Greater carotid intima media thickness at a younger age in HIV-infected patients compared with reference values for an uninfected cohort

Lack of impact of HIV status on carotid intima media thickness in a cohort of stroke patients in South Africa

INTRODUCTION

People living with HIV (PLWH) are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease. Carotid intima media thickness (cIMT) is a validated surrogate marker of atherosclerosis, and an accurate predictor of future cardiovascular events. It is uncertain whether HIV potentiates stroke risk through atherosclerosis in Sub-Saharan Africa and what effect HIV status has on cIMT. We sought to investigate the relationship between HIV status and cIMT in stroke patients in a region that is burdened with dual epidemics of HIV and stroke in the young.

METHODS

Consecutive patients with new onset ischaemic stroke were recruited from a quaternary-level hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa, from August 2014 to November 2017. Patients were assessed for the presence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors and HIV infection, and investigated for stroke aetiology. cIMT was measured using high resolution B-mode ultrasound following standardized techniques.

RESULTS

168 patients were included in the study, of which 62 (36.9%) were PLWH. Mean cIMT was higher in HIV-uninfected patients when compared to PLWH (0.79 ± 0.19 mm vs 0.69 ± 0.18 mm, p = 0.0021). However after adjusting for age, sex, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, total cholesterol, body mass index and stroke aetiology, there was no difference in mean cIMT between the groups (0.76 ± 0.16 mm vs 0.73 ± 0.17 mm, p = 0.29). Regression models revealed the determinants of cIMT to be age (p < 0.0001), hypertension (p = 0.0098) and total cholesterol (p = 0.005), while the determinants of increased cIMT (≥0.70 mm) were only age (p < 0.0001) and hypertension (p = 0.0002).

CONCLUSION

HIV status had no effect on cIMT in our cohort of stroke patients. The main determinants of cIMT were age and hypertension.

The Relationship of Carotid and Brachial Artery Wall Thickness Measurement with Cardiovascular Risk Scoring in Individuals Living with HIV

Objective

This study aimed to investigate whether human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection affects carotid and brachial artery wall thickness and whether measurement of this thickness contributes to traditional cardiovascular risk scoring in individuals living with HIV.

Materials and Methods

The patient group included people living with HIV who were followed up in the infectious disease clinic, and the control group included patients without HIV. In both groups, carotid artery intima-media thickness (cIMT) was measured with B-mode ultrasonography (B-USG). cIMT 0.9 mm and above was considered subclinical atherosclerosis.

Results

The patient group consisted of 66, and the control group consisted of 40 participants. The median cIMT of the patient and control groups was 0.92 (0.45-1.45) mm and 0.55 (0.35-1.25) mm, respectively (p<0.001). Brachial artery IMT was significantly higher in the patient group with 0.45 (0.30-0.76) mm, while it was 0.35 (0.17-0.50) mm in the control group (p<0.001). Although the difference between the cIMT and brachial artery IMT results of the patient and control groups was significant between 18-59 years of age, this difference disappeared in older ages. In the patient group, subclinical atherosclerosis was detected with cIMT in individuals under 30 years of age for whom FRS (Framingham risk score) could not be calculated and in low-risk groups according to FRS (20% and 62.9%, respectively).

Conclusion

cIMT and brachial artery IMT were found to be significantly higher in people living with HIV. The cIMT measurement seems to be very useful in calculating the CVD risk in individuals living with HIV, especially at young ages, in catching patients who are overlooked by traditional scoring systems.

Evaluation of Myo-Intimal Media Thickness and Atheromatous Plaques in People Living with HIV from the Archiprevaleat Cohort vs. HIV-Negative Subjects

BACKGROUND

Antiretroviral therapy has allowed a clear improvement in prognosis for HIV patients, but metabolic problems, such as dyslipidemia, remain. This can lead to the development of atheromatous plaques. Our study aims to evaluate whether HIV-positive (HIV+) patients show higher myo-intimal media thickness (IMT) and atheromatous plaques compared to HIV-negative (HIV-) patients.

METHODS

To evaluate the association between HIV infection in experienced patients and vascular pathology, we performed a cross-sectional study, observing 1006 patients, 380 HIV+ enrolled in the Archiprevaleat cohort, and 626 HIV- as a control group. All patients underwent a Doppler scan of the supra-aortic vessels. We compared the prevalence of IMT > 1.0 mm and plaques in the two groups.

RESULTS

Patients in the HIV+ group were younger than those in the HIV- group, with a lower prevalence of hypertension and diabetes and higher dyslipidemia. The prevalence of plaques in strata of age was higher in the HIV+ group than in the HIV- group and was associated with the length of ART exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Our cross-sectional, retrospective study shows that HIV+ experienced patients are at greater risk of IMT and atheromatous plaques compared to HIV-. The risk is associated with being HIV+ and with the length of ART exposure. This finding may be useful in preventing cardiovascular risk.

Cardiovascular Risk Assessment Among Adolescents and Youths Living With HIV: Evaluation of Electronic Health Record Findings and Implications

BACKGROUND

The HIV epidemic remains a major public health concern, particularly among youths living with HIV. While the availability of antiretroviral therapy has significantly improved the health outcomes of people living with HIV, there is growing evidence that youths living with HIV may be at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the underlying mechanisms linking HIV and cardiovascular disease among youths living with HIV remain poorly understood. One potential explanation is that HIV-related biomarkers, including detectable viral load (VL) and low cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) lymphocyte counts, may contribute to increased cardiovascular risk. Despite the potential importance of these biomarkers, the relationship between HIV-related biomarkers and cardiovascular risk among youths living with HIV has been understudied.

OBJECTIVE

To address this gap, we examined whether detectable VL and low CD4 lymphocyte counts, both of which are indications of unsuppressed HIV, were associated with cardiovascular risk among youths living with HIV.

METHODS

We analyzed electronic health record data from 7 adolescent HIV clinics in the United States (813 youths living with HIV). We used multivariable linear regression to examine the relationship between detectable VL and CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200 and cardiovascular risk scores, which were adapted from the gender-specific Framingham algorithm.

RESULTS

In our study, nearly half of the participants (366/766, 47.8%) had detectable VL, indicating unsuppressed HIV, while 8.6% (51/593) of them had CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200, suggesting weakened immune function. We found that those with CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200 had significantly higher cardiovascular risk, as assessed by Cardiac Risk Score2, than those with CD4 lymphocyte counts of >200 (P=.002). After adjusting for demographic and clinical factors, we found that for every 1000-point increase in VL copies/mL, the probability of having cardiovascular risk (Cardiac Risk Score2) increased by 38%. When measuring the strength of this connection, we observed a minor effect of VL on increased cardiovascular risk (β=.134, SE 0.014; P=.006). We obtained similar results with Cardiac Risk Score1, but the effect of CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200 was no longer significant. Overall, our findings suggest that detectable VL is associated with increased cardiovascular risk among youths living with HIV, and that CD4 lymphocyte counts may play a role in this relationship as well.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights a significant association between unsuppressed HIV, indicated by detectable VL, and increased cardiovascular risk in youths living with HIV. These findings emphasize the importance of implementing interventions that address both VL suppression and cardiovascular risk reduction in this population. By tailoring interventions to meet the unique needs of youths, we can promote overall well-being throughout the HIV care continuum and across the life span. Ultimately, these efforts have the potential to improve the health outcomes and quality of life of youths living with HIV.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

RR2-10.2196/11185.

Genome-wide associated variants of subclinical atherosclerosis among young people with HIV and gene-environment interactions

BACKGROUND

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified some variants associated with subclinical atherosclerosis (SCA) in general population but lacking sufficient validation. Besides traditional risk factors, whether and how would genetic variants associate with SCA among people with HIV (PWH) remains to be elucidated.

METHOD

A large original GWAS and gene-environment interaction analysis of SCA were conducted among Chinese PWH (n = 2850) and age/sex-matched HIV-negative controls (n = 5410). Subgroup analyses by age and functional annotations of variants were also performed.

RESULTS

Different from HIV-negative counterparts, host genome had a greater impact on young PWH rather than the elders: one genome-wide significant variant (rs77741796, P = 2.20 × 10^-9) and eight suggestively significant variants (P < 1 × 10^-6) were identified to be specifically associated with SCA among PWH younger than 45 years. Seven genomic loci and 15 genes were mapped to play a potential role on SCA among young PWH, which were enriched in the biological processes of atrial cardiac muscle cell membrane repolarization and molecular function of protein kinase A subunit binding. Furthermore, genome-wide interaction analyses revealed significant HIV-gene interactions overall as well as gene-environment interactions with alcohol consumption, tobacco use and obesity among PWH. The identified gene-environment interaction on SCA among PWH might be useful for discovering high-risk individuals for the prevention of SCA, particularly among those with tobacco use and alcohol consumption.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides new clues for the genetic contribution of SCA among young PWH and is the starting point of precision intervention targeting HIV-related atherosclerosis.

Cardio-Rheumatology: Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Inflammatory Disorders

Inflammation plays a well-established role in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. Individuals exposed to chronic inflammation are at an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, including coronary artery disease and heart failure, independent of associated traditional risk factors. Traditional risk assessment tools and calculators underestimate the true cardiac risk in this population. In addition to this, there is a lack of awareness on the association between inflammation and cardiovascular disease. These factors lead to undertreatment in terms of preventive cardiac care in patients with chronic inflammatory disease.

Switching from boosted PIs to dolutegravir in HIV-infected patients with high cardiovascular risk: 48 week effects on subclinical cardiovascular disease

BACKGROUND

Switching from boosted PIs to dolutegravir in virologically suppressed HIV-infected patients with high cardiovascular risk significantly decreased total cholesterol and other proatherogenic lipid fractions at 48 weeks. The impact of this strategy on subclinical cardiovascular disease is unknown.

METHODS

NEAT022 is a European, multicentre, open-label, randomized, non-inferiority trial. HIV-infected adults aged >50 years or with a Framingham score >10% were eligible if plasma HIV RNA was <50 copies/mL for >24 weeks on a boosted PI-based regimen. Patients were randomized 1:1 to switch from boosted PIs to dolutegravir or to continue on boosted PIs. Common carotid arteries intima-media thickness (CIMT) and pulse wave velocity (PWV) were measured following a standardized protocol in a subgroup of NEAT022 study participants at baseline and at Week 48.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty-six patients participated in the ultrasonography and arterial stiffness substudies, respectively. In each substudy, population characteristics did not differ between arms and matched those of the main study. At 48 weeks, patients who switched to dolutegravir had lower mean progression of both right (+4 versus +14.6 μm) and left (-6.1 versus +1.6 μm) CIMT and also a smaller increase in mean PWV (+0.18 versus +0.39 m/s) than patients continuing on boosted PIs, although differences were not statistically significant. CIMT trends were consistent across Framingham score, age and country. Inconsistent effects were seen in arterial stiffness.

CONCLUSIONS

Relative to continuing on boosted PIs, switching to dolutegravir in virologically suppressed patients with high cardiovascular risk showed consistent favourable although non-significant trends on CIMT progression at 48 weeks.

Carotid atherosclerosis in virologically suppressed HIV patients: comparison with a healthy sample and prediction by cardiovascular risk equations

OBJECTIVES

To compare the prevalence of carotid atherosclerosis in virologically suppressed HIV patients with that of a community sample, and to evaluate the capacity of various cardiovascular risk (CVR) equations for predicting carotid atherosclerosis.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study with two randomly selected groups: HIV patients from an HIV unit and a control group drawn from the community. Participants were matched by age (30-80 years) and sex without history of cardiovascular disease. Carotid plaque, common carotid intima-media thickness (cc-IMT) and subclinical atherosclerosis (carotid plaque and/or cc-IMT > 75^th percentile) were assessed by carotid ultrasound. The Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE), Framingham, REGICOR, reduced Data Collection on Adverse Effects of Anti-HIV Drugs (D:A:D), and COMVIH equations were applied, and their abilities to predict carotid plaque were compared using the area under the curve (AUC).

RESULTS

Each group included 379 subjects (77.8% men, age 49.7 years). Duration of antiretroviral therapy was 15.5 years. There were no differences between the groups for carotid plaque (HIV, 33.2%; control, 31.3%), mean cc-IMT (HIV, 0.63 mm; control, 0.61 mm) or subclinical atherosclerosis (HIV, 42.9%; control, 47.9%). Thymidine analogues were independently associated with subclinical atherosclerosis in HIV-infected patients. CVR equations revealed AUCs between 0.715 and 0.807 for prediction of carotid plaque; prediction was better in the control group and did not improve when HIV-adapted scales were used.

CONCLUSIONS

The features of carotid atherosclerosis did not differ between the HIV-infected and the control group, although CVR equations were more predictive for carotid plaque in controls than in HIV-infected patients. HIV-specific equations did not improve prediction.

Association of Viral Persistence and Atherosclerosis in Adults With Treated HIV Infection

IMPORTANCE

Persons living with HIV (PLWH) have increased risk for cardiovascular disease, and inflammation is thought to contribute to this excess risk. Production of HIV during otherwise effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been associated with inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether higher levels of viral persistence are associated with atherosclerosis as assessed by changes in carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT) over time.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this cohort study, intima-media thickness, a validated marker of atherosclerosis, was assessed over time in a cohort of treated PLWH with viral suppression. Cell-associated HIV DNA and RNA and change in IMT, adjusted for demographics, cardiovascular risk factors, and HIV-related factors, were examined, as well as which factors were associated with viral persistence. One hundred fifty-two PLWH with undetectable viral loads for at least 6 months before study enrollment were recruited from HIV clinics affiliated with 2 hospitals in San Francisco, California, from January 1, 2003, to December 31, 2012. Data were analyzed from February 7, 2018, to May 12, 2020.

EXPOSURES

Cell-associated HIV RNA and DNA were measured using enriched CD4+ T cells from cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Carotid IMT was measured at baseline and the last visit, with a mean (SD) follow-up of 4.2 (2.7) years, using high-resolution B mode ultrasonography. The main study outcomes were baseline IMT, annual IMT progression, and incident plaque, defined as a focal region of carotid IMT of greater than 1.5 mm.

RESULTS

The analysis included 152 PLWH (140 [92.1%] male; median age, 48.5 [interquartile range {IQR}, 43.3-53.7] years). Older age, smoking, medications for hypertension, higher low-density lipoprotein levels, and higher interleukin 6 levels were associated with higher baseline mean IMT, whereas cell-associated HIV DNA (estimate, -0.07% [95% CI, -6.1% to 6.4%]; P = .98), and HIV RNA levels (estimate, -0.8% [95% CI, -5.9% to 4.4%]; P = .75) were not. Levels of HIV RNA (0.017 [95% CI, 0.000-0.034] mm/y; P = .047) and HIV DNA (0.022 [95% CI, 0.001-0.044] mm/y; P = .042) were significantly associated with annual carotid artery IMT progression in unadjusted models only. Both HIV RNA (incidence risk ratio [IRR], 3.05 [95% CI, 1.49-6.27] per IQR; P = .002) and HIV DNA (IRR, 3.15 [95% CI, 1.51-6.57] per IQR; P = .002) were significantly associated with incident plaque, which remained significant after adjusting for demographics, cardiovascular risk factors, and HIV-related factors (IRR for HIV RNA, 4.05 [95% CI, 1.44-11.36] per IQR [P = .008]; IRR for HIV DNA, 3.35 [95% CI, 1.22-9.19] per IQR [P = .02]). Higher C-reactive protein levels were associated with higher cell-associated HIV RNA (estimate, 20.7% [95% CI, 0.9%-44.4%] per doubling; P = .04), whereas higher soluble CD14 levels were associated with HIV DNA (estimate, 18.6% [95% CI, 3.5%-35.8%] per 10% increase; P = .01). Higher soluble CD163 levels were associated with a higher HIV RNA:DNA ratio (difference, 63.8% [95% CI, 3.5%-159.4%]; P = .04).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

These findings suggest that measurements of viral persistence in treated HIV disease are independently associated with incident carotid plaque development. The size and transcriptional activity of the HIV reservoir may be important contributors to HIV-associated atherosclerosis.

Left Ventricular Function, Epicardial Adipose Tissue, and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in Children and Adolescents With Vertical HIV Infection

BACKGROUND

Life expectancy of HIV patients has increased considerably as a result of antiretroviral therapy (ART), and cardiovascular (CV) disease has emerged as an important late concern. People with HIV infection could have an impaired systolic function; however data on diastolic function and markers of CV risk, such as epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) and intima-media thickness (IMT), are lacking. Aim of this study is to evaluate left ventricular function, EAT, and IMT in children and adolescents with vertically acquired HIV infection.

METHODS

We enrolled 29 subjects on ART (13, 45% men; median age of 13.0, and interquartile range 9-18), and 29 age-matched controls. All patients and controls underwent echocardiographic evaluation, with study of the systolic and diastolic function and measurement of the EAT, and a carotid ultrasound study for IMT measurement.

RESULTS

Comparing HIV-infected patients to healthy controls, we found a statistically significant increase of EAT and IMT (mean ± SD) (EAT: 3.16 ± 1.05 vs 1.24 ± 0.61 mm; P < 0.0001. IMT: 0.77 ± 0.15 vs 0.51 ± 0.11 mm; P < 0.0001), and a significant reduction of ejection fraction, evaluated with the biplane Simpson method (mean ± SD) (58.5% ± 6.66% vs 66% ± 4.24%; P = 0.029). These results are not related with age, gender, degree of lipodystrophy, dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinism, and ART duration or the use of single antiretroviral classes.

CONCLUSIONS

Vertically infected HIV children and adolescents show an increased thickness of EAT and IMT, expression of potentially increased CV risk. They also show an impaired systolic function.

Cardiovascular disease risk and its determinants in people living with HIV across different settings in South Africa

Objectives

Socio‐economic factors and lifestyle are known to differ across geographies and populations, which may result in distinct risk profiles for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This study assessed carotid intima‐media thickness (CIMT), a proxy for CVD, and its determinants in two groups of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in two different settings in South Africa.

Methods

A cross‐sectional analysis was conducted comparing data from the Ndlovu Cohort Study in the Limpopo Province (group 1) and from three clinical trials in Johannesburg (group 2). The association between demographics, conventional CVD risk factors, HIV‐related factors and CIMT in groups 1 and 2 was analysed with two separate multivariable linear regression models.

Results

Group 1 consisted of 826 participants (mean age 42.2 years) and mean (± standard deviation) CIMT was 0.626 ± 0.128 mm. In this group, sex, age, body mass index (BMI), cholesterol, glucose and antiretroviral therapy (ART) duration (β = 0.011 mm per 5 years; P = 0.02) were associated with higher CIMT. There were positive interactions between age and ART duration and age and cholesterol. Group 2 consisted of 382 participants (mean age 39.5 years) and mean (± standard deviation) CIMT was 0.560 ± 0.092 mm. In this group, only sex, education level, BMI and cholesterol were associated with higher CIMT, albeit with weaker associations than in group 1.

Conclusions

Conventional CVD risk factors were the main drivers of CIMT. The impact of some of these risk factors appeared to increase with age. Differences in sample size, age and viral suppression might explain why an effect of ART was observed in group 1 but not in group 2.

Age-specific associations between HIV infection and carotid artery intima-media thickness in China: a cross-sectional evaluation of baseline data from the CHART cohort

BACKGROUND

Inconclusive results have been reported in studies evaluating the association between HIV infection and subclinical atherosclerosis. Unsolved issues include whether the increased atherosclerosis burden observed in some studies is attributed to greater prevalence of traditional risk factors or HIV infection. Therefore, we evaluated the association of HIV infection with subclinical atherosclerosis as assessed by carotid artery intima-media thickness, while controlling for the effects of traditional risk factors as operationalised by the Framingham risk score (FRS).

METHODS

We did a cross-sectional evaluation of data derived from the baseline assessment of the Comparative HIV and Aging Research in Taizhou (CHART) cohort, an ongoing longitudinal study being done in Zhejiang province, China. HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals aged 18 years and older were recruited between Feb 1, and Dec 10, 2017, and were frequency-matched for age and sex in a 1:2 ratio. Subclinical atherosclerosis was defined as carotid artery intima-media thickness of 780 μm or higher. Logistic regression was used to assess the associations of HIV-positive serostatus and FRS with subclinical atherosclerosis.

FINDINGS

480 of 1425 (36·1%, 95% CI 33·6-38·6) HIV-positive and 784 of 2850 (27·5%, 95% CI 25·9-29·2) HIV-negative individuals had subclinical atherosclerosis (p<0·0001), and these patterns remained significant (adjusted odds ratio [adjOR] 1·72, 95% CI 1·47-2·01) in the adjusted model. After stratifying by age, higher prevalence of subclinical atherosclerosis was observed in HIV-positive than in HIV-negative individuals across the age groups 18-29 years (41 [16·0%] of 256 vs 13 [2·5%] of 512, p<0·0001), 30-44 years (128 [24·0%] of 533 vs 153 [14·4%] of 1066, p<0·0001), and 45-59 years (182 [46·6%] of 391 vs 294 [37·6%] of 782, p=0·0032), but not 60-75 years (163 [66·5%] of 245 vs 324 [66·1%] of 490, p=0·912). Significant negative interaction between HIV-positive serostatus and age on subclinical atherosclerosis was observed (p<0·0001). ORs adjusted for age, sex, and FRS were 8·84 (95% CI 4·50-17·34) for the age group 18-29 years, 2·09 (1·59-2·74) for 30-44 years, 1·54 (1·19-1·98) for 45-59 years, and 1·04 (0·75-1·44) for 60-75 years. Among HIV-positive individuals, none of the HIV-specific variables were significantly associated with carotid artery intima-media thickness estimates except for being antiretroviral therapy naive.

INTERPRETATION

HIV infection is associated with subclinical atherosclerosis, independent of classic risk factors. The association is stronger at younger ages, suggesting early onset of subclinical atherosclerosis among young adults. These findings highlight the need to modify HIV/AIDS treatment guidelines to incorporate cardiovascular evaluation in China.

FUNDING

China National Science and Technology Major Projects on Infectious Diseases, National Natural Science Foundation of China, and Shanghai Municipal Health and Family Planning Commission.

The effect of HIV infection, antiretroviral therapy on carotid intima-media thickness: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effect of HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy (ART) on carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) to elucidate the role of HIV infection and ART. Also, an analysis on the role of ethnicity and gender on cIMT in HIV-infected populations was performed.

MAIN METHODS

We searched the PubMed, Web of Science, the WHO websites and International AIDS Society for published observational studies were conducted by two independent reviewers for studies comparing HIV-infected antiretroviral-experienced patients and/or inexperienced with healthy controls on cIMT. The primary outcome was the standardized mean difference (SMD) of cIMT.

FINDINGS

Twenty studies (five cohort, 15 cross-sectional, and two both cohort and cross-sectional studies) were identified comprising 7948 subjects (4656 HIV-infected; 3292 controls). In cohort studies, the standardized mean 1-year change in cIMT between HIV-infected patients and uninfected controls was not significantly different (0.16 mm/yr; 95% CI, -0.16, 0.49; p = 0.326). In 17 cross-sectional studies, the SMD in cIMT was significantly higher in HIV-infected than uninfected persons (0.27 mm; 95% CI, 0.04, 0.49; p = 0.027). HIV-infected patients on ART exhibited significantly higher SMD in cIMT compared to those not on ART (0.75 mm; 95% CI, 0.30, 1.19; p = 0.001). No confounding effect of gender and ethnicity could be established using meta-regression p > 0.05.

SIGNIFICANCE

HIV infection itself and ART appear to influence the progression of cIMT and hence may be risk factors for cardiovascular events. No firm conclusions could be drawn on the effect of ethnic/race and gender differences on cIMT in HIV-infected populations.

Are we successfully managing cardiovascular disease in people living with HIV?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this study was to discuss the most recent research in the management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in people living with HIV (PLWHIV) with a focus on screening, primary and secondary prevention.

RECENT FINDINGS

The cause of CVD in PLWHIV is complex and multifactorial and creates a demand for a multifaceted approach to screening and prevention. Current screening and management of CVD risk factors in PLWHIV is suboptimal, reasons for this are not clear and the data are still scarce both in the primary and secondary preventive setting. There are no optimal routine risk screening tools available to accurately detect early and subclinical disease; PLWHIV are undertreated with preventive drugs such as statins and aspirin and antihypertensives; there are still no programmes that have been shown significantly efficient over time with regards to improved smoking cessation, increased physical activity and optimal diet, and recent reports call for intensified focus on HIV-positive women as a particularly vulnerable subgroup.

SUMMARY

There is a need for further studies investigating barriers to optimal CVD risk factor management in PLWHIV and an increased focus of CVD prevention in HIV-positive women.

Pathophysiology of ischaemic heart disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To summarize recent findings in the pathogenesis of ischemic heart disease (IHD) in people living with HIV (PLWH).

RECENT FINDINGS

PLWH have an elevated risk of IHD. Although incidence is declining, this condition still represents a major cause of non-AIDS-related mortality. The cause is likely multifactorial: traditional risk factors play an important role and IHD risk might be reduced with greater emphasis on primary prevention. The contribution of specific antiretroviral agents to IHD risk is changing as antiretroviral coverage increases globally and as safer agents have replaced drugs with well-described metabolic toxicities. The beneficial impact of virological suppression on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in reducing IHD is particularly evident in participants with advanced HIV infection and high baseline cardiovascular risk. The association between current abacavir use and myocardial infarction is still unexplained and indicates that mechanisms other than metabolic alterations may underlie IHD in PLWH. Consequently, the contributions of inflammation, subclinical atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction are receiving greater attention.

SUMMARY

Modern ART coupled with intensified efforts towards primary prevention is the cornerstone of IHD risk management in PLWH. The role of chronic inflammation and its optimal management need to be defined.

Positive Expression of Human Cytomegalovirus Phosphoprotein 65 in Atherosclerosis

Previous studies showed that human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is associated with atherosclerosis. However, local vascular atherosclerosis related HCMV infection and protein expression remain unclear. This study aimed to assess the relationship between HCMV infection and atherosclerosis. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded peripheral artery specimens were obtained from 15 patients with atherosclerosis undergoing vascular surgery from 2008 to 2010 at Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University. Pathological analyses were carried out after hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Masson trichrome staining. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry with two different monoclonal antibodies were employed to detect HCMV nucleic acids and proteins, respectively. H&E and Masson trichrome staining showed homogeneous extracellular matrix in femoral artery, while smooth muscle fibers were interlaced with collagen fibers; in carotid artery, inflammatory cell infiltration, foam cell vascular change, cholesterol crystals, and layered collagen fibers were observed. In situ hybridization showed no expression of HCMV nucleic acids in all 15 cases. Immunohistochemical staining for protein immediate-early protein (IE1 72) was negative in all cases, while phosphoprotein 65 (pp65) expression was detected in 14 cases. A high rate of positive pp65 signals was found in patients with atherosclerosis, suggesting that local HCMV infection may be associated with the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Further studies on this relationship are warranted.