular anomalies

Nanotechnology has demonstrated immense potential in various fields, especially in biomedical field. Among these domains, the development of nanotechnology for diagnosing and treating vascular anomalies has garnered significant attention. Vascular anomalies refer to structural and functional anomalies within the vascular system, which can result in conditions such as vascular malformations and tumors. These anomalies can significantly impact the quality of life of patients and pose significant health concerns. Nanoscale contrast agents have been developed for targeted imaging of blood vessels, enabling more precise identification and characterization of vascular anomalies. These contrast agents can be designed to bind specifically to abnormal blood vessels, providing healthcare professionals with a clearer view of the affected areas. More importantly, nanotechnology also offers promising solutions for targeted therapeutic interventions. Nanoparticles can be engineered to deliver drugs directly to the site of vascular anomalies, maximizing therapeutic effects while minimizing side effects on healthy tissues. Meanwhile, by incorporating functional components into nanoparticles, such as photosensitizers, nanotechnology enables innovative treatment modalities such as photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy. This review focuses on the applications and potential of nanotechnology in the imaging and therapy of vascular anomalies, as well as discusses the present challenges and future directions.

Targeting autophagy drug discovery: Targets, indications and development trends

Autophagy plays a vital role in sustaining cellular homeostasis and its alterations have been implicated in the etiology of many diseases. Drugs development targeting autophagy began decades ago and hundreds of agents were developed, some of which are licensed for the clinical usage. However, no existing intervention specifically aimed at modulating autophagy is available. The obstacles that prevent drug developments come from the complexity of the actual impact of autophagy regulators in disease scenarios. With the development and application of new technologies, several promising categories of compounds for autophagy-based therapy have emerged in recent years. In this paper, the autophagy-targeted drugs based on their targets at various hierarchical sites of the autophagic signaling network, e.g., the upstream and downstream of the autophagosome and the autophagic components with enzyme activities are reviewed and analyzed respectively, with special attention paid to those at preclinical or clinical trials. The drugs tailored to specific autophagy alone and combination with drugs/adjuvant therapies widely used in clinical for various diseases treatments are also emphasized. The emerging drug design and development targeting selective autophagy receptors (SARs) and their related proteins, which would be expected to arrest or reverse the progression of disease in various cancers, inflammation, neurodegeneration, and metabolic disorders, are critically reviewed. And the challenges and perspective in clinically developing autophagy-targeted drugs and possible combinations with other medicine are considered in the review.

Inhibition of autophagy enhances the anticancer effect of Schisandrin B on head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is among the most common malignant tumors worldwide and has a poor prognosis. Autophagy regulation has been proposed as a possible treatment option for HNSCC. Schisandrin B (Sch B) exerts anticancer effects by regulating apoptosis and autophagy, but the anticancer effect of Sch B in HNSCC remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Sch B on human Cal27 HNSCC cells and to further reveal its potential regulatory mechanisms. The anticancer effect of Sch B was evaluated in vitro by flow cytometry, clonogenic assays, and Western blot analysis. The regulatory mechanism of Sch B-induced apoptosis and autophagy was further explored by polymerase chain reaction, luciferase assay, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection. The results showed that Sch B significantly induced apoptosis and autophagy in Cal27 cells and that inhibition of autophagy enhanced the apoptotic effect of Sch B on Cal27 cells. Additionally, Sch B-activated autophagy in Cal27 cells was dependent on the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, and ROS acted as a regulator of the NF-B pathway. N-acetylcysteine, a scavenger of ROS, inhibited Sch B-dependent autophagy via the NF-κB pathway. Based on the results, Sch B is a potential therapeutic agent for HNSCC and activates the NF-κB pathway by increasing ROS production, which subsequently promotes autophagy in HNSCC cells. Therefore, the strategy of enhancing the anticancer effect of Sch B by inhibiting autophagy deserves further attention.

Boron in cancer therapeutics: An overview

Boron has become a crucial weapon in anticancer research due to its significant intervention in cell proliferation. Being an excellent bio-isosteric replacement of carbon, it has modulated the anticancer efficacy of various molecules in the development pipeline. It has elicited promising results through interactions with various therapeutic targets such as HIF-1α, steroid sulfatase, arginase, proteasome, etc. Since boron liberates alpha particles, it has a wide-scale application in Boron Neutron Capture therapy (BNCT), a radiotherapy that demonstrates selectivity towards cancer cells due to high boron uptake capacity. Significant advances in the medicinal chemistry of boronated compounds, such as boronated sugars, natural/unnatural amino acids, boronated DNA binders, etc., have been reported over the past few years as BNCT agents. In addition, boronated nanoparticles have assisted the field of bio-nano medicines by their usage in radiotherapy. This review exclusively focuses on the medicinal chemistry aspects, radiotherapeutic, and chemotherapeutic aspects of boron in cancer therapeutics. Emphasis is also given on the mechanism of action along with advantages over conventional therapies.

Identification of disulfidptosis-related subgroups and prognostic signatures in lung adenocarcinoma using machine learning and experimental validation

Background

Disulfidptosis is a newly identified variant of cell death characterized by disulfide accumulation, which is independent of ATP depletion. Accordingly, the latent influence of disulfidptosis on the prognosis of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients and the progression of tumors remains poorly understood.

Methods

We conducted a multifaceted analysis of the transcriptional and genetic modifications in disulfidptosis regulators (DRs) specific to LUAD, followed by an evaluation of their expression configurations to define DR clusters. Harnessing the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified from these clusters, we formulated an optimal predictive model by amalgamating 10 distinct machine learning algorithms across 101 unique combinations to compute the disulfidptosis score (DS). Patients were subsequently stratified into high and low DS cohorts based on median DS values. We then performed an exhaustive comparison between these cohorts, focusing on somatic mutations, clinical attributes, tumor microenvironment, and treatment responsiveness. Finally, we empirically validated the biological implications of a critical gene, KYNU, through assays in LUAD cell lines.

Results

We identified two DR clusters and there were great differences in overall survival (OS) and tumor microenvironment. We selected the "Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) + Random Survival Forest (RFS)" algorithm to develop a DS based on the average C-index across different cohorts. Our model effectively stratified LUAD patients into high- and low-DS subgroups, with this latter demonstrating superior OS, a reduced mutational landscape, enhanced immune status, and increased sensitivity to immunotherapy. Notably, the predictive accuracy of DS outperformed the published LUAD signature and clinical features. Finally, we validated the DS expression using clinical samples and found that inhibiting KYNU suppressed LUAD cells proliferation, invasiveness, and migration in vitro.

Conclusions

The DR-based scoring system that we developed enabled accurate prognostic stratification of LUAD patients and provides important insights into the molecular mechanisms and treatment strategies for LUAD.

Autophagy Regulators in Cancer

Autophagy plays a complex impact role in tumor initiation and development. It serves as a double-edged sword by supporting cell survival in certain situations while also triggering autophagic cell death in specific cellular contexts. Understanding the intricate functions and mechanisms of autophagy in tumors is crucial for guiding clinical approaches to cancer treatment. Recent studies highlight its significance in various aspects of cancer biology. Autophagy enables cancer cells to adapt to and survive unfavorable conditions by recycling cellular components. However, excessive or prolonged autophagy can lead to the self-destruction of cancer cells via a process known as autophagic cell death. Unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying autophagy regulation in cancer is crucial for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions. In this review, we seek to present a comprehensive summary of current knowledge regarding autophagy, its impact on cancer cell survival and death, and the molecular mechanisms involved in the modulation of autophagy for cancer therapy.

Genistein exerts anti-colorectal cancer actions: clinical reports, computational and validated findings

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is presently a health challenge in China. Although clinical chemotherapy is prescribed availably, the negative effects and poor prognoses still occur. Genistein has antitumor properties in our previous studies. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-CRC effects of genistein remain unclear. Increasing evidences have indicated that the induction of autophagy, one of cell death models, is closely associated with the formation and development of human cancer. In the current study, a systematic bioinformatics approach using network pharmacology and molecular docking imitation was aimed at identifying the pharmacological targets and anti-CRC mechanisms of genistein, characterized by autophagy-related processes and pathways. Moreover, experimental validation was conducted by using clinical and cell culture samples. All 48 potential targets of genistein-anti-CRC-associated autophagy were screened accordingly. Further bioinformatics analyses identified 10 core genistein-anti-CRC targets related to autophagy, and enrichment-assayed results revealed that the biological processes of these core targets might regulate multiple molecular pathways, including the estrogen signaling pathway. Additionally, molecular docking data demonstrated that genistein has a high affinity for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1). Both EGFR and ESR1 proteins were highly expressed in clinical CRC samples. Preliminary in vitro data showed that genistein effectively reduced cellular proliferation, activated apoptosis, and suppressed EGFR and ESR1 protein expressions in CRC cells. Our research findings uncovered the molecular mechanisms of genistein against CRC, and the potential drug targets associated with autophagy in genistein treatment of CRC were identified and validated experimentally, including EGFR and ESR1.

Thanksgiving to Yeast, the HMGB Proteins History from Yeast to Cancer

Yeasts have been a part of human life since ancient times in the fermentation of many natural products used for food. In addition, in the 20th century, they became powerful tools to elucidate the functions of eukaryotic cells as soon as the techniques of molecular biology developed. Our molecular understandings of metabolism, cellular transport, DNA repair, gene expression and regulation, and the cell division cycle have all been obtained through biochemistry and genetic analysis using different yeasts. In this review, we summarize the role that yeasts have had in biological discoveries, the use of yeasts as biological tools, as well as past and on-going research projects on HMGB proteins along the way from yeast to cancer.

Interplay between Signaling Pathways and Tumor Microenvironment Components: A Paradoxical Role in Colorectal Cancer

The study of the tumor microenvironment (TME) has become an important part of colorectal cancer (CRC) research. Indeed, it is now accepted that the invasive character of a primary CRC is determined not only by the genotype of the tumor cells, but also by their interactions with the extracellular environment, which thereby orchestrates the development of the tumor. In fact, the TME cells are a double-edged sword as they play both pro- and anti-tumor roles. The interaction of the tumor-infiltrating cells (TIC) with the cancer cells induces the polarization of the TIC, exhibiting an antagonist phenotype. This polarization is controlled by a plethora of interconnected pro- and anti-oncogenic signaling pathways. The complexity of this interaction and the dual function of these different actors contribute to the failure of CRC control. Thus, a better understanding of such mechanisms is of great interest and provides new opportunities for the development of personalized and efficient therapies for CRC. In this review, we summarize the signaling pathways linked to CRC and their implication in the development or inhibition of the tumor initiation and progression. In the second part, we enlist the major components of the TME and discuss the complexity of their cells functions.

SEC22B inhibition attenuates colorectal cancer aggressiveness and autophagic flux under unfavorable environment

Autophagy has bidirectional functions in cancer by facilitating cell survival and death in a context-dependent manner. Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) are a large family of proteins essential for numerous biological processes, including autophagy; nevertheless, their potential function in cancer malignancy remains unclear. Here, we explored the gene expression patterns of SNAREs in tissues of patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) and discovered that SEC22B expression, a vesicle SNARE, was higher in tumor tissues than in normal tissues, with a more significant increase in metastatic tissues. Interestingly, SEC22B knockdown dramatically decreased CRC cell survival and growth, especially under stressful conditions, such as hypoxia and serum starvation, and decreased the number of stress-induced autophagic vacuoles. Moreover, SEC22B knockdown successfully attenuated liver metastasis in a CRC cell xenograft mouse model, with histological signs of decreased autophagic flux and proliferation within cancer cells. Together, this study posits that SEC22B plays a crucial role in enhancing the aggressiveness of CRC cells, suggesting that SEC22B might be an attractive therapeutic target for CRC.

ELF1 suppresses autophagy to reduce cisplatin resistance via the miR-152-3p/NCAM1/ERK axis in lung cancer cells

Resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs limits the efficacy of chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Autophagy is an essential mechanism which involves in drug resistance. Our previous research has revealed that miR-152-3p represses NSCLC progression. However, the mechanism of miR-152-3p in autophagy-mediated chemoresistance in NSCLC remains unclear. Cisplatin-resistant cell lines (A549/DDP and H446/DDP) were transfected with related vectors and subjected to cisplatin, autophagy inhibitor, activator, or extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activator. Flow cytometry, CCK8 and colony formation assays were performed for testing apoptosis and cell viability. The related RNAs or proteins were detected by qRT-PCR or Western blot. Chromatin immunoprecipitation, luciferase reporter assay or RNA immunoprecipitation were used for validating the interaction between miR-152-3p and ELF1 or NCAM1. Co-IP verified the binding between NCAM1 and ERK. The role of miR-152-3p in cisplatin resistance of NSCLC was also validated in vivo. The results showed that miR-152-3p and ELF1 were decreased in NSCLC tissues. miR-152-3p reversed cisplatin resistance by inhibiting autophagy through NCAM1. NCAM1 promoted autophagy through the ERK pathway and facilitated cisplatin resistance. ELF1 positively regulated miR-152-3p level by directly interacting with miR-152-3p promoter. miR-152-3p targeted NCAM1 to regulate NCAM1 level and then affected the binding of NCAM1 to ERK1/2. ELF1 inhibited autophagy and reversed cisplatin resistance through miR-152-3p/NCAM1. miR-152-3p inhibited autophagy and cisplatin resistance of xenograft tumor in mice. In conclusion, our study revealed that ELF1 inhibited autophagy to attenuate cisplatin resistance through the miR-152-3p/NCAM1/ERK pathway in H446/DDP and A549/DDP cells, suggesting a potential novel treatment strategy for NSCLC.

Recent Advances in Cellular Signaling Interplay between Redox Metabolism and Autophagy Modulation in Cancer: An Overview of Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Interventions

Autophagy is a fundamental homeostatic process in which certain cellular components are ingested by double-membrane autophagosomes and then degraded to create energy or to maintain cellular homeostasis and survival. It is typically observed in nutrient-deprived cells as a survival mechanism. However, it has also been identified as a crucial process in maintaining cellular homeostasis and disease progression. Normal cellular metabolism produces reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen species at low levels. However, increased production causes oxidative stress, which can lead to diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and cancer. It was recently shown that maintaining redox equilibrium via autophagy is critical for cellular responses to oxidative stress. However, little is understood about the molecular cancer processes that connect to the control of autophagy. In cancer cells, oncogenic mutations, carcinogens, and metabolic reprogramming cause increased ROS generation and oxidative stress. Recent studies have suggested that increased ROS generation activates survival pathways that promote cancer development and metastasis. Moreover, the relationship between metabolic programming and ROS in cancer cells is involved in redox homeostasis and the malignant phenotype. Currently, while the signaling events governing autophagy and how redox homeostasis affects signaling cascades are well understood, very little is known about molecular events related to autophagy. In this review, we focus on current knowledge about autophagy modulation and the role of redox metabolism to further the knowledge of oxidative stress and disease progression in cancer regulation. Therefore, this review focuses on understanding how oxidation/reduction events fine-tune autophagy to help understand how oxidative stress and autophagy govern cancer, either as processes leading to cell death or as survival strategies for maintaining redox homeostasis in cancer.

Is Autophagy Inhibition in Combination with Temozolomide a Therapeutically Viable Strategy?

Temozolomide is an oral alkylating agent that is used as the first line treatment for glioblastoma multiform, and in recurrent anaplastic astrocytoma, as well as having demonstrable activity in patients with metastatic melanoma. However, as the case with other chemotherapeutic agents, the development of resistance often limits the therapeutic benefit of temozolomide, particularly in the case of glioblastoma. A number of resistance mechanisms have been proposed including the development of cytoprotective autophagy. Cytoprotective autophagy is a survival mechanism that confers upon tumor cells the ability to survive in a nutrient deficient environment as well as under external stresses, such as cancer chemotherapeutic drugs and radiation, in part through the suppression of apoptotic cell death. In this review/commentary, we explore the available literature and provide an overview of the evidence for the promotion of protective autophagy in response to temozolomide, highlighting the possibility of targeting autophagy as an adjuvant therapy to potentially increase the effectiveness of temozolomide and to overcome the development of resistance.

Transient Systemic Autophagy Inhibition Is Selectively and Irreversibly Deleterious to Lung Cancer

Autophagy is a conserved catabolic process that maintains cellular homeostasis. Autophagy supports lung tumorigenesis and is a potential therapeutic target in lung cancer. A better understanding of the importance of tumor cell-autonomous versus systemic autophagy in lung cancer could facilitate clinical translation of autophagy inhibition. Here, we exploited inducible expression of Atg5 shRNA to temporally control Atg5 levels and to generate reversible tumor-specific and systemic autophagy loss mouse models of KrasG12D/+;p53-/- (KP) non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Transient suppression of systemic but not tumor Atg5 expression significantly reduced established KP lung tumor growth without damaging normal tissues. In vivo13C isotope tracing and metabolic flux analyses demonstrated that systemic Atg5 knockdown specifically led to reduced glucose and lactate uptake. As a result, carbon flux from glucose and lactate to major metabolic pathways, including the tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycolysis, and serine biosynthesis, was significantly reduced in KP NSCLC following systemic autophagy loss. Furthermore, systemic Atg5 knockdown increased tumor T-cell infiltration, leading to T-cell-mediated tumor killing. Importantly, intermittent transient systemic Atg5 knockdown, which resembles what would occur during autophagy inhibition for cancer therapy, significantly prolonged lifespan of KP lung tumor-bearing mice, resulting in recovery of normal tissues but not tumors. Thus, systemic autophagy supports the growth of established lung tumors by promoting immune evasion and sustaining cancer cell metabolism for energy production and biosynthesis, and the inability of tumors to recover from loss of autophagy provides further proof of concept that inhibition of autophagy is a valid approach to cancer therapy.

SIGNIFICANCE

Transient loss of systemic autophagy causes irreversible damage to tumors by suppressing cancer cell metabolism and promoting antitumor immunity, supporting autophagy inhibition as a rational strategy for treating lung cancer. See related commentary by Gan, p. 4322.

The roles of KLHL family members in human cancers

The Kelch-like (KLHL) family members consist of three domains: bric-a-brac, tramtrack, broad complex/poxvirus and zinc finger domain, BACK domain and Kelch domain, which combine and interact with Cullin3 to form an E3 ubiquitin ligase. Research has indicated that KLHL family members ubiquitinate target substrates to regulate physiological and pathological processes, including tumorigenesis and progression. KLHL19, a member of the KLHL family, is associated with tumorigenesis and drug resistance. However, the regulation and cross talks of other KLHL family members, which also play roles in cancer, are still unclear. Our review mainly explores studies concerning the roles of other KLHL family members in tumor-related regulation to provide novel insights into KLHL family members.

Lysosomal membrane permeabilization mediated apoptosis involve in perphenazine-induced hepatotoxicity in vitro and in vivo

Antipsychotic drugs represent a class of lysosomotropic drugs widely used in clinical practice. However, the hepatotoxicity of these drugs has been reported in recent years. Therefore, understanding the changes in cellular homeostasis mediated by these drugs is of great significance for revealing the true mechanisms underlying hepatotoxicity. Perphenazine is a classical antipsychotic drug that can reportedly induce extrapyramidal and sympatholytic side effects. The present research focuses on the toxicity effect of perphenazine on normal human hepatocytes. To assess the hepatotoxicity of continuous administration of perphenazine and investigate potential mechanisms related to apoptosis, human normal L02 hepatocytes were exposed to 10-40μM perphenazine in vitro. The results showed that perphenazine inhibited cell viability in a concentration and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, 30μM perphenazine induced intense lysosome vacuolation, impaired lysosomal membrane, and induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP), ultimately triggering lysosomal cell death in L02 cells. Knockdown cathepsin D(CTSD) also ameliorated perphenazine-induced liver injury via the inhibition of LMP. In vivo, ICR mice received intragastric administration of 10-180mg/kg B.W. perphenazine every other day for 21 days. 180mg/kg perphenazine significantly increased histological injury and aminotransferases compared with control. Taken together, our findings suggest that perphenazine can trigger hepatotoxicity through lysosome disruption both in vitro and in vivo.

Non-Coding RNAs and Oral Cancer: Small Molecules With Big Functions

Oral cancer remains a major public concern with considerable socioeconomic impact in the world. Despite substantial advancements have been made in treating oral cancer, the five-year survival rate for oral cancer remained undesirable, and the molecular mechanisms underlying OSCC carcinogenesis have not been fully understood. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) include transfer RNAs (tRNAs), as well as small RNAs such as microRNAs, and the long ncRNAs such as HOTAIR are a large segment of the transcriptome that do not have apparent protein-coding roles, but they have been verified to play important roles in diverse biological processes, including cancer cell development. Cell death, such as apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy, plays a vital role in the progression of cancer. A better understanding of the regulatory relationships between ncRNAs and these various types of cancer cell death is therefore urgently required. The occurrence and development of oral cancer can be controlled by increasing or decreasing the expression of ncRNAs, a method which confers broad prospects for oral cancer treatment. Therefore, it is urgent for us to understand the influence of ncRNAs on the development of different modes of oral tumor death, and to evaluate whether ncRNAs have the potential to be used as biological targets for inducing cell death and recurrence of chemotherapy. The purpose of this review is to describe the impact of ncRNAs on cell apoptosis and autophagy in oral cancer in order to explore potential targets for oral cancer therapy.

A New Prognostic Risk Score: Based on the Analysis of Autophagy-Related Genes and Renal Cell Carcinoma

Introduction: Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) patients suffer from its high recurrence and metastasis rate, and a new prognostic risk score to predict individuals with high possibility of recurrence or metastasis is in urgent need. Autophagy has been found to have a dual influence on tumorigenesis. In this study we aim to analyze autophagy related genes (ATGs) and ccRCC patients and find a new prognostic risk score. Method: Analyzing differential expression genes (DEGs) in TCGA-KIRC dataset, and took intersection with ATGs. Through lasso, univariate, and multivariate cox regression, DEGs were chosen, and the coefficients and expression levels of them were components constructing the formula of risk score. We analyzed mRNA expression of DEGs in tumor and normal tissue in ONCOMINE database and TCGA-KIRC dataset. The Human Protein Atlas (HPA) was used to analyze protein levels of DEGs. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was examined in STRING and visualized in cytoscape. Functional enrichment analysis was performed in RStudio. To prove the ability and practicibility of risk score, we analyzed univariate and multivariate cox regression, Kaplan-Meier curve (K-M curve), risk factor association diagram, receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC curve) of survival and nomogram, and the performance of nomogram was evaluated by calibration curve. Then we further explored functional enrichment related to risk groups through Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and Metascape database. At last, we investigated immune cell infiltration of DEGs and two risk groups through TIMER database and “Cibersort” algorithm.

Result: We identified 7 DEGs (BIRC5, CAPS, CLDN7, CLVS1, GMIP, IFI16, and TCIRG1) as components of construction of risk score. All 7 DEGs were differently expressed in ccRCC and normal tissue according to ONCOMINE database and TCGA-KIRC dataset. Functional enrichment analysis indicated DEGs, and their most associated genes were shown to be abundant in autophagy-related pathways and played roles in tumorigenesis and progression processes. A serious analysis proved that this risk score is independent from the risk signature of ccRCC patients.

Conclusion: The risk score constructed by 7 DEGs had the ability of predicting prognosis of ccRCC patients and was conducive to the identification of novel prognostic molecular markers. However, further experiment is still needed to verify its ability and practicability.

p53 Modulation of Autophagy Signaling in Cancer Therapies: Perspectives Mechanism and Therapeutic Targets

The key tumor suppressor protein p53, additionally known as p53, represents an attractive target for the development and management of anti-cancer therapies. p53 has been implicated as a tumor suppressor protein that has multiple aspects of biological function comprising energy metabolism, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, growth and differentiation, senescence, oxidative stress, angiogenesis, and cancer biology. Autophagy, a cellular self-defense system, is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process involved in various physiological processes that maintain cellular homeostasis. Numerous studies have found that p53 modulates autophagy, although the relationship between p53 and autophagy is relatively complex and not well understood. Recently, several experimental studies have been reported that p53 can act both an inhibitor and an activator of autophagy which depend on its cellular localization as well as its mode of action. Emerging evidences have been suggested that the dual role of p53 which suppresses and stimulates autophagy in various cencer cells. It has been found that p53 suppression and activation are important to modulate autophagy for tumor promotion and cancer treatment. On the other hand, activation of autophagy by p53 has been recommended as a protective function of p53. Therefore, elucidation of the new functions of p53 and autophagy could contribute to the development of novel therapeutic approaches in cancer biology. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of p53 and autophagy shows reciprocal functional interaction that is a major importance for cancer treatment and manegement. Additionally, several synthetic drugs and phytochemicals have been targeted to modulate p53 signaling via regulation of autophagy pathway in cancer cells. This review emphasizes the current perspectives and the role of p53 as the main regulator of autophagy-mediated novel therapeutic approaches against cancer treatment and managements.

Prognostic Biomarkers in Uveal Melanoma: The Status Quo, Recent Advances and Future Directions

Simple Summary

Although rare, uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common cancer that develops inside adult eyes. The prognosis is poor, since 50% of patients will develop lethal metastases in the first decade, especially to the liver. Once metastases are detected, life expectancy is limited, given that the available treatments are mostly unsuccessful. Thus, there is a need to find methods that can accurately predict UM prognosis and also effective therapeutic strategies to treat this cancer. In this manuscript, we initially compile the current knowledge on epidemiological, clinical, pathological and molecular features of UM. Then, we cover the most relevant prognostic factors currently used for the evaluation and follow-up of UM patients. Afterwards, we highlight emerging molecular markers in UM published over the last three years. Finally, we discuss the problems preventing meaningful advances in the treatment and prognostication of UM patients, as well as forecast new roadblocks and paths of UM-related research.

Abstract

Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common malignant intraocular tumour in the adult population. It is a rare cancer with an incidence of nearly five cases per million inhabitants per year, which develops from the uncontrolled proliferation of melanocytes in the choroid (≈90%), ciliary body (≈6%) or iris (≈4%). Patients initially present either with symptoms like blurred vision or photopsia, or without symptoms, with the tumour being detected in routine eye exams. Over the course of the disease, metastases, which are initially dormant, develop in nearly 50% of patients, preferentially in the liver. Despite decades of intensive research, the only approach proven to mildly control disease spread are early treatments directed to ablate liver metastases, such as surgical excision or chemoembolization. However, most patients have a limited life expectancy once metastases are detected, since there are limited therapeutic approaches for the metastatic disease, including immunotherapy, which unlike in cutaneous melanoma, has been mostly ineffective for UM patients. Therefore, in order to offer the best care possible to these patients, there is an urgent need to find robust models that can accurately predict the prognosis of UM, as well as therapeutic strategies that effectively block and/or limit the spread of the metastatic disease. Here, we initially summarized the current knowledge about UM by compiling the most relevant epidemiological, clinical, pathological and molecular data. Then, we revisited the most important prognostic factors currently used for the evaluation and follow-up of primary UM cases. Afterwards, we addressed emerging prognostic biomarkers in UM, by comprehensively reviewing gene signatures, immunohistochemistry-based markers and proteomic markers resulting from research studies conducted over the past three years. Finally, we discussed the current hurdles in the field and anticipated the future challenges and novel avenues of research in UM.

Oxidative Stress and Autophagy as Key Targets in Melanoma Cell Fate

Melanoma originates from the malignant transformation of melanocytes and is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer. The recent approval of several drugs has increased the chance of survival although a significant subset of patients with metastatic melanoma do not show a long-lasting response to these treatments. The complex cross-talk between oxidative stress and the catabolic process autophagy seems to play a central role in all aspects of melanoma pathophysiology, from initiation to progression and metastasis, including drug resistance. However, determining the fine role of autophagy in cancer death and in response to redox disruption is still a fundamental challenge in order to advance both basic and translational aspects of this field. In order to summarize the interactions among reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, autophagy machinery and proliferation/growth/death/apoptosis/survival, we provide here a narrative review of the preclinical evidence for drugs/treatments that modulate oxidative stress and autophagy in melanoma cells. The significance and the potential for pharmacological targeting (also through multiple and combination approaches) of these two different events, which can contribute independently or simultaneously to the fate of melanoma, may help to define new processes and their interconnections underlying skin cancer biology and unravel new reliable approaches.

Clinical Translation of Combined MAPK and Autophagy Inhibition in RAS Mutant Cancer

RAS (rat sarcoma virus) mutant cancers remain difficult to treat despite the advances in targeted therapy and immunotherapy. Targeted therapies against the components of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, including RAS, RAF, MEK, and ERK, have demonstrated activity in BRAF mutant and, in limited cases, RAS mutant cancer. RAS mutant cancers have been found to activate adaptive resistance mechanisms such as autophagy during MAPK inhibition. Here, we review the recent clinically relevant advances in the development of the MAPK pathway and autophagy inhibitors and focus on their application to RAS mutant cancers. We provide analysis of the preclinical rationale for combining the MAPK pathway and autophagy and highlight the most recent clinical trials that have been launched to capitalize on this potentially synthetic lethal approach to cancer therapy.