Is gender important? Victimisation and perpetration of intimate partner violence in mainland China

Gender Violence During the Three Ages of Life and the Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Review

Children, women, and older people suffer different types of violence, which appears to have been exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic and the relative lockdown. The aim of this study is to analyze the literature about gender violence and abuse in the different ages of life and during the COVID-19 lockdown. Data were obtained from an electronic literature search using various online sources such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct and Web of Science. The terms "child abuse" were the most frequently used, followed in frequency by "gender violence," "femicide," and, lastly, "elderly abuse." The first studies considered gender-based violence as a purely physical problem, then, progressively, the analysis focused on the psychological point of view of the issue. There was a greater number of studies in 2020 about violence in comparison with previous years. The social and scientific attention to gender-based violence appeared to be very poor, especially in the case of older people abuse. It is necessary to increase general attention to the topic to correctly identify each form of abuse and to be able to take care of the subjects most at risk.

Psychological Factors Linked to Intimate Partner Violence and Childhood Maltreatment: On Dissociation as a Possible Bridge Symptom

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious health concern, occurring worldwide in various forms and settings. Over the past years, multiple sources reported an increase of IPV globally, partly related to COVID-19 restrictions. Childhood maltreatment enhances the risk of IPV, possibly via alterations in emotion regulation, attachment, maladaptive core beliefs, dissociation, and psychopathological symptoms. However, studies investigating these associations simultaneously are still needed. This study aimed to investigate association between IPV, childhood maltreatment severity, maladaptive schemata (mistrust, alienation, enmeshment), attachment anxiety, social support, emotion regulation, dissociation, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms. We further explored the complex interplay of all factors, accounting for their shared associations. An anonymous online survey was posted on international online platforms for people experiencing domestic violence and on research platforms. Regression analyses and graph-theoretical network analysis were used to explore associations between all variables. N = 434 participants (40% in treatment) completed the survey. IPV perpetration and victimization were highly correlated. Both were significantly associated with childhood maltreatment severity, early maladaptive schemata, dissociation, BPD features, and PTSD symptoms. When including all variables in one model, IPV was associated with dissociation, which indirectly linked it to childhood maltreatment experiences, PTSD symptoms, withdrawal, and self-blame. Our findings suggest that IPV perpetration and victimization often co-occur. Dissociation may be an important bridge symptom, linking IPV to childhood maltreatment experiences, PTSD symptoms, and maladaptive coping. Prospective studies are needed to corroborate these findings and to establish psychological mechanisms underlying IPV.

Psychological abuse is not a problem! Exploring the role of domestic violence myths in psychological revictimization

Research provided evidence that IPV myths affect women's acceptance of psychological aggression in intimate relationships, increasing revictimization. However, no study to date has investigated how endorsement of IPV myths leads victims of psychological IPV to accept psychological aggression. In the present study (N = 207 young Italian women involved in heterosexual romantic relationships), we assessed acceptance of IPV myths, prevalence of psychological abuse (in the past 12 months), perception of the problematic nature, and acceptance of psychological aggression in intimate relationships. Results showed that the effect of IPV myths on participants' acceptance of psychological aggression was mediated by the tendency to consider psychological aggression as unproblematic. Notably, this effect was significant only for women who had experienced some form of psychological abuse by an intimate partner in the past 12 months. These findings have relevant implications for prevention strategies about risks of revictimization.

Judgments and Attributions of Intimate Partner Violence in China: The Role of Directionality, Gender Stereotypicality, and Ambivalent Sexism

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious public health problem worldwide. IPV-related perceptions and attitudes are linked to IPV's actual perpetration and related victimization. There is a typical gender paradigm in IPV, wherein women are victims and men are perpetrators, which influences judgments toward IPV. Some socio-cultural norms or unjust notions of gender are also intertwined with this paradigm and influence perceptions of IPV. This study explored judgments and attributions of IPV in the Chinese context while extensively considering directionality, gender stereotypes, and ambivalent sexism by surveying 887 participants online. Participants read 1 of 12 scenarios and made judgments and attributions of responsibility regarding IPV. The results indicate that hostile sexism is negatively correlated with IPV perception but positively correlated with its justification. The direction of perpetration and gender stereotypicality had some main effects on judgments of IPV, and there were some interactions between these factors. The perception level of IPV involving a traditional male partner was higher when the man was the perpetrator or when his female partner was traditional. In the unidirectional IPV scenarios, the perpetrators were judged as significantly more responsible than the victims, while in the bidirectional IPV scenarios, men were judged as significantly more responsible than women. Moreover, the relationship between gender stereotypicality and responsibility attributions to female partners was significantly moderated by benevolent sexism (BS). Participants with a high level of BS tended to attribute less responsibility to traditional women than non-traditional women in bidirectional IPV scenarios. Future studies on IPV should pay attention to the influence of directionality and gender stereotypes. More efforts ought to be made to reduce IPV and overcome gender role stereotypes and sexism.

Trapped in My Roles as a Woman With No Help: Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence Against Chinese Women

An understanding of intimate partner violence (IPV) experiences is a crucial first step toward shaping effective responses. However, relevant knowledge among Chinese women is scant. This study described Chinese women's IPV experiences by analyzing 46 posts shared by 42 women on a public online forum. Five overarching themes were identified using conventional qualitative content analysis: being trapped in my roles, no power in the relationship, the struggles are real but I need to tolerate, I want to leave but have no help, and hope for the future. This study has important implications for future research, practice, and education.

Direcionalidade da Violência em Casais Heterossexuais

Resumo Ainda existem controvérsias entre pesquisas que analisam a violência cometida por homens e mulheres. O objetivo foi avaliar a direcionalidade da violência conjugal em diferentes manifestações (física, psicológica, coerção sexual e lesão corporal). Trata-se de uma pesquisa quantitativa, exploratória e descritiva, da qual participaram 304 casais heterossexuais. Aplicou-se um questionário sociodemográfico e a escala Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2), sendo realizadas análises descritivas dos dados pelo programa estatístico SPSS 22.0. Os resultados indicaram que mais de 70% da violência psicológica ocorre de forma bidirecional e, quando se expressa de forma unidirecional, é mais cometida por mulheres. A violência física e a coerção sexual, quando unidirecionais, foram mais cometidas pelos homens. Já a lesão corporal não apresentou diferença significativa. Os casais mais velhos apresentaram mais violência unidirecional, enquanto os mais jovens praticaram mais violência bidirecional. Esses dados podem auxiliar no desenvolvimento de políticas públicas nas situações de violência conjugal.

Partner and Relationship Characteristics Determining Intimate Partner Violence Among Women Living with HIV in Ruili, China

Intimate partner violence (IPV) in China is a largely understudied, major health risk among women living with HIV. Using structured face-to-face interviews, this research examined partner and couple relationship characteristics associated with physical and sexual IPV among 219 HIV-positive women living with a male partner in Ruili, China. Twenty-nine women (13%) reported past-year occurrences of physical IPV, and 24 (11%) reported sexual IPV. Physical IPV was more common when the woman's partner was of Jingpo ethnicity, drank weekly, or learned of her HIV status indirectly from a third person. Reduced risk of physical IPV was associated with a woman's perceived confidant support that was available through either her partner or a minimum of 2 non-partner confidants. Sexual IPV was more often reported among women with a partner who drank frequently or was concurrently HIV-positive, or in situations where the woman was employed and the partner was not. Sexual IPV was less likely with a partner of Dai ethnicity than Han, the major ethnicity in China. Identifying determinants of IPV vulnerability among women living with HIV may help future interventions to achieve greater impact in similar settings.

Officer and Organizational Correlates With Police Interventions in Domestic Violence in China

Although domestic violence has long been identified as a serious social problem in China, little is known about police officers' attitudinal and behavioral tendencies toward such incidents. Drawing upon survey data collected from police officers in two Chinese provinces, this study assesses whether officer and organizational factors are correlated to police inaction and intervention in resolving family violence. More than a quarter of Chinese police officers often and sometime did not take any action when responding to domestic violence. Chinese officers favored most the least punitive approaches of mediation and separation, with the most punitive actions, written warning and criminal sanction as the least preferred interventions. We found that Chinese officers with low levels of knowledge about the domestic violence law, higher degrees of tolerance of violence and less supportive attitudes toward an active police role in handling domestic violence are less willing to take any action against the offenders. Chinese police officers who perceived stronger supervisory support and expressed better knowledge about China's new domestic violence law are more likely to intervene in domestic violence, whereas police officers who expressed greater degrees of tolerance of violence and believed in gender equality in society are less inclined to intervene. Policy makers and police administrators ought to pay greater attention to frontline supervisors' attitudes and behavior toward proper responses to family violence. If active intervention is preferred, then measures and programs should be put into place to improve police officers' legal knowledge and communication and problem-solving skills pertaining to conflict resolution.

Sexual Victimization in Adulthood and Associated Factors Among Men and Women: Cross-Sectional Evidence from Mainland China

Limited empirical research addresses sexual victimization and related factors among the general adult population in China. To address this gap, we explored the association between sexual victimization in adulthood and associated factors (unwanted sexual experiences [USE] before age 18, binge drinking prior to sex, hooking up, violent pornography use, awareness and perceived behavioral control of consent, and sexual refusal assertiveness) among a convenience Chinese sample. A cross-sectional study was performed in September 2020 among 898 screened men and women from 29 provinces in mainland China. Overall, 52.5% of men and 57.9% of women experienced sexual victimization at least once in adulthood. Men and women differed in the severity of sexual victimization in adulthood, with the mean severity scores of women being significantly higher than those of men. Hierarchical ordinal logistic regression revealed that, after considering control variables, correlates of severity of sexual victimization in adulthood included gender (OR 3.17, 95% CI 2.30-4.40), severity of USE before age 18 (OR 2.28, 95% CI 1.92-2.73), binge drinking prior to sex (OR 2.52, 95% CI 1.83-3.49), hook-up history (OR 2.24, 95% CI 1.49-3.39), violent pornography use (OR 1.07, 95% CI 1.04-1.09), lack of perceived behavioral control of communicating consent (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.01-1.07), and sexual refusal assertiveness (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.89-0.95). These findings indicate that early adverse sexual experiences, potential risky sexual behaviors, violent pornography use, and beliefs about consent and refusal may play an important role in predicting sexual victimization among Chinese adults.

Public Attention and Sentiment toward Intimate Partner Violence Based on Weibo in China: A Text Mining Approach

The mobile internet has resulted in intimate partner violence (IPV) events not being viewed as interpersonal and private issues. Such events become public events in the social network environment. IPV has become a public health issue of widespread concern. It is a challenge to obtain systematic and detailed data using questionnaires and interviews in traditional Chinese culture, because of face-saving and the victim’s shame factors. However, online comments about specific IPV events on social media provide rich data in understanding the public’s attitudes and emotions towards IPV. By applying text mining and sentiment analysis to the field of IPV, this study involved construction of a Chinese IPV sentiment dictionary and a complete research framework. We analyzed the trends of the Chinese public’s emotional evolution concerning IPV events from the perspectives of a time series as well as geographic space and social media. The results show that the anonymity of social networks and the guiding role of opinion leaders result in traditional cultural factors such as face-saving and family shame for IPV events being no longer applicable, leading to the spiral of an anti-silence effect. Meanwhile, in the process of public emotional communication, anger often overwhelms reason, and the spiral of silence remains in effect in social media. In addition, there are offensive words used in the IPV event texts that indicate misogyny in emotional, sexual, economic and psychological abuse. Fortunately, mainstream media, as crucial opinion leaders in the social network, can have a positive role in guiding public opinion, improving people’s ability to judge the validity of network information, and formulating people’s rational behaviour.

Chinese Newlyweds' Perception and Tolerance Toward Common and Severe Partner Aggression

Purpose

This study aimed to find the judgment demarcation points of Chinese newlyweds toward common and severe partner aggression, exploring the correlation of asymmetrical commitment and partner aggression tolerance, and revealing the gender differences in aggression tolerance.

Materials and Methods

We conducted two online questionnaire surveys with a total of 629 Chinese newlyweds. Specifically, data for group 1 were collected from 326 Chinese newlyweds for exploratory factor analysis of aggression normality, and data for group 2 from the remaining 303 couples were used for confirmatory factor analysis and inferential statistical analyses.

Results

Results showed that eight items representing non-physical aggression were regarded as common aggression, seven items indicating physical aggression were regarded as severe aggression, and one item was deleted because of disqualification in the exploratory factor analysis. Moreover, individuals showed greater tolerance toward common aggression compared with severe aggression. In terms of commitment, the 303 couples were divided into two groups: asymmetrically committed relationships (ACR) and non-asymmetrically committed relationships (non-ACRs). Through multilevel modeling, we found that couples in ACRs had a greater tolerance for common aggression. In addition, tolerance showed gender differences: husbands displayed a more tolerant attitude toward partner aggression, whether common or severe types.

Conclusion

The study found the demarcation points of aggression normality in Chinese newlyweds broadened the application of commitment in research on partner aggression and emphasized the importance of study of dyadic relationships.

Bidirectional Intimate Partner Violence Among Chinese Women: Patterns and Risk Factors

Bidirectional intimate partner violence (BIPV) refers to the co-occurrence of violence perpetration by both partners. BIPV has been analyzed using samples from different sociodemographic contexts but has yet to be fully explored in China. The present study employed a latent class approach to identify BIPV patterns, rates of prevalence, and associated risk factors among a sample of 1,301 heterosexual adult women in mainland China. Five distinct patterns of BIPV were identified, including (a) bidirectional psychological aggression, (b) bidirectional violence of all types, (c) multi-type victimization with psychological aggression, (d) minimal violence, and (e) bidirectional multi-types without physical violence. Marital status, education, employment status, acceptance of male dominance, and justification of intimate partner violence (IPV) were found to be predictive of different types of BIPV. Our findings suggest a need for a conceptual recognition of the heterogeneity and bidirectionality of IPV among Chinese women. Future research should extend to other diverse populations and sociocultural or clinical contexts in China. IPV assessments, research, and social programs ought to recognize the complexity of IPV and consider various IPV patterns specific to heterosexual women.

A Scoping Review of 37 Years of Intimate Partner Violence Research in China

So far, no Chinese- or English-language journal investigations have been carried out on the entirety of research published on intimate partner violence (IPV) in China. Accordingly, the main purpose of this study was to analyze the contents of the totality of published IPV research articles indexed in China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Specifically, the study aimed to investigate the input and output factors relating to published articles concerned with IPV, including their authors and contents. The CNKI was selected for investigation and analysis because it is the largest and most consulted academic online library in China. The analysis was conducted on 3,595 peer-reviewed journal articles on IPV over a 37-year period covering 1982-2018. The findings revealed that only 68 (1.89%) of the articles were empirically and quantitatively based. Findings among these 68 articles show that total contribution of IPV research has increased significantly over time in China, with increasing growth in the past two decades especially. Results also present summaries concerned with the reviewed studies' inputs (i.e., researchers' organizational affiliations, funding sources, and geographic settings), outputs (i.e., authors, journals, classifications, pages, topics, key words, definitions, theoretical approaches, samples, and methods), and outcomes (i.e., citations, downloads, prevalence rates, and correlates of violence). To sum, this is the first exploratory study of the unique and diverse body of IPV research in the Chinese-language and scientific literature. Overall, the study's results both help to inform future IPV research in China and foster and inform communications concerning IPV research globally.

Characteristics of Intimate Partner Violence in China: Gender Symmetry, Mutuality, and Associated Factors

The primary research focus on female victims of intimate partner violence (IPV), coupled with a lack of discussion on mutual violence between intimate partners, has affected our understanding of IPV in China. In the current study, we aim to examine gender symmetry and mutuality in IPV in China. We also produce the first age-specific and gender-specific prevalence estimates for different types of IPV. The associations between IPV, demographic factors, personal factors, and relationship factors are also examined. We analyzed a set of data from 7,466 households in six regions in China collected between 2009 and 2010. Three-way cross-tab analyses and multinomial logistic regressions were performed to examine the prevalence of IPV in the preceding year by gender and age groups and its associations with different individual and relationship factors, respectively. For sexual violence and severe physical assault and injury, most victims experienced unidirectional violence. For psychological aggression and minor physical assault, mutual violence was more likely to occur among intimate partners. Gender symmetry was found in regard to physical assault and psychological aggression. There is gender asymmetry in sexual violence between Chinese intimate partners. Older individuals are less likely to be victims or perpetrators of IPV or to be involved in mutual violence. Factors associated with IPV show that mutual violence is generally analogous to violence perpetration. To prevent IPV, it is important to understand gender symmetry and mutuality of IPV in China. We need to involve both men and women in violence prevention and develop age-appropriate programs in the future.

Chinese Male Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence: A Three-Pillar Approach to Analyze Men's Delayed Help-Seeking Decisions

Intimate partner violence (IPV) literature has addressed differential socialization for designing interventions, mainly helping female victims and male perpetrators. From a gender-specific perspective, this study examines the abused men's postponed decisions to disclose victimization or seek help. Through individual interviews, 10 Chinese male IPV survivors in Hong Kong described their help-seeking journey. A three-pillar approach is applied to guide the analysis in terms of psychological factors, cultural barriers, and decisional challenges when men are seeking help. Results reveal negative influences bearing on male survivors' help-seeking behaviors and support how men can rebuild positive personal strengths after experiencing the impact of abuse on oneself and the family. Service providers must identify barriers of delayed help-seeking decisions and treat IPV survivors with respect and acceptance to facilitate abuse disclosure.

Living with severe perinatal depression: a qualitative study of the experiences of labour migrant and refugee women on the Thai-Myanmar border

BACKGROUND

Perinatal depression is an important contributor to maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Migrant women, particularly those resettling within low- and middle-income settings, are at increased risk of perinatal depression due to multiple stressors experienced before, during and after migration. Evidence on migrant perinatal mental health to date has focused largely on women in high-income destination countries, leaving the voices of displaced women in low-income settings unheard. This study addresses the current evidence gap by exploring the experiences of migrant women living on the Thai-Myanmar border.

METHODS

In-depth interviews were conducted with pregnant and post-partum labour migrant and refugee women on the Thai-Myanmar border who had been diagnosed with severe depression. An interview guide covering women's current and past life experiences, social support and the impact of depression on social and occupational functioning was used as a prompt. Thematic analysis was used to identify themes emerging from women's narratives.

RESULTS

Eleven pregnant and post-partum women with severe perinatal depression took part. Participating women provided extensive insight into the many difficult aspects of their lives that they perceived as contributing to their depression status. Predominant themes emerging from women's narratives included difficult relationships with partners, challenging life situations, mechanisms for coping with depression and impressions of mental health care.

CONCLUSIONS

Labour migrant and refugee women with severe perinatal depression face a wide range of chronic stressors at the individual, household and community levels that are likely to have both short- and long-term negative effects on their mental well-being and day-to-day functioning. Participating women responded positively to the mental health support they received, and findings provide important insights into how services might further support their needs.