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Fluhr JW, Moore DJ, Lane ME, Lachmann N, Rawlings AV. Epidermal barrier function in dry, flaky and sensitive skin: A narrative review. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2024; 38:812-820. [PMID: 38140732 DOI: 10.1111/jdv.19745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The stratum corneum (SC)-the outermost layer of the epidermis-is the principal permeability and protective barrier of the skin. Different components of the SC, including corneocytes, natural moisturizing factor, a variety of enzymes and their inhibitors, antimicrobial peptides and lipids, work interactively to maintain barrier function. The main barrier properties of the SC are the limitation of water loss and the prevention of infection and contact with potentially harmful exogenous factors. Although the SC functions consistently as a protective barrier throughout the body, variations in functions and morphology occur across body sites with age and skin type. Healthy SC function also depends on the interplay between the chemosensory barrier, the skin's microbiome and the innate immune system. Dysregulation of SC barrier function can lead to the development of skin disorders, such as dry, flaky or sensitive skin, but the complete underlying pathophysiology of these are not fully understood. This review provides insight into the current literature and emerging themes related to epidermal barrier changes that occur in the context of dry, flaky and sensitive skin. Additional studies are needed to further elucidate the underlying aetiology of dry, flaky and sensitive skin and to provide tailored treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim W Fluhr
- Institute of Allergology IFA Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Allergology and Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Majella E Lane
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK
| | | | - Anthony V Rawlings
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK
- AVR Consulting Ltd., Northwich, UK
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2
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Zhang L, Yue F, Wu X, Yu H, Chen K, Liu J, Xu Z, Styczynski P, Li C, Wei K. A sequential tape stripping approach for the assessment of the impact of personal cleansing products on the stratum corneum surface layers' acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense. J Cosmet Dermatol 2024; 23:1029-1035. [PMID: 37919888 DOI: 10.1111/jocd.16058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stratum corneum (SC) plays a critical role in skin barrier function for protection and defense in nature. The acidic skin pH, which is also known as the acid mantle, is very important in fighting against outer environmental threats, especially, bacteria. Furthermore, recent research has shown that the transient bacteria could potentially penetrate into deeper layer of the SC down to a few micrometers while posing an additional threat to the deeper layers of the skin. AIM To develop a sequential tape stripping method for assessing the impact of personal cleansing product on the SC surface layers' acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense against transient bacteria. METHODS Fifty-five subjects were recruited. High pH soap-based Product 1 and low pH synthetic surfactant-based Product 2 were applied on the left and right forearms of each subject. Sequential tape stripping was performed on the same spots to access multiple layers of the skin SC. Both antimicrobial defense property and skin pH of different skin layers were evaluated at baseline and 12 h after treatment. RESULTS The skin's antimicrobial defense was significantly higher 12 h after treatment of the low pH Product 2 as compared to the treatment of high pH Product 1. In fact, this trend was consistent across all three skin layers (Layer 1 to Layer 3) as measured in this study (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the skin surface pH of Layer 1 and Layer 3 were also lower 12 h after the treatment of low pH Product 2 as compared to that of the high pH Product 1 (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION The results of this investigation demonstrated the benefits of 12-h long lasting and deeper protection of SC acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense using a low pH skin cleansing product as compared to a high pH product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesheng Zhang
- Procter and Gamble, Beijing Innovation Center, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Yue
- Procter and Gamble, Beijing Innovation Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojian Wu
- Procter and Gamble, Beijing Innovation Center, Beijing, China
| | - Hechuan Yu
- Procter and Gamble, Beijing Innovation Center, Beijing, China
| | - Kuangyu Chen
- Procter and Gamble, Beijing Innovation Center, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Liu
- Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, China
| | - Zigang Xu
- Department of Dermatology, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Chuiying Li
- Procter and Gamble, Mason Business Center, Mason, Ohio, USA
| | - Karl Wei
- Procter and Gamble, Mason Business Center, Mason, Ohio, USA
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3
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Murphy B, Grimshaw S, Hoptroff M, Paterson S, Arnold D, Cawley A, Adams SE, Falciani F, Dadd T, Eccles R, Mitchell A, Lathrop WF, Marrero D, Yarova G, Villa A, Bajor JS, Feng L, Mihalov D, Mayes AE. Alteration of barrier properties, stratum corneum ceramides and microbiome composition in response to lotion application on cosmetic dry skin. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5223. [PMID: 35340018 PMCID: PMC8957616 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09231-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Xerosis, commonly referred to as dry skin, is a common dermatological condition affecting almost a third of the population. Successful treatment of the condition traditionally involves the application of cosmetic products facilitating the moisturisation of the skin with a range of ingredients including glycerol and fatty acids. While the effectiveness of these treatments is not in question, limited information exists on the impact on the skin microbiome following use of these products and the improvement in skin hydration. Here, we describe improvements in skin barrier properties together with increased levels of cholesterol, ceramides and long-chain fatty acids following application of Body Lotion. Concomitant alterations in the skin microbiome are also seen via 16S rRNA metataxonomics, in combination with both traditional and novel informatics analysis. Following 5 weeks of lotion use, beneficial skin bacteria are increased, with improvements in microbiome functional potential, and increases in pathways associated with biosynthesis of multiple long chain fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Murphy
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK.
| | - Sally Grimshaw
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK
| | - Michael Hoptroff
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK
| | - Sarah Paterson
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK
| | - David Arnold
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK
| | - Andrew Cawley
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK
| | - Suzanne E Adams
- Unilever Research & Development, Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, England, UK
| | - Francesco Falciani
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary, and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, England, UK
| | - Tony Dadd
- Unilever Research & Development, Colworth, Bedfordshire, MK44 1LQ, England, UK
| | - Richard Eccles
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary, and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, England, UK
| | - Alex Mitchell
- Eagle Genomics, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1DR, UK
| | - William F Lathrop
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - Diana Marrero
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - Galina Yarova
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - Ana Villa
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - John S Bajor
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - Lin Feng
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - Dawn Mihalov
- Unilever Research & Development, 55 Merritt Blvd, Trumbull, CT, 06611, USA
| | - Andrew E Mayes
- Unilever Research & Development, Colworth, Bedfordshire, MK44 1LQ, England, UK
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4
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Gallinger J, Kuhn A, Wessel S, Behm P, Heinecke S, Filbry A, Hillemann L, Rippke F. Depth-dependent hydration dynamics in human skin: Vehicle-controlled efficacy assessment of a functional 10% urea plus NMF moisturizer by near-infrared confocal spectroscopic imaging (KOSIM IR) and capacitance method complemented by volunteer perception. Skin Res Technol 2022; 28:342-349. [PMID: 35034387 PMCID: PMC9907705 DOI: 10.1111/srt.13137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stratum corneum (SC) hydration is vital for the optimal maintenance and appearance of healthy skin. In this context, we evaluated the efficacy of an NMF-enriched moisturizer containing 10% urea on different aspects of SC hydration of dry skin. MATERIAL AND METHODS In two clinical studies, the hydration efficacy of the moisturizer in comparison to its vehicle was investigated. In the first study, 42 subjects applied the moisturizer and the vehicle to one lower leg each. Thirty minutes and 24 h after this single treatment, SC hydration was measured by corneometry. Volunteers also rated skin moisturization and evaluated product properties. In the second study, 27 subjects each treated one forearm twice daily for 2 weeks with the moisturizer and the vehicle. Then, depth-resolved water-absorption spectra were measured by near-infrared confocal spectroscopic imaging (KOSIM IR). RESULTS The moisturizer exerted a superior hydrating effect compared to the vehicle. KOSIM IR measurements show that, compared to the vehicle, the moisturizer significantly improved the water gradient in the SC from the surface to a depth of 15 μm. Moreover, the moisturizer received high acceptance ratings from the volunteers and was preferred to the vehicle. CONCLUSION The humectants applied in the investigated moisturizer improved SC water content in total and as a function of depth. The combination of depth-resolved data (KOSIM IR) with classical corneometry provides an integrated concept in the measurement of skin hydration, rendering both methods complementary. These findings were in line with the volunteers` self-assessments of the moisturizer properties that are relevant to treatment adherence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andreas Kuhn
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sonja Wessel
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Peter Behm
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Silke Heinecke
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Frank Rippke
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
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5
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McDaniel DH, Dover JS, Wortzman M, Nelson DB. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of a moisture treatment cream containing three critical elements of natural skin moisturization. J Cosmet Dermatol 2020; 19:1121-1128. [PMID: 32141711 PMCID: PMC7217153 DOI: 10.1111/jocd.13359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Objectives To evaluate skin barrier and hydration effects of a new rebalancing moisture treatment (TRMT) and to assess efficacy and tolerability in subjects with photodamaged skin. Methods In an epidermal skin model, tissues (n = 5/group) were topically treated with 25 µL of TRMT, 25 µL of a market‐leading moisturizer (MLM), or untreated for 60 minutes. Hydration was measured at 0, 15, and 30 minutes. Tissues were harvested for gene expression analysis of markers associated with skin barrier and hydration: Claudin (CLD), Aquaporin (AQP), Hyaluronic Acid Syntheses (HAS), and Hyaluronidase (HYAL). A clinical study evaluated twice‐daily application of TRMT, assessing changes in fine lines/wrinkles, brightness, texture, erythema, and tolerability from baseline through week 8. Hydration was measured using electrical impedance. Results TRMT and MLM demonstrated significant increases in hydration vs untreated tissue at each timepoint (P < .005), with greater hydration effects observed for TRMT vs MLM. TRMT‐treated tissues demonstrated greater expression of CLD, AQP, and HA, and reduced expression of HYAL vs untreated and MLM‐treated tissues. Twice‐daily application of TRMT demonstrated significant improvements at 2 weeks in fine lines/wrinkles (P < .001), brightness (P < .0001), texture (P < .0004), and hydration (P < .004). At 8 weeks, statistically significant improvements were achieved in all categories. Conclusion In an epidermal skin model, TRMT demonstrated significant increases in hydration, greater hydration effects, and expression of key markers associated with skin barrier and hydration vs a MLM. Twice‐daily application of TRMT was well tolerated and resulted in early, significant improvements in hydration and visible improvements in skin brightness, texture, fine lines/wrinkles, and erythema at 8 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H McDaniel
- McDaniel Institute of Anti-Aging Research, Virginia Beach, VA.,Hampton University Skin of Color Research Institute, Hampton, VA.,School of Science, Hampton University, Hampton, VA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
| | - Jeffrey S Dover
- SkinCare Physicians, Chestnut Hill, MA.,Clinical Dermatology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT.,Dermatology, Brown Medical School, Providence, RI
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6
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Nørreslet LB, Serup J, Kezic S, Engebretsen KA, Thyssen JP, Agner T, Clausen M. Tattoos and skin barrier function: Measurements of
TEWL
, stratum corneum conductance and capacitance,
pH
, and filaggrin. Skin Res Technol 2019; 25:382-388. [DOI: 10.1111/srt.12664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Line Brok Nørreslet
- Department of DermatologyBispebjerg HospitalUniversity of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Jørgen Serup
- Department of DermatologyBispebjerg HospitalUniversity of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Sanja Kezic
- Coronel Institute of Occupational HealthAmsterdam Public Health Research InstituteAmsterdam UMCUniversity of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | | | - Jacob P. Thyssen
- Department of Dermatology and AllergyHerlev and Gentofte HospitalUniversity of Copenhagen Hellerup Denmark
| | - Tove Agner
- Department of DermatologyBispebjerg HospitalUniversity of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Maja‐Lisa Clausen
- Department of DermatologyBispebjerg HospitalUniversity of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
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7
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Brunt EG, Burgess JG. The promise of marine molecules as cosmetic active ingredients. Int J Cosmet Sci 2017; 40:1-15. [PMID: 29057483 DOI: 10.1111/ics.12435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The marine environment represents an underexploited resource for the discovery of novel products, despite its high level of biological and chemical diversity. With increasing awareness of the harmful effects of chronic ultraviolet exposure, and a universal desire to improve cosmetic appearance, the market for new cosmetic ingredients is growing, and current trends have generated a greater demand for products sourced from the environment. A growing number of novel molecules from marine flora and fauna exhibit potent and effective dermatological activities. Secondary metabolites isolated from macroalgae, including carotenoids and polyphenols, have demonstrated antioxidant, anti-ageing and anti-inflammatory activities. In addition, marine extremophilic bacteria have recently been shown to produce bioactive exopolymeric molecules, some of which have been commercialized. Available data on their activities show significant antioxidant, moisturizing and anti-ageing activities, but a more focussed investigation into their mechanisms and applications is required. This review surveys the reported biological activities of an emerging and growing portfolio of marine molecules that show promise in the treatment of cosmetic skin problems including ultraviolet damage, ageing and cutaneous dryness.
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Affiliation(s)
- E G Brunt
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University, Ridley Building 2, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
| | - J G Burgess
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University, Ridley Building 2, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
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8
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Raj N, Voegeli R, Rawlings AV, Doppler S, Imfeld D, Munday MR, Lane ME. A fundamental investigation into aspects of the physiology and biochemistry of the stratum corneum in subjects with sensitive skin. Int J Cosmet Sci 2016; 39:2-10. [PMID: 27079667 DOI: 10.1111/ics.12334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sensitive skin is a poorly understood skin condition. Defects in stratum corneum (SC) barrier function and/or extrasensory neuronal networks in the epidermis are believed to be involved in the problem. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to unravel the relationships between bleomycin hydrolase (BH) and calpain-1 (C-1), pyrrolidone carboxylic acid (PCA) levels, corneocyte maturation, transglutaminase (TG) and plasmin activities on the cheeks of subjects with sensitive skin. METHODS Forty-eight female Caucasian subjects, Fitzpatrick skin phototypes II-III, with self-perceived sensitive facial skin, were assessed and underwent a capsaicin reactivity test. Expert grading of skin condition was conducted as well as the measurement of transepidermal water loss (TEWL), skin capacitance, SC cohesion and SC integrity. BH, C-1 and plasmin activities were measured as well as PCA levels, plasmin and TG activity. Differential Nile red and involucrin immunostaining was performed to assess corneocyte maturation and size. RESULTS About 52% of the subjects reacted to capsaicin. There were no significant differences between the capsaicin-sensitive and non-capsaicin-sensitive subjects with reference to skin grading, TEWL, skin capacitance and SC cohesion. PCA levels and BH activity were lowest in the capsaicin-sensitive panel (P < 0.05) and were correlated in non-capsaicin-sensitive subjects (r = 0.72). The activity of TG was significantly lower (48%) in the capsaicin-sensitive subjects (P < 0.001) and their corneocytes were less mature and smaller (P ≤ 0.05). SC was estimated to be thinner (6.87 ± 0.28 vs. 8.68 ± 0.26 μm; P = 0.001) in the capsaicin-sensitive subjects with a corresponding shorter SC path length (83.2 ± 4.4 μm and 113.1 ± 4.5 μm; P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Despite the physiological similarities between the two groups of sensitive skin subjects, differences in their biochemistry were clearly evident. Lower levels of PCA, BH and TG activities together with a greater number of smaller and immature corneocytes indicate inferior SC maturation in the capsaicin-sensitive subjects. The reduced maturation of corneocytes and thinner SC likely contributes to a greater penetration of capsaicin and the associated increased skin sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Raj
- UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK
| | - R Voegeli
- DSM Nutritional Products Ltd., Kaiseraugst, Switzerland
| | | | - S Doppler
- DSM Nutritional Products Ltd., Kaiseraugst, Switzerland
| | - D Imfeld
- DSM Nutritional Products Ltd., Kaiseraugst, Switzerland
| | | | - M E Lane
- UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK
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Raj N, Voegeli R, Rawlings AV, Gibbons S, Munday MR, Summers B, Lane ME. Variation in stratum corneum protein content as a function of anatomical site and ethnic group. Int J Cosmet Sci 2015; 38:224-31. [DOI: 10.1111/ics.12274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N. Raj
- School of Pharmacy; University College London; London U.K
| | - R. Voegeli
- DSM Nutritional Products Ltd.; Kaiseraugst Switzerland
| | - A. V. Rawlings
- School of Pharmacy; University College London; London U.K
| | - S. Gibbons
- School of Pharmacy; University College London; London U.K
| | - M. R. Munday
- School of Pharmacy; University College London; London U.K
| | - B. Summers
- Photobiology Laboratory; Sefako Makgatho University; Mednusa South Africa
| | - M. E. Lane
- School of Pharmacy; University College London; London U.K
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