Effects of face masks on fairness in on-site personnel selection during a pandemic

Introduction

Despite significant challenges, personnel selection procedures had to continue as on-site testing in the Covid-19 pandemic. Health and safety measures and specifically the use of face masks threaten to limit the fairness of cognitive testing and behavioral observation in the assessment center.

Methods

In this study, we compare the performance and pass rates of pilot selection under three different conditions in the selection campaigns of 2019 (pre-pandemic), 2020 (health and safety measures without mask), and 2021 (health and safety measures with mask).

Results

Mask wearing and other health and safety measures had no influence on the objective parameters of pilot selection. However, for some of the areas of competence in the assessment center subjective observability was rated lower for the condition with face masks.

Discussion

We conclude that the fairness and precision of selection processes are not compromised by wearing face masks and that a high degree of standardization in diagnostic instruments prevents a partially reduced subjective observability from affecting the selection's outcome.

People versus machines: introducing the HIRE framework

The use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the recruitment process is becoming a more common method for organisations to hire new employees. Despite this, there is little consensus on whether AI should have widespread use in the hiring process, and in which contexts. In order to bring more clarity to research findings, we propose the HIRE (Human, (Artificial) Intelligence, Recruitment, Evaluation) framework with the primary aim of evaluating studies which investigate how Artificial Intelligence can be integrated into the recruitment process with respect to gauging whether AI is an adequate, better, or worse substitute for human recruiters. We illustrate the simplicity of this framework by conducting a systematic literature review on the empirical studies assessing AI in the recruitment process, with 22 final papers included. The review shows that AI is equal to or better than human recruiters when it comes to efficiency and performance. We also find that AI is mostly better than humans in improving diversity. Finally, we demonstrate that there is a perception among candidates and recruiters that AI is worse than humans. Overall, we conclude based on the evidence, that AI is equal to or better to humans when utilised in the hiring process, however, humans hold a belief of their own superiority. Our aim is that future authors adopt the HIRE framework when conducting research in this area to allow for easier comparability, and ideally place the HIRE framework outcome of AI being better, equal, worse, or unclear in the abstract.

Can I show my skills? Affective responses to artificial intelligence in the recruitment process

Companies increasingly use artificial intelligence (AI) and algorithmic decision-making (ADM) for their recruitment and selection process for cost and efficiency reasons. However, there are concerns about the applicant’s affective response to AI systems in recruitment, and knowledge about the affective responses to the selection process is still limited, especially when AI supports different selection process stages (i.e., preselection, telephone interview, and video interview). Drawing on the affective response model, we propose that affective responses (i.e., opportunity to perform, emotional creepiness) mediate the relationships between an increasing AI-based selection process and organizational attractiveness. In particular, by using a scenario-based between-subject design with German employees (N = 160), we investigate whether and how AI-support during a complete recruitment process diminishes the opportunity to perform and increases emotional creepiness during the process. Moreover, we examine the influence of opportunity to perform and emotional creepiness on organizational attractiveness. We found that AI-support at later stages of the selection process (i.e., telephone and video interview) decreased the opportunity to perform and increased emotional creepiness. In turn, the opportunity to perform and emotional creepiness mediated the association of AI-support in telephone/video interviews on organizational attractiveness. However, we did not find negative affective responses to AI-support earlier stage of the selection process (i.e., during preselection). As we offer evidence for possible adverse reactions to the usage of AI in selection processes, this study provides important practical and theoretical implications.

Psychological Benefits and Challenges of Ph.D. Entrance Exam Virtual Interviews During COVID-19 Pandemic: Does Gender Play a Role?

This study aimed to investigate the reflections of Iranian students on Ph.D. entrance exam interviews held virtually nationwide during the Pandemic. Two hundred thirty-one Ph.D. applicants were invited to fill out an anonymous online survey designed in Google Forms, 36 out of whom volunteered to participate in follow-up semi-structured interviews. Two ANOVA measures were used to investigate the possible influences of gender and prior virtual interview experience on the applicants’ perceptions. Thematic analysis was also adopted to explore the participants’ attitudes and perceptions toward virtual interviews (VI). Quantitative findings showed that Iranian Ph.D. applicants perceived VI as a flexible and helpful procedure that provided them with satisfactory interpersonal treatment. Still, they did not favor the procedure’s perceived behavioral control and ability to communicate information to perform procedural justice. Moreover, neither their gender nor their prior experience of the virtual interview was a predictor of their perspectives’ discrepancies. The thematic analysis of the qualitative data revealed that despite having some cognitive, personal, and financial benefits, VI posed some technical, communicative, and personal challenges. This study provides implications for universities and applicants who will use VI for different purposes in higher education.

Recruiting aus Sicht der Bewerber_innen

Zusammenfassung. Hochwertiges Personalmarketing ist der essenzielle erste Schritt im Recruiting. Qualifizierte Bewerber_innen müssen auf offene Positionen erfolgreich aufmerksam gemacht werden, wofür Unternehmen und Organisationen verschiedene Online- und Offline-Maßnahmen zur Verfügung stehen. Zentral ist dabei die Wahrnehmung des Personalmarketings durch die Bewerbenden, deren Sicht bislang allerdings wenig betrachtet wurde. In der vorliegenden Studie wird daher mithilfe einer für die deutsche Arbeitsbevölkerung repräsentativen Stichprobe ( N = 1.070) die Nutzung und Bewertung von klassischen und neuartigen digitalen Personalmarketingmaßnahmen in sozialen Medien untersucht und zusätzlich digitale Ansprachemethoden experimentell überprüft. Bekannte und etablierte Online- und Offline-Personalmarketingmaßnahmen weisen hohe Nutzungszahlen auf und sind zugleich am beliebtesten. Soziale Medien werden hingegen von den Bewerber_innen vergleichsweise wenig präferiert. Kongruent dazu wird im experimentellen Setup die klassische Benachrichtigung per Post neuartigen digitalen Kommunikationswegen (WhatsApp, Facebook, Alexa Voice System) vorgezogen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie können in der Praxis zur gezielten Ansprache potenzieller Bewerber_innen und für den optimalen Einsatz verschiedener Methoden genutzt werden.

Does Electronic Monitoring Pay Off?

Abstract. Applicants often take great care in deciding where to apply and may refrain from applying or accepting a job offer if they hear about privacy-invading practices at a future workplace. Based on communication privacy management theory, the present work examines how applicants react to different purposes of electronic monitoring. In a scenario study, we found higher privacy concerns and lower organizational attractiveness in a situation with controlling monitoring procedures as compared to supportive monitoring procedures. Furthermore, competitive participants evaluated only noncontrolling monitoring procedures more positively. This demonstrates that organizational attractiveness is harmed by controlling monitoring procedures, and decision makers should keep in mind how electronic monitoring is implemented, used, and may be perceived within and outside the organization.

Interdisziplinäre Kompetenzen: Modellentwicklung und diagnostische Zugänge

In diesem Beitrag in der Zeitschrift Gruppe. Interaktion. Organisation (GIO) werden die Entwicklung eines Modells interdisziplinärer Kompetenzen und zwei darauf aufbauende Messverfahren vorgestellt, nämlich ein Fragebogeninstrument für das Selbstkonzept interdisziplinärer Kompetenzen sowie ein simulationsorientierter Zugang. Interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit gilt als zukunftsweisend, um Innovationen an den Schnittstellen zwischen etablierten Disziplinen und Fachbereichen zu erzielen. Zugleich wird sie jedoch von den Beteiligten häufig als belastend empfunden. An dieser Stelle tragen interdisziplinäre Kompetenzen als individuelle Fähigkeiten und instrumentelle Verhaltensweisen zu erfolgreicher interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit bei. Das hier vorgestellte Modell interdisziplinärer Kompetenzen umfasst die Kompetenzdimensionen Initiative zum Austausch, Zielgruppenspezifische Kommunikation, Wissensintegration und Reflexion der eigenen Fachdisziplin. Die von uns konzipierte Skala zur Erfassung des Selbstkonzepts interdisziplinärer Kompetenzen kann unabhängig vom fachlichen Hintergrund der Stichprobe eingesetzt werden. Zur Reflexion des eigenen Verhaltens und als Ausgangspunkt für Entwicklungsmaßnahmen wird weiterhin ein Verhaltenssimulationsansatz vorgeschlagen, der im Vergleich jedoch einen deutlich höheren Personaleinsatz erfordert. Modell und diagnostische Zugänge ermöglichen es, im Zuge von Personalauswahl, -entwicklung und zur Evaluation der Zusammenarbeit in interdisziplinären Teams interdisziplinäre Kompetenzen von Individuen zu messen.

What is the Role of Technology in Recruitment and Selection?

We explore a number of new developments in the field of employee recruitment and selection with a focus on recent technological developments. We discuss examples of technological developments across the four stages of the recruitment and selection process. In the attraction stage we discuss how on-line/internet recruitment and especially social networking websites have changed dramatically the focus of attracting candidates effectively. In the next stage of screening, we discuss how cybervetting and applicant tracking systems offer opportunities but also threats for recruiters and candidates. In the third stage of employee selection, we focus especially on two new selection methods; the asynchronous/digital interview and gamification/games-based assessment, along with the critical role and impact applicant reactions have on the selection process. Finally, we briefly discuss the main technological developments in on-boarding and socialization, and we conclude with a few suggestions for future research in this field.

A Comparison of Conventional and Technology-Mediated Selection Interviews With Regard to Interviewees' Performance, Perceptions, Strain, and Anxiety

Organizations increasingly use technology-mediated interviews. However, only limited research is available concerning the comparability of different interview media and most of the available studies stem from a time when technology-mediated interviews were less common than in the present time. In an experiment using simulated selection interviews, we compared traditional face-to-face (FTF) interviews with telephone and videoconference interviews to determine whether ratings of interviewees’ performance, their perceptions of the interview, or their strain and anxiety are affected by the type of interview. Before participating in the actual interview, participants had a more positive view of FTF interviews compared to technology-mediated interviews. However, fairness perceptions did not differ anymore after the interview. Furthermore, there were no differences between the three interview media concerning psychological and physiological indicators of strain or interview anxiety. Nevertheless, ratings of interviewees’ performance were lower in the technology-mediated interviews than in FTF interviews. Thus, differences between different interview media can still be found nowadays even though most applicants are much more familiar with technology-mediated communication than in the past. The results show that organizations should take this into account and therefore avoid using different interview media when they interview different applicants for the same job opening.

Applicant Fairness Perceptions of a Robot-Mediated Job Interview: A Video Vignette-Based Experimental Survey

It is well-established in the literature that biases (e. g., related to body size, ethnicity, race etc.) can occur during the employment interview and that applicants' fairness perceptions related to selection procedures can influence attitudes, intentions, and behaviors toward the recruiting organization. This study explores how social robotics may affect this situation. Using an online, video vignette-based experimental survey (n = 235), the study examines applicant fairness perceptions of two types of job interviews: a face-to-face and a robot-mediated interview. To reduce the risk of socially desirable responses, desensitize the topic, and detect any inconsistencies in the respondents' reactions to vignette scenarios, the study employs a first-person and a third-person perspective. In the robot-mediated interview, two teleoperated robots are used as fair proxies for the applicant and the interviewer, thus providing symmetrical visual anonymity unlike prior research that relied on asymmetrical anonymity, in which only one party was anonymized. This design is intended to eliminate visual cues that typically cause implicit biases and discrimination of applicants, but also to prevent biasing the interviewer's assessment through impression management tactics typically used by applicants. We hypothesize that fairness perception (i.e., procedural fairness and interactional fairness) and behavioral intentions (i.e., intentions of job acceptance, reapplication intentions, and recommendation intentions) will be higher in a robot-mediated job interview than in a face-to-face job interview, and that this effect will be stronger for introvert applicants. The study shows, contrary to our expectations, that the face-to-face interview is perceived as fairer, and that the applicant's personality (introvert vs. extravert) does not affect this perception. We discuss this finding and its implications, and address avenues for future research.

It Takes More Than a Good Camera: Which Factors Contribute to Differences Between Face-to-Face Interviews and Videoconference Interviews Regarding Performance Ratings and Interviewee Perceptions?

Due to technological progress, videoconference interviews have become more and more common in personnel selection. Nevertheless, even in recent studies, interviewees received lower performance ratings in videoconference interviews than in face-to-face (FTF) interviews and interviewees held more negative perceptions of these interviews. However, the reasons for these differences are unclear. Therefore, we conducted an experiment with 114 participants to compare FTF and videoconference interviews regarding interview performance and fairness perceptions and we investigated the role of social presence, eye contact, and impression management for these differences. As in other studies, ratings of interviewees' performance were lower in the videoconference interview. Differences in perceived social presence, perceived eye contact, and impression management contributed to these effects. Furthermore, live ratings of interviewees' performance were higher than ratings based on recordings. Additionally, videoconference interviews induced more privacy concerns but were perceived as more flexible. Organizations should take the present results into account and should not use both types of interviews in the same selection stage.

AI Evaluation in Selection

Abstract. This study investigates how information provided prior to the application stage of the selection process affects application intentions toward the job and organization. Existing research has focused on applicants who have already entered into the selection process; however, information revealed prior to application may cause candidates to self-select themselves out of the process. Utilizing a randomized experimental design, participants read a job ad specifying that their prerecorded interviews would be reviewed by a human or an artificial intelligence-based evaluator. The results show increased intentions to apply and pursue the job in the human evaluation condition.

Technologie-mediierte Einstellungsinterviews: Ein Überblick über Befunde und offene Fragen

Dieser Beitrag der Zeitschrift Gruppe. Interaktion. Organisation. (GIO) fasst bisherige Forschung zu technologie-mediierten Interviews zusammen und gibt darauf aufbauend Empfehlungen für weitere Forschung und die Praxis. Durch die Digitalisierung und den technologischen Fortschritt hat sich auch die Art und Weise verändert, wie Vorstellungsgespräche geführt werden. Technologie-mediierte Alternativen zu klassischen Face-to-Face-Interviews haben sich in der Personalauswahl teilweise etabliert. In unserem Artikel wollen wir einen Überblick über den bisherigen Stand der Forschung zu solchen technologie-mediierten Interviews geben. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, dass Bewerber in den meisten Formen von technologie-mediierten Interviews schlechter abschneiden und diese auch schlechter akzeptieren als FTF-Interviews. Die Gründe für diese Unterschiede sind jedoch weitestgehend ungeklärt. Zudem wird die Validität von verschiedenen Formen der Interview-Durchführung beleuchtet. Abschließend benennen wir wichtige Forschungslücken und leiten auf Basis bisheriger Ergebnisse Empfehlungen für die Praxis ab.

Is anybody listening? The impact of automatically evaluated job interviews on impression management and applicant reactions

Purpose

Automatic evaluation of job interviews has become an alternative for assessing interviewees. Therefore, questions arise regarding applicant reactions and behavior when algorithms automatically evaluate applicants' interview responses. This study tests arguments from previous research suggesting that applicants whose interviews will be automatically evaluated may use less impression management (IM), but could react more negatively to the interview.

Design/methodology/approach

Participants (N = 124; primarily German students) took part in an online mock interview where they responded to interview questions via voice recordings (i.e. an asynchronous interview). Prior to the interview, half of them were informed that their answers would be evaluated automatically (vs by a human rater). After the interviews, participants reported their honest and deceptive IM behavior as well as their reactions to the interview.

Findings

Participants in the automatic evaluation condition engaged in less deceptive IM, felt they had fewer opportunities to perform during the interview, and provided shorter interview answers.

Research limitations/implications

The findings of this study suggest a trade-off between IM behavior and applicant reactions in technologically advanced interviews. Furthermore, the results indicate that automatically evaluated interviews might affect interview validity (e.g. because of less deceptive IM) and influence interviewees' response behavior.

Practical implications

Hiring managers might hope that automatically evaluated interviews decrease applicants' use of deceptive IM. However, the results also challenge organizations to pay attention to negative effects of automatic evaluation on applicant reactions.

Originality/value

This study is the first empirical study investigating the impact of automatically evaluated interviews on applicant behavior and reactions.

Smile for the camera! The role of social presence and impression management in perceptions of technology-mediated interviews

Purpose

Videoconference interviews and asynchronous interviews are increasingly used to select applicants. However, recent research has found that technology-mediated interviews are less accepted by applicants compared to face-to-face (FTF) interviews. The reasons for these differences have not yet been clarified. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to take a closer look at potential reasons that have been suggested in previous research.

Design/methodology/approach

The present study surveyed 154 working individuals who answered questions concerning their perceptions of FTF, videoconference and asynchronous interviews in terms of perceived fairness, social presence and the potential use of impression management (IM) tactics. Furthermore, potential attitudinal and personality correlates were also measured.

Findings

Technology-mediated interviews were perceived as less fair than FTF interviews and this difference was stronger for asynchronous interviews than for videoconference interviews. The perceived social presence and the possible use of IM followed the same pattern. Furthermore, differences in fairness perceptions were mediated by perceived social presence and the possible use of IM tactics. Additionally, affinity for technology and core self-evaluations correlated positively with perceptions of videoconference interviews but not with those of FTF and asynchronous interviews.

Originality/value

This is the first study to compare fairness perceptions of FTF, videoconference and asynchronous interviews and to confirm previous assumptions that potential applicants perceive technology-mediated interviews as less favorable because of impairments in social presence and the potential use of IM.

Highly automated interviews: applicant reactions and the organizational context

Purpose

The technological evolution of job interviews continues as highly automated interviews emerge as alternative approaches. Initial evidence shows that applicants react negatively to such interviews. Additionally, there is emerging evidence that contextual influences matter when investigating applicant reactions to highly automated interviews. However, previous research has ignored higher-level organizational contexts (i.e. which kind of organization uses the selection procedure) and individual differences (e.g. work experience) regarding applicant reactions. The purpose of this paper is to investigate applicant reactions to highly automated interviews for students and employees and the role of the organizational context when using such interviews.

Design/methodology/approach

In a 2 × 2 online study, participants read organizational descriptions of either an innovative or an established organization and watched a video displaying a highly automated or a videoconference interview. Afterwards, participants responded to applicant reaction items.

Findings

Participants (n=148) perceived highly automated interviews as more consistent but as conveying less social presence. The negative effect on social presence diminished organizational attractiveness. The organizational context did not affect applicant reactions to the interview approaches, whereas differences between students and employees emerged but only affected privacy concerns to the interview approaches.

Research limitations/implications

The organizational context seems to have negligible effects on applicant reactions to technology-enhanced interviews. There were only small differences between students and employees regarding applicant reactions.

Practical implications

In a tense labor market, hiring managers need to be aware of a trade-off between efficiency and applicant reactions regarding technology-enhanced interviews.

Originality/value

This study investigates high-level contextual influences and individual differences regarding applicant reactions to highly automated interviews.

Applicant Perceptions of Initial Job Candidate Screening With Asynchronous Job Interviews

Abstract. Applicant fairness perceptions of asynchronous job interviews were assessed among panelists (Study 1, N = 160) and highly educated actual applicants (Study 2, N = 103). Furthermore, we also examined whether personality explained applicants’ perceptions. Participants, particularly actual applicants, had negative perceptions of the fairness and procedural justice of asynchronous job interviews. Extraverted applicants perceived more opportunity to perform with the asynchronous job interview than introverts. A trait interaction between Neuroticism and Extraversion was tested, but no significant results were found. Although the first selection stage is increasingly digitized, this study shows that applicant perceptions of asynchronous job interviews are relatively negative. The influence of personality on these perceptions appears to be limited.

Love the Way You Lie

Abstract. In case of an applicant shortage, signaling theory and research on interviewer impression management (IM) imply that hiring managers use more IM. To test which kind of IM behavior they apply and whether it indeed influences applicants, participants fulfilled the role of hiring managers and recorded company presentation videos, either assuming an applicant shortage or a sufficient number of applicants. In the applicant shortage condition, participants used more defensive IM, indicated by self-reported, observed, and artifactual (withholding negative visual information about an organization) IM measures. Additionally, more defensive IM led to better perceived organizational attractiveness. This study contributes to IM research shedding light on hiring managers’ IM behavior and stimulating ideas on how to study IM behavior in the laboratory.

Introducing and Testing the Creepiness of Situation Scale (CRoSS)

When people interact with novel technologies (e.g., robots, novel technological tools), the word “creepy” regularly pops up. We define creepy situations as eliciting uneasy feelings and involving ambiguity (e.g., on how the behave or how to judge the situation). A common metric for creepiness would help evaluating creepiness of situations and developing adequate interventions against creepiness. Following psychometrical guidelines, we developed the Creepiness of Situation Scale (CRoSS) across four studies with a total of N = 882 American and German participants. In Studies 1–3, participants watched a video of a creepy situation involving technology. Study 1 used exploratory factor analysis in an American sample and showed that creepiness consists of emotional creepiness and creepy ambiguity. In a German sample, Study 2 confirmed these subdimensions. Study 3 supported validity of the CRoSS as creepiness correlated positively with privacy concerns and computer anxiety, but negatively with controllability and transparency. Study 4 used the scale in a 2 (male vs. female experimenter) × 2 (male vs. female participant) × 2 (day vs. night) field study to demonstrate its usefulness for non-technological settings and its sensitivity to theory-based predictions. Results indicate that participants contacted by an experimenter at night-time reported higher feelings of creepiness. Overall, these studies suggest that the CRoSS is a psychometrically sound measure for research and practice.