Caspase-11: arming the guards against bacterial infection

Molecular mechanisms of emerging inflammasome complexes and their activation and signaling in inflammation and pyroptosis

Inflammasomes are multi-protein complexes that assemble within the cytoplasm of mammalian cells in response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), driving the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, and pyroptosis. The best-characterized inflammasome complexes are the NLRP3, NAIP-NLRC4, NLRP1, AIM2, and Pyrin canonical caspase-1-containing inflammasomes, and the caspase-11 non-canonical inflammasome. Newer inflammasome sensor proteins have been identified, including NLRP6, NLRP7, NLRP9, NLRP10, NLRP11, NLRP12, CARD8, and MxA. These inflammasome sensors can sense PAMPs from bacteria, viruses and protozoa, or DAMPs in the form of mitochondrial damage, ROS, stress and heme. The mechanisms of action, physiological relevance, consequences in human diseases, and avenues for therapeutic intervention for these novel inflammasomes are beginning to be realized. Here, we discuss these emerging inflammasome complexes and their putative activation mechanisms, molecular and signaling pathways, and physiological roles in health and disease.

The Role of Macrophage Death in Periodontitis: A Review

Periodontitis, an infectious inflammatory disease influenced by various factors, disrupts the delicate balance between the host microbiota and immunity. The resulting excessive immune response exacerbates the progressive destruction of the supporting periodontal tissue. Macrophages are essential elements of the host innate immune system. They are pivotal components in the periodontal immune microenvironment and actively participate in both physiological and pathological processes of periodontal tissue. When confronted with periodontitis-related irritant factors, macrophages may differentiate to pro- or anti-inflammatory subtypes that affect tissue homeostasis. Additionally, macrophages may die in response to bacterial infections, potentially affecting the severity of periodontitis. This article reviews the typical mechanisms underlying macrophage death and its effects on periodontitis. We describe five forms of macrophage death in periodontitis: apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and ETosis. Our review of macrophage death in the pathophysiology of periodontitis enhances comprehension of the pathogenesis of periodontitis that will be useful for clinical practice. Although our review elucidates the complex mechanisms by which macrophage death and inflammatory pathways perpetuate periodontitis, unresolved issues remain, necessitating further research.

Role of Histiocyte-Derived frHMGB1 as a Facilitator in Noncanonical Pyroptosis of Monocytes/Macrophages in Lethal Sepsis

In this study, we investigated the role of the noncanonical pyroptosis pathway in the progression of lethal sepsis. Our findings emphasize the significance of noncanonical pyroptosis in monocytes/macrophages for the survival of septic mice. We observed that inhibiting pyroptosis alone significantly improved the survival rate of septic mice and that the HMGB1 A box effectively suppressed this noncanonical pyroptosis, thereby enhancing the survival of septic mice. Additionally, our cell in vitro experiments unveiled that frHMGB1, originating from lipopolysaccharide-carrying histiocytes, entered macrophages via RAGE, resulting in the direct activation of caspase 11 and the induction of noncanonical pyroptosis. Notably, A box's competitive binding with lipopolysaccharide impeded its entry into the cell cytosol. These findings reveal potential therapeutic strategies for slowing the progression of lethal sepsis by modulating the noncanonical pyroptosis pathway.

IRF3 function and immunological gaps in sepsis

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces potent cell activation via Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation protein 2 (TLR4/MD-2), often leading to septic death and cytokine storm. TLR4 signaling is diverted to the classical acute innate immune, inflammation-driving pathway in conjunction with the classical NF-κB pivot of MyD88, leading to epigenetic linkage shifts in nuclear pro-inflammatory transcription and chromatin structure-function; in addition, TLR4 signaling to the TIR domain-containing adapter-induced IFN-β (TRIF) apparatus and to nuclear pivots that signal the association of interferons alpha and beta (IFN-α and IFN-β) with acute inflammation, often coupled with oxidants favor inhibition or resistance to tissue injury. Although the immune response to LPS, which causes sepsis, has been clarified in this manner, there are still many current gaps in sepsis immunology to reduce mortality. Recently, selective agonists and inhibitors of LPS signals have been reported, and there are scattered reports on LPS tolerance and control of sepsis development. In particular, IRF3 signaling has been reported to be involved not only in sepsis but also in increased pathogen clearance associated with changes in the gut microbiota. Here, we summarize the LPS recognition system, main findings related to the IRF3, and finally immunological gaps in sepsis.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor-mediated mast cell extracellular traps induce inflammatory responses upon Fusobacterium nucleatum infection

Mast cell extracellular traps (MCETs) released by mast cells contribute to host defense. In this study, we investigated the effects of MCETs released from mast cells after infection with a periodontal pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum. We found that F. nucleatum induced MCET release from mast cells, and that MCETs expressed macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF). Notably, MIF bound to MCETs induced proinflammatory cytokine production by monocytic cells. These findings suggest that MIF expressed on MCETs, released from mast cells upon infection with F. nucleatum, promotes inflammatory responses that may be associated with the pathogenesis of periodontal disease.

Neurovascular Cell Death and Therapeutic Strategies for Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major complication of diabetes and a leading cause of blindness worldwide. DR was recently defined as a neurovascular disease associated with tissue-specific neurovascular impairment of the retina in patients with diabetes. Neurovascular cell death is the main cause of neurovascular impairment in DR. Thus, neurovascular cell protection is a potential therapy for preventing the progression of DR. Growing evidence indicates that a variety of cell death pathways, such as apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis, are associated with neurovascular cell death in DR. These forms of regulated cell death may serve as therapeutic targets for ameliorating the pathogenesis of DR. This review focuses on these cell death mechanisms and describes potential therapies for the treatment of DR that protect against neurovascular cell death.

The Endotoxin Hypothesis of Parkinson's Disease

The endotoxin hypothesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the idea that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxins contribute to the pathogenesis of this disorder. LPS endotoxins are found in, and released from, the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, for example in the gut. It is proposed that gut dysfunction in early PD leads to elevated LPS levels in the gut wall and blood, which promotes both α-synuclein aggregation in the enteric neurons and a peripheral inflammatory response. Communication to the brain via circulating LPS and cytokines in the blood and/or the gut-brain axis leads to neuroinflammation and spreading of α-synuclein pathology, exacerbating neurodegeneration in brainstem nuclei and loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, and manifesting in the clinical symptoms of PD. The evidence supporting this hypothesis includes: (1) gut dysfunction, permeability, and bacterial changes occur early in PD, (2) serum levels of LPS are increased in a proportion of PD patients, (3) LPS induces α-synuclein expression, aggregation, and neurotoxicity, (4) LPS causes activation of peripheral monocytes leading to inflammatory cytokine production, and (5) blood LPS causes brain inflammation and specific loss of midbrain dopaminergic neurons, mediated by microglia. If the hypothesis is correct, then treatment options might include: (1) changing the gut microbiome, (2) reducing gut permeability, (3) reducing circulating LPS levels, or (4) blocking the response of immune cells and microglia to LPS. However, the hypothesis has a number of limitations and requires further testing, in particular whether reducing LPS levels can reduce PD incidence, progression, or severity. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Proteochemometrics modeling for prediction of the interactions between caspase isoforms and their inhibitors

Caspases (cysteine-aspartic proteases) play critical roles in inflammation and the programming of cell death in the form of necroptosis, apoptosis, and pyroptosis. The name of these enzymes has been chosen in accordance with their cysteine protease activity. They act as cysteines in nucleophilically active sites to attack and cleave target proteins in the aspartic acid and amino acid C-terminal. Based on the substrate's structure and the specificity, the physiological activity of caspases is divided. However, in apoptosis, the division of caspases into initiating caspases (caspase 2, 8, 9, and 10) and executive caspases (caspase 3, 6, and 7) is essential. The present study aimed to perform Proteochemometrics Modeling to generalize the data on caspases, which could predict ligand and protein interactions. In this study, we employed protein and ligand descriptors. Moreover, protein descriptors were computed using the Protr R package, while PADEL-Descriptor was employed for the computation of ligand descriptors. In addition, NCA (Neighborhood Component Analyses) was used for descriptor selection, and SVR, decision tree, and ensemble methods were utilized for the proteochemometrics modeling. This study shows that the ensemble model demonstrates superior performance compared with other models in terms of R², Q², and RMSE criteria.

[Development of Anti-inflammatory Drugs with Novel Mechanisms of Action Targeting Pyroptosis]

Programmed cell death plays various physiological roles, one of which is an immune response that protects the body from infectious pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. Pathogen infection causes dysfunction of cellular organelles, such as mitochondria and lysosomes, triggering stress signals that induce programmed cell death. In some cases, cell death coincides with intracellular inflammatory cytokine release. Such programmed cell death, accompanied by the induction of inflammatory responses, is called pyroptosis, which inhibits pathogen proliferation within cells and attracts leukocytes that eliminate the pathogens, thereby preventing infection spread. Additionally, pyroptosis can be induced by noninfectious stimuli such as drugs, pollutants, and nutrients, resulting in severe inflammatory disease. Therefore, the development of effective anti-inflammatory drugs that prevent pyroptosis based on the understanding of the mechanisms responsible for its induction is an urgent requirement. This review provides an overview of the non-infectious inflammatory response caused by pyroptosis and the development of new anti-inflammatory drugs that target organelles to prevent pyroptosis to treat relevant inflammatory diseases.

The Emerging Roles of Pyroptosis, Necroptosis, and Ferroptosis in Non-Malignant Dermatoses: A Review

Unlike apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, and ferroptosis are recently identified modes of programmed cell death (PCD) with unique molecular pathways. Increasing evidence has indicated that these PCD modes play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of various non-malignant dermatoses (a group of cutaneous disorders), including infective dermatoses, immune-related dermatoses, allergic dermatoses, benign proliferative dermatoses, etc. Moreover, their molecular mechanisms have been suggested as potential therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of these dermatoses. In this article, we aim to review and summarize the molecular mechanisms of pyroptosis, necroptosis, and ferroptosis and their roles in the pathogenesis of some non-malignant dermatoses.

A Glimpse of Inflammation and Anti-Inflammation Therapy in Diabetic Kidney Disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus and a major cause of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). The pathogenesis of DKD is very complex and not completely understood. Recently, accumulated evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies has demonstrated that inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis and the development of DKD. It has been well known that a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines and related signaling pathways are involved in the procession of DKD. Additionally, some anti-hyperglycemic agents and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs) that are effective in alleviating the progression of DKD have anti-inflammatory properties, which might have beneficial effects on delaying the progression of DKD. However, there is currently a lack of systematic overviews. In this review, we focus on the novel pro-inflammatory signaling pathways in the development of DKD, including the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, toll-like receptors (TLRs) and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (TLRs/MyD88) signaling pathway, adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathways, inflammasome activation, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release as well as hypoxia-inducible factor-1(HIF-1) signaling pathway. We also discuss the related anti-inflammation mechanisms of metformin, finerenone, sodium-dependent glucose transporters 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist and traditional Chinese medicines (TCM).

Biological causes of immunogenic cancer cell death (ICD) and anti-tumor therapy; Combination of Oncolytic virus-based immunotherapy and CAR T-cell therapy for ICD induction

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a promising and rapidly expanding therapeutic option for a wide range of human malignancies. Despite the ongoing progress of CAR T-cell therapy in hematologic malignancies, the application of this therapeutic strategy in solid tumors has encountered several challenges due to antigen heterogeneity, suboptimal CAR T-cell trafficking, and the immunosuppressive features of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Oncolytic virotherapy is a novel cancer therapy that employs competent or genetically modified oncolytic viruses (OVs) to preferentially proliferate in tumor cells. OVs in combination with CAR T-cells are promising candidates for overcoming the current drawbacks of CAR T-cell application in tumors through triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD) in cancer cells. ICD is a type of cellular death in which danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and tumor-specific antigens are released, leading to the stimulation of potent anti-cancer immunity. In the present review, we discuss the biological causes of ICD, different types of ICD, and the synergistic combination of OVs and CAR T-cells to reach potent tumor-specific immunity.

TLR2/caspase-5/Panx1 pathway mediates necrosis-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages during acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is characterized by necroinflammation formed by necrotic tubular epithelial cells (TECs) and interstitial inflammation. In necroinflammation, macrophages are key inflammatory cells and can be activated and polarized into proinflammatory macrophages. Membranous Toll-like receptors (TLRs) can cooperate with intracellular NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) to recognize danger signals from necrotic TECs and activate proinflammatory macrophages by assembling NLRP3 inflammasome. However, the cooperation between TLRs and NLRP3 is still unclear. Using conditioned medium from necrotic TECs, we confirmed that necrotic TECs could release danger signals to activate NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages. We further identified that necrotic TECs-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation was dependent on ATP secretion via Pannexin-1 (Panx1) channel in macrophages. Next, we verified that TLR2 was required for the activation of Panx1 and NLRP3 in macrophages. Mechanistically, we indicated that caspase-5 mediated TLR2-induced Panx1 activation. In addition, we showed that necrotic TECs-induced activation of TLR2/caspase-5/Panx1 axis could be decreased in macrophages when TECs was protected by N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Overall, we demonstrate that danger signals from necrotic TECs could activate NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages via TLR2/caspase-5/Panx1 axis during AKI.

Differential involvement of the canonical and noncanonical inflammasomes in the immune response against infection by the periodontal bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum

•

The canonical P2 × 7-Caspase-1 pathway is necessary for secretion of IL-1β in oral tissues and macrophages infected with P. gingivalis.

•

P2 × 7 receptor controls bacterial load of F. nucleatum and P. gingivalis in macrophages and in mice.

•

Caspase-11 is essential for F. nucleatum-induced secretion of IL-1β in macrophages, limits F. nucleatum infection in macrophages and in mice, and is required for cell death induced by F. nucleatum infection.

•

The canonical inflammasome is activated preferentially in response to P. gingivalis infection, while the noncanonical inflammasome plays a predominant role during F. nucleatum infection.

We examined the involvement of the P2 × 7 receptor and the canonical and noncanonical inflammasomes in the control of single-species or dual-species infection by the periodontal bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum in cells and mice. Stimulation of the P2 × 7 receptor leads to activation of the canonical NLRP3 inflammasome and activation of caspase-1, which leads to cleavage of pro-IL-1β to IL-1β, a key cytokine in the host inflammatory response in periodontal disease. The non-canonical inflammasome pathway involves caspase-11. Thus, wildtype (WT), P2 × 7^−/−, caspase-11^−/− and caspase-1/11^−/− mice were co-infected with both bacterial species. In parallel, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from WT mice and the different knockout mice were infected with P. gingivalis and/or F. nucleatum, and treated or not with extracellular ATP, which is recognized by P2 × 7. F. nucleatum infection alone promoted secretion of IL-1β in BMDMs. Conversely, the canonical pathway involving P2 × 7 and caspase-1 was necessary for secretion of IL-1β in BMDMs infected with P. gingivalis and in the mandible of mice coinfected with P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum. The P2 × 7 pathway can limit bacterial load in single-species and dual-species infection with P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum in BMDMs and in mice. The non-canonical pathway involving caspase-11 was required for secretion of IL-1β induced by F. nucleatum infection in BMDMs, without treatment with ATP. Caspase-11 was also required for induction of cell death during infection with F. nucleatum and contributed to limiting bacterial load during F. nucleatum infection in BMDMs and in the gingival tissue of mice coinfected with P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum. Together, these data suggest that the P2 × 7-caspase-1 and caspase-11 pathways are involved in the immune response against infection by P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum, respectively.

Programmed cell death in aortic aneurysm and dissection: A potential therapeutic target

Rupture of aortic aneurysm and dissection (AAD) remains a leading cause of death. Progressive smooth muscle cell (SMC) loss is a crucial feature of AAD that contributes to aortic dysfunction and degeneration, leading to aortic aneurysm, dissection, and, ultimately, rupture. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of SMC loss and identifying pathways that promote SMC death in AAD are critical for developing an effective pharmacologic therapy to prevent aortic destruction and disease progression. Cell death is controlled by programmed cell death pathways, including apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis. Although these pathways share common stimuli and triggers, each type of programmed cell death has unique features and activation pathways. A growing body of evidence supports a critical role for programmed cell death in the pathogenesis of AAD, and inhibitors of various types of programmed cell death represent a promising therapeutic strategy. This review discusses the different types of programmed cell death pathways and their features, induction, contributions to AAD development, and therapeutic potential. We also highlight the clinical significance of programmed cell death for further studies.

Targeting Cytokines, Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns, and Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns in Sepsis via Blood Purification

Sepsis is characterized by a dysregulated immune response to infections that causes life-threatening organ dysfunction and even death. When infections occur, bacterial cell wall components (endotoxin or lipopolysaccharide), known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns, bind to pattern recognition receptors, such as toll-like receptors, to initiate an inflammatory response for pathogen elimination. However, strong activation of the immune system leads to cellular dysfunction and ultimately organ failure. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are released by injured host cells, are well-recognized triggers that result in the elevation of inflammatory cytokine levels. A cytokine storm is thus amplified and sustained in this vicious cycle. Interestingly, during sepsis, neutrophils transition from powerful antimicrobial protectors into dangerous mediators of tissue injury and organ dysfunction. Thus, the concept of blood purification has evolved to include inflammatory cells and mediators. In this review, we summarize recent advances in knowledge regarding the role of lipopolysaccharides, cytokines, DAMPs, and neutrophils in the pathogenesis of sepsis. Additionally, we discuss the potential of blood purification, especially the adsorption technology, for removing immune cells and molecular mediators, thereby serving as a therapeutic strategy against sepsis. Finally, we describe the concept of our immune-modulating blood purification system.

Updating the NLRC4 Inflammasome: from Bacterial Infections to Autoimmunity and Cancer

Inflammasomes comprise a family of cytosolic multi-protein complexes that modulate the activation of cysteine-aspartate-specific protease 1 (caspase-1) and promote the maturation and secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, leading to an inflammatory response. Different types of inflammasomes are defined by their sensor protein which recognizes pathogenic ligands and then directs inflammasome assembly. Although the specific molecular mechanisms underlying the activation of most inflammasomes are still unclear, NLRC4 inflammasomes have emerged as multifaceted agents of the innate immune response, playing important roles in immune defense against a variety of pathogens. Other studies have also expanded the scope of NLRC4 inflammasomes to include a range of inherited human autoimmune diseases as well as proposed roles in cancer. In this review article, we provide an updated overview of NLRC4 inflammasomes, describing their composition, activation mechanisms and roles in both microbial infections and other disease conditions.

Sepsis take-out: Inhibiting bacterial deliveries

Sepsis remains a deadly disease with limited treatment options. In this issue of Immunity, Tang et al. propose that heparin provides protection during gram-negative sepsis by dampening harmful CASP11-dependent signaling through inhibition of HMGB1- and heparanase-mediated cytosolic delivery of LPS.

Molecular mechanisms activating the NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome: Implications in infectious disease, autoinflammation, and cancer

Cytosolic innate immune sensing is a cornerstone of innate immunity in mammalian cells and provides a surveillance system for invading pathogens and endogenous danger signals. The NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome responds to cytosolic flagellin, and the inner rod and needle proteins of the type 3 secretion system of bacteria. This complex induces caspase-1-dependent proteolytic cleavage of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, and the pore-forming protein gasdermin D, leading to inflammation and pyroptosis, respectively. Localized responses triggered by the NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome are largely protective against bacterial pathogens, owing to several mechanisms, including the release of inflammatory mediators, liberation of concealed intracellular pathogens for killing by other immune mechanisms, activation of apoptotic caspases, caspase-7, and caspase-8, and expulsion of an entire infected cell from the mammalian host. In contrast, aberrant activation of the NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome caused by de novo gain-of-function mutations in the gene encoding NLRC4 can lead to macrophage activation syndrome, neonatal enterocolitis, fetal thrombotic vasculopathy, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome, and even death. Some of these clinical manifestations could be treated by therapeutics targeting inflammasome-associated cytokines. In addition, the NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome has been implicated in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, melanoma, glioma, and breast cancer. However, no consensus has been reached on its function in the development of any cancer types. In this review, we highlight the latest advances in the activation mechanisms and structural assembly of the NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome, and the functions of this inflammasome in different cell types. We also describe progress toward understanding the role of the NAIP-NLRC4 inflammasome in infectious diseases, autoinflammatory diseases, and cancer.

Peripheral innate immune and bacterial signals relate to clinical heterogeneity in Parkinson's disease

The innate immune system is implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD), but peripheral in-vivo clinical evidence of the components and driving mechanisms involved and their relationship with clinical heterogeneity and progression to dementia remain poorly explored. We examined changes in peripheral innate immune-related markers in PD cases (n = 41) stratified according to risk of developing early dementia. 'Higher Risk'(HR) (n = 23) and 'Lower Risk' (LR) (n = 18) groups were defined according to neuropsychological predictors and MAPT H1/H2 genotype, and compared to age, gender and genotype-matched controls. Monocyte subsets and expression of key surface markers were measured using flow cytometry. Serum markers including alpha-synuclein, inflammasome-related caspase-1 and bacterial translocation-related endotoxin were measured using quantitative immuno-based assays. Specific markers were further investigated using monocyte assays and validated in plasma samples from a larger incident PD cohort (n = 95). We found that classical monocyte frequency was elevated in PD cases compared to controls, driven predominantly by the HR group, in whom Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)4+ monocytes and monocyte Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid cells-2 (TREM2) expression were also increased. Monocyte Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)-DR expression correlated with clinical variables, with lower levels associated with worse cognitive/motor performance. Notably, monocyte changes were accompanied by elevated serum bacterial endotoxin, again predominantly in the HR group. Serum alpha-synuclein and inflammasome-related caspase-1 were decreased in PD cases compared to controls regardless of group, with decreased monocyte alpha-synuclein secretion in HR cases. Further, alpha-synuclein and caspase-1 correlated positively in serum and monocyte lysates, and in plasma from the larger cohort, though no associations were seen with baseline or 36-month longitudinal clinical data. Principal Components Analysis of all monocyte and significant serum markers indicated 3 major components. Component 1 (alpha-synuclein, caspase-1, TLR2+ monocytes) differentiated PD cases and controls in both groups, while Component 2 (endotoxin, monocyte TREM2, alpha-synuclein) did so predominantly in the HR group. Component 3 (classical monocytes, alpha-synuclein) also differentiated cases and controls overall in both groups. These findings demonstrate that systemic innate immune changes are present in PD and are greatest in those at higher risk of rapid progression to dementia. Markers associated with PD per-se (alpha-synuclein, caspase-1), differ from those related to cognitive progression and clinical heterogeneity (endotoxin, TREM2, TLR4, classical monocytes, HLA-DR), with mechanistic and therapeutic implications. Alpha-synuclein and caspase-1 are associated, suggesting inflammasome involvement common to all PD, while bacterial translocation associated changes may contribute towards progression to Parkinson's dementia. Additionally, HLA-DR-associated variations in antigen presentation/clearance may modulate existing clinical disease.

Expression of NLRP3 inflammasome in leprosy indicates immune evasion of Mycobacterium leprae

BACKGROUND

Leprosy is an infectious-contagious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae that remain endemic in 105 countries. This neglected disease has a wide range of clinical and histopathological manifestations that are related to the host inflammatory and immune responses. More recently, the inflammasome has assumed a relevant role in the inflammatory response against microbiological agents. However, the involvement of inflammasome in leprosy remains poorly understood.

OBJECTIVES

The aim is to associate biomarkers of inflammasome with the different immunopathological forms of leprosy.

METHODS

We performed an observational, cross-sectional, and comparative study of the immunophenotypic expression of inflammasome-associated proteins in immunopathological forms of leprosy of 99 skin lesion samples by immunohistochemistry. The intensity and percentage of NLRP3, Caspase-1, Caspases-4/5, interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 immunoreactivities in the inflammatory infiltrate of skin biopsies were evaluated.

FINDINGS

Strong expression of NLRP3 and inflammatory Caspases-4/5 were observed in lepromatous leprosy (lepromatous pole). In addition, were observed low expression of caspase-1, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-18 in tuberculoid and lepromatous leprosy. The interpolar or borderline form showed immunophenotype predominantly similar to the lepromatous pole.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that the NLRP3 inflammasome is inactive in leprosy, suggesting immune evasion of M. leprae.

Regulatory roles of ginseng on inflammatory caspases, executioners of inflammasome activation

Inflammation is an immune response that protects against pathogens and cellular stress. The hallmark of inflammatory responses is inflammasome activation in response to various stimuli. This subsequently activates downstream effectors, that is, inflammatory caspases such as caspase-1, 4, 5, 11, and 12. Extensive efforts have been made on developing effective and safe anti-inflammatory therapeutics, and ginseng has long been traditionally used as efficacious and safe herbal medicine in treating various inflammatory and inflammation-mediated diseases. Many studies have successfully shown that ginseng plays an anti-inflammatory role by inhibiting inflammasomes and inflammasome-activated inflammatory caspases. This review discusses the regulatory roles of ginseng on inflammatory caspases in inflammatory responses and also suggests new research areas on the anti-inflammatory function of ginseng, which provides a novel insight into the development of ginseng as an effective and safe anti-inflammatory herbal medicine.

Toll-like receptor bioactivity in endothelial progenitor cells

Cardiovascular disease is the main cause of death globally that can be mitigated by the modulation of angiogenesis. To achieve this goal, the application of endothelial progenitor cells and other stem cell types is useful. Following the onset of cardiovascular disease and pro-inflammatory conditions as seen during bacterial sepsis, endothelial progenitor cells enter systemic circulation in response to multiple cytokines and activation of various intracellular mechanisms. The critical role of Toll-like receptors has been previously identified in the dynamics of various cell types, in particular, immune cells. To our knowledge, there are a few experiments related to the role of Toll-like receptors in endothelial progenitor cell activity. Emerging data point of endothelial progenitor cells and other stem cells having the potential to express Toll-like receptors to control different activities such as multipotentiality and dynamics of growth. In this review article, we aim to collect data related to the role of Toll-like receptors in endothelial progenitor cells bioactivity and angiogenic potential.

Caspase-11 Mediates Neutrophil Chemotaxis and Extracellular Trap Formation During Acute Gouty Arthritis Through Alteration of Cofilin Phosphorylation

Gout is characterized by attacks of arthritis with hyperuricemia and monosodium urate (MSU) crystal-induced inflammation within joints. Innate immune responses are the primary drivers for tissue destruction and inflammation in gout. MSU crystals engage the Nlrp3 inflammasome, leading to the activation of caspase-1 and production of IL-1β and IL-18 within gout-affected joints, promoting the influx of neutrophils and monocytes. Here, we show that caspase-11^−/− mice and their derived macrophages produce significantly reduced levels of gout-specific cytokines including IL-1β, TNFα, IL-6, and KC, while others like IFNγ and IL-12p70 are not altered. IL-1β induces the expression of caspase-11 in an IL-1 receptor-dependent manner in macrophages contributing to the priming of macrophages during sterile inflammation. The absence of caspase-11 reduced the ability of macrophages and neutrophils to migrate in response to exogenously injected KC in vivo. Notably, in vitro, caspase-11^−/− neutrophils displayed random migration in response to a KC gradient when compared to their WT counterparts. This phenotype was associated with altered cofilin phosphorylation. Unlike their wild-type counterparts, caspase-11^−/− neutrophils also failed to produce neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) when treated with MSU. Together, this is the first report demonstrating that caspase-11 promotes neutrophil directional trafficking and function in an acute model of gout. Caspase-11 also governs the production of inflammasome-dependent and -independent cytokines from macrophages. Our results offer new, previously unrecognized functions for caspase-11 in macrophages and neutrophils that may apply to other neutrophil-mediated disease conditions besides gout.

The Multifaceted Roles of Pyroptotic Cell Death Pathways in Cancer

Cancer is a category of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade other parts of the body. Chemotherapy is the most widely used first-line treatment for multiple forms of cancer. Chemotherapeutic agents act via targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway. However, cancer cells usually acquire chemoresistance, leading to poor outcomes in cancer patients. For that reason, it is imperative to discover other cell death pathways for improved cancer intervention. Pyroptosis is a new form of programmed cell death that commonly occurs upon pathogen invasion. Pyroptosis is marked by cell swelling and plasma membrane rupture, which results in the release of cytosolic contents into the extracellular space. Currently, pyroptosis is proposed to be an alternative mode of cell death in cancer treatment. Accumulating evidence shows that the key components of pyroptotic cell death pathways, including inflammasomes, gasdermins and pro-inflammatory cytokines, are involved in the initiation and progression of cancer. Interfering with pyroptotic cell death pathways may represent a promising therapeutic option for cancer management. In this review, we describe the current knowledge regarding the biological significance of pyroptotic cell death pathways in cancer pathogenesis and also discuss their potential therapeutic utility.

Innate immunity in allergy

Innate immune system quickly responds to invasion of microbes and foreign substances through the extracellular and intracellular sensing receptors, which recognize distinctive molecular and structural patterns. The recognition of innate immune receptors leads to the induction of inflammatory and adaptive immune responses by activating downstream signaling pathways. Allergy is an immune-related disease and results from a hypersensitive immune response to harmless substances in the environment. However, less is known about the activation of innate immunity during exposure to allergens. New insights into the innate immune system by sensors and their signaling cascades provide us with more important clues and a framework for understanding allergy disorders. In this review, we will focus on recent advances in the innate immune sensing system.

The role of inflammasome activation in Triptolide-induced acute liver toxicity

Triptolide (TP), the major active compound derived from the traditional Chinese medicine Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. F, possesses an excellent pharmacological profile of immunomodulatory and anti-tumor activities. However, the application of TP was restricted due to its narrow therapeutic window and side effects, especially its hepatotoxicity. This study was designed to investigate the role of inflammasome in TP-induced acute liver toxicity. After the administration of TP at the dose of 600 μg/kg for 12 h or 24 h, we examined the serum biochemical parameters, liver histopathological changes, the expression of liver inflammatory factors, and the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Mice treated with TP displayed liver injury with a time-dependent increase of serum transaminases and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, accompanied by the elevation of neutrophils infiltration. Further results implied that the activation of TLR4-Myd88-NF-κB pathway and oxidative stress induced by a single dose of TP (600 μg/kg) might participate in the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. To investigate whether the activation of inflammasome participates in the liver damage induced by TP, a single dose of Ac-Yvad-Cmk (Caspase-1 inhibitor) was injected before TP administration. Ac-Yvad-Cmk pretreatment effectively prevented the increase of Cleaved Caspase-1 and inhibited the maturity of IL-1β. Additional studies revealed that Ac-Yvad-Cmk pretreatment decreased the recruitment of neutrophils and inhibited the production of massive pro-inflammatory factors. Taken together, our results revealed that activation of inflammasome aggravated the acute liver toxicity induced by TP. Inhibition of inflammasome could serve as a novel therapeutic target for the amelioration of TP-induced hepatotoxicity.

Caspase-11 promotes renal fibrosis by stimulating IL-1β maturation via activating caspase-1

Caspase-11 is a key upstream modulator for activation of inflammatory response under pathological conditions. In this study, we investigated the roles of caspase-11 in the maturation of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and development of renal interstitial fibrosis in vivo and in vitro. Mice were subjected to unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). The mice were treated with either caspase-11 inhibitor wedelolactone (Wed, 30 mg/kg/day, ig) for 7 days or caspase-11 siRNA (10 nmol/20 g body weight per day, iv) for 14 days. The mice were euthanized on day 14, their renal tissue and blood sample were collected. We found that the obstructed kidney had significantly higher caspase-11 levels and obvious tubular injury and interstitial fibrosis. Treatment with Wed or caspase-11 siRNA significantly mitigated renal fibrosis in UUO mice, evidenced by the improved histological changes. Furthermore, caspase-11 inhibition significantly blunted caspase-1 activation, IL-1β maturation, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), fibronectin, and collagen I expressions in the obstructed kidney. Renal tubular epithelial NRK-52E cells were treated in vitro with angiotensin (Ang, 1 μmol/L), which stimulated caspase-11 activation and IL-1β maturation. Treatment with IL-1β (20 ng/ml) significantly increased the expression of TGF-β, fibronectin, and collagen I in the cells. Ang II-induced expression of TGF-β, fibronectin, and collagen I were suppressed by caspase-11 siRNA or Wed. Finally, we revealed using co-immunoprecipitation that caspase-11 was able to interact with caspase-1 in NRK-52E cells. These results suggest that caspase-11 is involved in UUO-induced renal fibrosis. Elevation of caspase-11 in the obstructed kidney promotes renal fibrosis by stimulating caspase-1 activation and IL-1β maturation.

Macrophage priming is dispensable for NLRP3 inflammasome activation and restriction of Leishmania amazonensis replication

The NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in response to multiple stimuli and triggers activation of caspase-1 (CASP1), IL-1β production, and inflammation. NLRP3 activation requires two signals. The first leads to transcriptional regulation of specific genes related to inflammation, and the second is triggered when pathogens, toxins, or specific compounds damage cellular membranes and/or trigger the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we assess the requirement of the first signal (priming) for the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) infected with Leishmania amazonensis. We found that BMDMs express the inflammasome components NLRP3, ASC, and CASP1 at sufficient levels to enable the assembly and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in response to infection. Therefore, priming was not required for the formation of ASC specks, CASP1 activation (measured by fluorescent dye FAM-YVAD), and restriction of L. amazonensis replication via the NLRP3 inflammasome. By contrast, BMDM priming was required for CASP1 cleavage (p20) and IL-1β secretion, because priming triggers robust up-regulation of pro-IL-1β and CASP11 that are important for efficient processing of CASP1 and IL-1β. Taken together, our data shed light into the cellular and molecular processes involved in activation of the NLRP3 in macrophages by Leishmania, a process that is important for the outcome of Leishmaniasis.

Inflammatory caspase-related pyroptosis: mechanism, regulation and therapeutic potential for inflammatory bowel disease

As an essential part of programmed cell death, pyroptosis is an inflammatory response that is elicited upon infection by intracellular pathogens. Metabolic diseases, atherosclerosis and vital organ damage occur if pyroptosis is over-activated. Macrophages are the main cells that induce pyroptosis with the help of intracellular pattern-recognition receptors stimulated by danger signals and pathogenic microorganisms in the cytosol of host cells. Activated inflammatory caspases induce pyroptosis and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β and interleukin-18. Inflammatory programmed cell death is classified as canonical or non-canonical based on inflammatory caspases, which includes caspase-1 (in human and mouse) and caspase-11 (in mouse) or caspase-4 and -5 (in humans). Activated inflammatory caspases cleave the pore-forming effector protein, gasdermin-D, inducing osmotic pressure deregulation of internal fluids and subsequently rupturing the cell membranes. Inflammatory caspases could be attractive therapeutic targets for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in which pyroptosis may play an important role. This article reviews the current understanding of the mechanism of pyroptosis, focusing on the regulation of inflammatory caspases and therapeutic strategies for IBD.

Simvastatin Suppresses Proliferation and Migration in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer via Pyroptosis

Pyroptosis is a form of caspase-1-dependent programmed cell death with anti-tumor properties, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. The results of our study showed that the antihyperlipidemic drug simvastatin induced pyroptosis in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines and a xenograft mouse model. Inhibition of pyroptosis attenuated the effects of simvastatin on tumor cell viability and migration. These data suggest that simvastatin may induce pyroptosis, thereby potentially serving as a novel therapeutic agent for NSCLC.

Caspase-11 promotes cisplatin-induced renal tubular apoptosis through a caspase-3-dependent pathway

Renal tubular injury is the hallmark of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. Caspase-11, a member of the caspase family, plays an important role in inflammation and cell death. However, its role in cisplatin-induced renal tubular injury remains unclear. In cisplatin-treated mice, caspase-11 expression was significantly elevated and the expression of caspase-11 was mainly located in renal tubule. Inhibition of caspase-11 by small-interference RNA or its inhibitor wedelolactone attenuated cisplatin-induced renal dysfunction and tubular injury. In cultured primary renal tubular epithelial cells, cisplatin significantly promoted the expression and activation of caspase-11. Inhibition of caspase-11 by small-interference RNA reduced cisplatin-induced cell apoptosis. Overexpression of caspase-11 promoted cell apoptosis by activating the caspase-3-related cell apoptosis. Furthermore, coimmunoprecipitation results showed there was a direct interaction between caspase-11 and caspase-3, and the interaction was enhanced by cisplatin. The fluorescence confocal microscopy results showed that caspase-11 and caspase-3 were colocalized in the cytoplasm of renal tubular epithelial cells. These results demonstrate that caspase-11 plays an important role in cisplatin-induced renal tubular injury. Caspase-11 promotes renal epithelial cell apoptosis by activating the caspase-3-dependent apoptotic pathway. Caspase-11 might be a potential target for therapeutic treatment against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Role of inflammasomes in inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic diseases

Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes that coordinate anti-pathogenic host defense during inflammatory responses in myeloid cells, especially macrophages. Inflammasome activation leads to activation of caspase-1, resulting in the induction of pyroptosis and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Although the inflammatory response is an innate host defense mechanism, chronic inflammation is the main cause of rheumatic diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), and Sjögren's syndrome (SS). Since rheumatic diseases are inflammatory/autoimmune disorders, it is reasonable to hypothesize that inflammasomes activated during the inflammatory response play a pivotal role in development and progression of these diseases. Indeed, previous studies have provided important observations that inflammasomes are actively involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory/autoimmune rheumatic diseases. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on several types of inflammasomes during macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses and discuss recent research regarding the role of inflammasomes in the pathogenesis of inflammatory/autoimmune rheumatic diseases. This avenue of research could provide new insights for the development of promising therapeutics to treat inflammatory/autoimmune rheumatic diseases.

Biosynthesis and structure-activity relationships of the lipid a family of glycolipids

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a glycolipid found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, is a potent elicitor of innate immune responses in mammals. A typical LPS molecule is composed of three different structural domains: a polysaccharide called the O-antigen, a core oligosaccharide, and Lipid A. Lipid A is the amphipathic glycolipid moiety of LPS. It stimulates the immune system by tightly binding to Toll-like receptor 4. More recently, Lipid A has also been shown to activate intracellular caspase-4 and caspase-5. An impressive diversity is observed in Lipid A structures from different Gram-negative bacteria, and it is well established that subtle changes in chemical structure can result in dramatically different immune activities. For example, Lipid A from Escherichia coli is highly toxic to humans, whereas a biosynthetic precursor called Lipid IV_A blocks this toxic activity, and monophosphoryl Lipid A from Salmonella minnesota is a vaccine adjuvant. Thus, an understanding of structure-activity relationships in this glycolipid family could be used to design useful immunomodulatory agents. Here we review the biosynthesis, modification, and structure-activity relationships of Lipid A.

Caspase-11 non-canonical inflammasome: a critical sensor of intracellular lipopolysaccharide in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses

Inflammatory responses mediated by macrophages are part of the innate immune system, whose role is to protect against invading pathogens. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria stimulates an inflammatory response by macrophages. During the inflammatory response, extracellular LPS is recognized by Toll-like receptor 4, one of the pattern recognition receptors that activates inflammatory signalling pathways and leads to the production of inflammatory mediators. The innate immune response is also triggered by intracellular inflammasomes, and inflammasome activation induces pyroptosis and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 by macrophages. Cysteine-aspartic protease (caspase)-11 and the human orthologues caspase-4/caspase-5 were recently identified as components of the 'non-canonical inflammasome' that senses intracellular LPS derived from Gram-negative bacteria during macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses. Direct recognition of intracellular LPS facilitates the rapid oligomerization of caspase-11/4/5, which results in pyroptosis and the secretion of IL-1β and IL-18. LPS is released into the cytoplasm from Gram-negative bacterium-containing vacuoles by small interferon-inducible guanylate-binding proteins encoded on chromosome 3 (GBP^chr3 )-mediated lysis of the vacuoles. In vivo studies have clearly shown that caspase-11^-/- mice are more resistant to endotoxic septic shock by excessive LPS challenge. Given the evidence, activation of caspase-11 non-canonical inflammasomes by intracellular LPS is distinct from canonical inflammasome activation and provides a new paradigm in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses.

Salmonella and the Inflammasome: Battle for Intracellular Dominance

Inflammasomes are macromolecular cytoplasmic complexes that act as signaling platforms for the activation of inflammatory caspases. Their activation triggers the processing and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, as well as the induction of a specialized form of inflammatory cell death termed pyroptosis. Here, we review the mechanisms of inflammasome activation triggered by the intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. We highlight the different inflammasome subfamilies utilized by macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and intestinal epithelial cells response to a Salmonella infection as well as the Salmonella ligands that trigger each inflammasome's formation. We also discuss the evasion strategies utilized by Salmonella to avoid inflammasome detection. Overall, inflammasomes play a key and multilayered role at distinct stages of host cell defense against Salmonella infection.

Molecular mechanisms and functions of pyroptosis, inflammatory caspases and inflammasomes in infectious diseases

Cell death is a fundamental biological phenomenon that is essential for the survival and development of an organism. Emerging evidence also indicates that cell death contributes to immune defense against infectious diseases. Pyroptosis is a form of inflammatory programmed cell death pathway activated by human and mouse caspase-1, human caspase-4 and caspase-5, or mouse caspase-11. These inflammatory caspases are used by the host to control bacterial, viral, fungal, or protozoan pathogens. Pyroptosis requires cleavage and activation of the pore-forming effector protein gasdermin D by inflammatory caspases. Physical rupture of the cell causes release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, alarmins and endogenous danger-associated molecular patterns, signifying the inflammatory potential of pyroptosis. Here, we describe the central role of inflammatory caspases and pyroptosis in mediating immunity to infection and clearance of pathogens.

Role of the IL-33-ST2 axis in sepsis

Sepsis remains a major clinical problem with high morbidity and mortality. As new inflammatory mediators are characterized, it is important to understand their roles in sepsis. Interleukin 33 (IL-33) is a recently described member of the IL-1 family that is widely expressed in cells of barrier tissues. Upon tissue damage, IL-33 is released as an alarmin and activates various types of cells of both the innate and adaptive immune system through binding to the ST2/IL-1 receptor accessory protein complex. IL-33 has apparent pleiotropic functions in many disease models, with its actions strongly shaped by the local microenvironment. Recent studies have established a role for the IL-33-ST2 axis in the initiation and perpetuation of inflammation during endotoxemia, but its roles in sepsis appear to be organism and model dependent. In this review, we focus on the recent advances in understanding the role of the IL-33/ST2 axis in sepsis.

Vitamin A or E and a catechin synergize as vaccine adjuvant to enhance immune responses in mice by induction of early interleukin-15 but not interleukin-1β responses

Vitamins A and E and select flavonoids in the family of catechins are well-defined small molecules that, if proven to possess immunomodulatory properties, hold promise as vaccine adjuvants and various therapies. In an effort to determine the in vivo immunomodulatory properties of these molecules, we found that although mucosal and systemic vaccinations with a recombinant HIV-1BaL gp120 with either a catechin, epigallo catechin gallate (EGCG) or pro-vitamin A (retinyl palmitate) alone in a vegetable-oil-in-water emulsion (OWE) suppressed antigen-specific responses, the combination of EGCG and vitamin A or E in OWE (Nutritive Immune-enhancing Delivery System, NIDS) synergistically enhanced adaptive B-cell, and CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses, following induction of relatively low local and systemic innate tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-17, but relatively high levels of early systemic IL-15 responses. For induction of adaptive interferon-γ and TNF-α responses by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, the adjuvant effect of NIDS was dependent on both IL-15 and its receptor. In addition, the anti-oxidant activity of NIDS correlated positively with higher expression of the superoxide dismutase 1, an enzyme involved in reactive oxygen species elimination but negatively with secretion of IL-1β. This suggests that the mechanism of action of NIDS is dependent on anti-oxidant activity and IL-15, but independent of IL-1β and inflammasome formation. These data show that this approach in nutritive vaccine adjuvant design holds promise for the development of potentially safer effective vaccines.

NOD-Like Receptor Protein 3 Inflammasome Priming and Activation in Barrett's Epithelial Cells

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Microbial molecular products incite intestinal inflammation by activating Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and inflammasomes of the innate immune system. This system's contribution to esophageal inflammation is not known. Gram-negative bacteria, which dominate the esophageal microbiome in reflux esophagitis, produce lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a TLR4 ligand. TLR4 signaling produces pro-interleukin (IL)1β, pro-IL18, and NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), which prime the NLRP3 inflammasome. Subsequent NLRP3 inflammasome activation cleaves caspase-1, inducing secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptosis (inflammatory cell death). We explored LPS effects on NLRP3 inflammasome priming and activation in esophageal cells.

METHODS

We exposed esophageal squamous and Barrett's epithelial cells to LPS and measured the following: (1) TLR4, pro-IL1β, pro-IL18, and NLRP3 expression; (2) caspase-1 activity; (3) tumor necrosis factor-α, IL8, IL1β, and IL18 secretion; (4) lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release (a pyroptosis marker); and (5) mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS). As inhibitors, we used acetyl-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-CHO for caspase-1, small interfering RNA for NLRP3, and (2-(2,2,6,6,-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl-4-ylamino)-2-oxoethyl)triphenylphosphonium chloride for mitochondrial ROS.

RESULTS

Squamous and Barrett's cells expressed similar levels of TLR4, but LPS induced TLR4 signaling that increased tumor necrosis factor-α and IL8 secretion only in Barrett's cells. Barrett's cells treated with LPS showed increased expression of pro-IL18, pro-IL1β, and NLRP3, and increased mitochondrial ROS levels, caspase-1 activity, IL1β and IL18 secretion, and LDH release. Acetyl-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-CHO, NLRP3 small interfering RNA, and Mito-TEMPO all blocked LPS-induced IL1β and IL18 secretion and LDH release.

CONCLUSIONS

In Barrett's cells, LPS both primes and activates the NLRP3 inflammasome, causing secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptosis. By triggering molecular events promoting inflammation, the esophageal microbiome might contribute to inflammation-mediated carcinogenesis in Barrett's esophagus.

Bacterial Control of Pores Induced by the Type III Secretion System: Mind the Gap

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are specialized secretion apparatus involved in the virulence of many Gram-negative pathogens, enabling the injection of bacterial type III effectors into host cells. The T3SS-dependent injection of effectors requires the insertion into host cell membranes of a pore-forming "translocon," whose effects on cell responses remain ill-defined. As opposed to pore-forming toxins that damage host cell plasma membranes and induce cell survival mechanisms, T3SS-dependent pore formation is transient, being regulated by cell membrane repair mechanisms or bacterial effectors. Here, we review host cell responses to pore formation induced by T3SSs associated with the loss of plasma membrane integrity and regulation of innate immunity. We will particularly focus on recent advances in mechanisms controlling pore formation and the activity of the T3SS linked to type III effectors or bacterial proteases. The implications of the regulation of the T3SS translocon activity during the infectious process will be discussed.

Gossypol induces pyroptosis in mouse macrophages via a non-canonical inflammasome pathway

Gossypol, a polyphenolic compound isolated from cottonseeds, has been reported to possess many pharmacological activities, but whether it can influence inflammasome activation remains unclear. In this study, we found that in mouse macrophages, gossypol induced cell death characterized by rapid membrane rupture and robust release of HMGB1 and pro-caspase-11 comparable to ATP treatment, suggesting an induction of pyroptotic cell death. Unlike ATP, gossypol induced much low levels of mature interleukin-1β (IL-1β) secretion from mouse peritoneal macrophages primed with LPS, although it caused pro-IL-1β release similar to that of ATP. Consistent with this, activated caspase-1 responsible for pro-IL-1β maturation was undetectable in gossypol-treated peritoneal macrophages. Besides, RAW 264.7 cells lacking ASC expression and caspase-1 activation also underwent pyroptotic cell death upon gossypol treatment. In further support of pyroptosis induction, both pan-caspase inhibitor and caspase-1 subfamily inhibitor, but not caspase-3 inhibitor, could sharply suppress gossypol-induced cell death. Other canonical pyroptotic inhibitors, including potassium chloride and N-acetyl-l-cysteine, could suppress ATP-induced pyroptosis but failed to inhibit or even enhanced gossypol-induced cell death, whereas nonspecific pore-formation inhibitor glycine could attenuate this process, suggesting involvement of a non-canonical pathway. Of note, gossypol treatment eliminated thioglycollate-induced macrophages in the peritoneal cavity with recruitment of other leukocytes. Moreover, gossypol administration markedly decreased the survival of mice in a bacterial sepsis model. Collectively, these results suggested that gossypol induced pyroptosis in mouse macrophages via a non-canonical inflammasome pathway, which raises a concern for its in vivo cytotoxicity to macrophages.

Caspase-12, but Not Caspase-11, Inhibits Obesity and Insulin Resistance

Inflammation is well established to significantly impact metabolic diseases. The inflammatory protease caspase-1 has been implicated in metabolic dysfunction; however, a potential role for the related inflammatory caspases is currently unknown. In this study, we investigated a role for caspase-11 and caspase-12 in obesity and insulin resistance. Loss of caspase-12 in two independently generated mouse strains predisposed mice to develop obesity, metabolic inflammation, and insulin resistance, whereas loss of caspase-11 had no effect. The use of bone marrow chimeras determined that deletion of caspase-12 in the radio-resistant compartment was responsible for this metabolic phenotype. The Nlrp3 inflammasome pathway mediated the metabolic syndrome of caspase-12-deficient mice as ablation of Nlrp3 reversed Casp12(-/-) mice obesity phenotype. Although the majority of people lack a functional caspase-12 because of a T(125) single nucleotide polymorphism that introduces a premature stop codon, a fraction of African descendents express full-length caspase-12. Expression of caspase-12 was linked to decreased systemic and adipose tissue inflammation in a cohort of African American obese children. However, analysis of the Dallas Heart Study African American cohort indicated that the coding T(125)C single nucleotide polymorphism was not associated with metabolic parameters in humans, suggesting that host-specific differences mediate the expressivity of metabolic disease.

Converging roles of caspases in inflammasome activation, cell death and innate immunity

Inflammatory and apoptotic caspases are central players in inflammation and apoptosis, respectively. However, recent studies have revealed that these caspases have functions beyond their established roles. In addition to mediating cleavage of the inflammasome-associated cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18, inflammatory caspases modulate distinct forms of programmed cell death and coordinate cell-autonomous immunity and other fundamental cellular processes. Certain apoptotic caspases assemble structurally diverse and dynamic complexes that direct inflammasome and interferon responses to fine-tune inflammation. In this Review, we discuss the expanding and interconnected roles of caspases that highlight new aspects of this family of cysteine proteases in innate immunity.

Bacterial Exotoxins and the Inflammasome

The inflammasomes are intracellular protein complexes that play an important role in innate immune sensing. Activation of inflammasomes leads to activation of caspase-1 and maturation and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. In certain myeloid cells, this activation can also lead to an inflammatory cell death (pyroptosis). Inflammasome sensor proteins have evolved to detect a range of microbial ligands and bacterial exotoxins either through direct interaction or by detection of host cell changes elicited by these effectors. Bacterial exotoxins activate the inflammasomes through diverse processes, including direct sensor cleavage, modulation of ion fluxes through plasma membrane pore formation, and perturbation of various host cell functions. In this review, we summarize the findings on some of the bacterial exotoxins that activate the inflammasomes.