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Rufino de Sousa N, Margerie L, Steponaviciute L, Roux J, Kinahan MW, Olsson D, Ásgeirsson H, Udekwu KI, Rothfuchs AG. Detection of active SARS-CoV-2 in cough aerosols from COVID-19 patients. Infect Dis (Lond) 2024:1-9. [PMID: 38975876 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2024.2374307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an airborne pathogen, but detection of infectious SARS-CoV-2 in air and in particular the introduction of the virus into the environment by different human expiratory manoeuvres is not well studied. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in cough from coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) in-patients and to study contamination of the virus in the patient's environment. METHODS Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in cough was analyzed by PCR, culture and imaging. Detection in cough was compared to presence of the virus in air and on surfaces from patient rooms. RESULTS Twenty-five patients in 21 rooms were included in the study. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was found in cough aerosols from 16 out of 22 patients that produced voluntary cough. As demonstrated by plaque-forming unit assays, active virus was isolated from 11 of these 16 patients. Using mainly molecular detection, the virus was also found in air, on high-contact surfaces, and no-touch surfaces from the room of the COVID-19 patients. CONCLUSIONS These results show that infectious SARS-CoV-2 circulating in air can originate from patient cough and should be considered against the risk of acquiring COVID-19 through inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno Rufino de Sousa
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lucille Margerie
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Laura Steponaviciute
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Julie Roux
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Matthew W Kinahan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
| | - David Olsson
- Department of Medicine Huddinge (MedH), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hilmir Ásgeirsson
- Department of Medicine Huddinge (MedH), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Klas I Udekwu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish Environmental Epidemiology Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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2
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Rodríguez D, Urbieta IR, Velasco Á, Campano-Laborda MÁ, Jiménez E. Assessment of indoor air quality and risk of COVID-19 infection in Spanish secondary school and university classrooms. BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT 2022; 226:109717. [PMID: 36313012 PMCID: PMC9595429 DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Despite the risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Spanish educational centers were reopened after six months of lockdown. Ventilation was mostly adopted as a preventive measure to reduce the transmission risk of the virus. However, it could also affect indoor air quality (IAQ). Therefore, here we evaluate the ventilation conditions, COVID-19 risk, and IAQ in secondary school and university classrooms in Toledo (central Spain) from November 2020 to June 2021. Ventilation was examined by monitoring outdoor and indoor CO2 levels. CO2, occupancy and hygrothermal parameters, allowed estimating the relative transmission risk of SARS-CoV-2 (Alpha and Omicron BA.1), H r, under different scenarios, using the web app COVID Risk airborne . Additionally, the effect of ventilation on IAQ was evaluated by measuring indoor/outdoor (I/O) concentration ratios of O3, NO2, and suspended particulate matter (PM). University classrooms, particularly the mechanically ventilated one, presented better ventilation conditions than the secondary school classrooms, as well as better thermal comfort conditions. The estimated H r for COVID-19 ranged from intermediate (with surgical masks) to high (no masks, teacher infected). IAQ was generally good in all classrooms, particularly at the university ones, with I/O below unity, implying an outdoor origin of gaseous pollutants, while the source of PM was heterogeneous. Consequently, controlled mechanical ventilation systems are essential in educational spaces, as well as wearing well-fitting FFP2-N95 masks indoors is also highly recommended to minimize the transmission risk of COVID-19 and other airborne infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Rodríguez
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales y Bioquímica, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM), Avenida Carlos III s/n, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Itziar R Urbieta
- Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales y Bioquímica, UCLM, Avenida Carlos III s/n, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Ángel Velasco
- Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales y Bioquímica, UCLM, Avenida Carlos III s/n, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Campano-Laborda
- Instituto Universitario de Arquitectura y Ciencias de la Construcción, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Elena Jiménez
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnologías Químicas, UCLM, Avda. Camilo José Cela 1B, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
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3
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Wu J, Geng J, Fu M, Weng W. Multi-person movement-induced airflow and the effects on virus-laden expiratory droplet dispersion in indoor environments. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13119. [PMID: 36168216 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The multi-person movement might cause complex induced airflow and affect the virus-laden expiratory droplet transmission in indoor environments. Using the dynamic mesh model in computational fluid dynamics, the multi-person movement with different personnel location distributions was realized. The induced airflow patterns, virus-laden droplet dispersion, and concentration distribution were investigated in detail. The results show that multi-person movement might intensify inter-regional convection, which has been rarely found in single-person movement conditions. Side-by-side distribution and ladder distribution of moving persons could cause a connected low-pressure area behind the moving persons, which might enhance lateral virus transport, especially where droplets might suspend at the height of the breathing zone. Not only 1-10 μm aerosols but also some 20-50 μm droplets are carried by the multi-person movement-induced airflow to over 3 m. Since the width of induced airflow is about 0.6-1.0 m, moving persons should keep enough horizontal distance (>1.0 m) to limit the air mixing and virus-laden droplet transmission. This paper could provide a detailed reference for the numerical study of multi-person movement-induced airflow patterns, droplet dispersion, and indoor infection control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialin Wu
- Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Institute of Public Safety Research, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of City Integrated Emergency Response Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Geng
- Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Institute of Public Safety Research, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of City Integrated Emergency Response Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Fu
- Hefei Institute for Public Safety Research, Tsinghua University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Human Safety, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Wenguo Weng
- Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Institute of Public Safety Research, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of City Integrated Emergency Response Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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4
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Buonanno G, Robotto A, Brizio E, Morawska L, Civra A, Corino F, Lembo D, Ficco G, Stabile L. Link between SARS-CoV-2 emissions and airborne concentrations: Closing the gap in understanding. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 428:128279. [PMID: 35063838 PMCID: PMC8760841 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 remains surprisingly controversial; indeed, health and regulatory authorities still require direct proof of this mode of transmission. To close this gap, we measured the viral load of SARS-CoV-2 of an infected subject in a hospital room (through an oral and nasopharyngeal swab), as well as the airborne SARS-CoV-2 concentration in the room resulting from the person breathing and speaking. Moreover, we simulated the same scenarios to estimate the concentration of RNA copies in the air through a novel theoretical approach and conducted a comparative analysis between experimental and theoretical results. Results showed that for an infected subject's viral load ranging between 2.4 × 106 and 5.5 × 106 RNA copies mL-1, the corresponding airborne SARS-CoV-2 concentration was below the minimum detection threshold when the person was breathing, and 16.1 (expanded uncertainty of 32.8) RNA copies m-3 when speaking. The application of the predictive approach provided concentrations metrologically compatible with the available experimental data (i.e. for speaking activity). Thus, the study presented significant evidence to close the gap in understanding airborne transmission, given that the airborne SARS-CoV-2 concentration was shown to be directly related to the SARS-CoV-2 emitted. Moreover, the theoretical analysis was shown to be able to quantitatively link the airborne concentration to the emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Buonanno
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy; International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld, Australia; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - A Robotto
- Environmental Protection Agency of Piedmont (ARPA Piemonte), Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - E Brizio
- Environmental Protection Agency of Piedmont (ARPA Piemonte), Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - L Morawska
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld, Australia; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - A Civra
- Dept. of Clinical and Biological Science, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria San Luigi Gonzaga, University of Turin, Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - F Corino
- Environmental Protection Agency of Piedmont (ARPA Piemonte), Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - D Lembo
- Dept. of Clinical and Biological Science, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria San Luigi Gonzaga, University of Turin, Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - G Ficco
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - L Stabile
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy; Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, Torino, Italy.
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5
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Zhang C, Nielsen PV, Liu L, Sigmer ET, Mikkelsen SG, Jensen RL. The source control effect of personal protection equipment and physical barrier on short-range airborne transmission. BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT 2022; 211:108751. [PMID: 35002048 PMCID: PMC8721933 DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.108751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In order to control the spread of Covid-19, authorities provide various prevention guidelines and recommendations for health workers and the public. Personal protection equipment (PPE) and physical barrier are the most widely applied prevention measures in practice due to their affordability and ease of implementation. This study aims to investigate the effect of PPE and physical barriers on mitigating the short-range airborne transmission between two people in a ventilated environment. Four types of PPE (surgical mask, two types of face shield, and mouth visor), and two different sizes of the physical barrier were tested in a controlled environment with two life-size breathing thermal manikins. The PPE was worn by the source manikin to test the efficiency of source control. The measurement results revealed that the principles of PPE on preventing short-range droplet and airborne transmission are different. Instead of filtering the fine droplet nuclei, they mainly redirect the virus-laden exhalation jet and avoid the exhaled flow entering the target's inhalation region. Physical barriers can block the spreading of droplet nuclei and create a good micro environment at short distances between persons. However, special attention should be paid to arranging the physical barrier and operating the ventilation system to avoid the stagnant zone where the contaminant accumulates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Zhang
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, Aalborg, 9220, Denmark
| | - Peter V Nielsen
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, Aalborg, 9220, Denmark
| | - Li Liu
- Department of Building Science, School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | | | | | - Rasmus L Jensen
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, Aalborg, 9220, Denmark
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6
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Bueno de Mesquita PJ, Delp WW, Chan WR, Bahnfleth WP, Singer BC. Control of airborne infectious disease in buildings: Evidence and research priorities. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e12965. [PMID: 34816493 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of SARS-CoV-2 virus has resulted in variants likely to be more readily transmitted through respiratory aerosols, underscoring the increased potential for indoor environmental controls to mitigate risk. Use of tight-fitting face masks to trap infectious aerosol in exhaled breath and reduce inhalation exposure to contaminated air is of critical importance for disease control. Administrative controls including the regulation of occupancy and interpersonal spacing are also important, while presenting social and economic challenges. Indoor engineering controls including ventilation, exhaust, air flow control, filtration, and disinfection by germicidal ultraviolet irradiation can reduce reliance on stringent occupancy restrictions. However, the effects of controls-individually and in combination-on reducing infectious aerosol transfer indoors remain to be clearly characterized to the extent needed to support widespread implementation by building operators. We review aerobiologic and epidemiologic evidence of indoor environmental controls against transmission and present a quantitative aerosol transfer scenario illustrating relative differences in exposure at close-interactive, room, and building scales. We identify an overarching need for investment to implement building controls and evaluate their effectiveness on infection in well-characterized and real-world settings, supported by specific, methodological advances. Improved understanding of engineering control effectiveness guides implementation at scale while considering occupant comfort, operational challenges, and energy costs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William W Delp
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Wanyu R Chan
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - William P Bahnfleth
- Department of Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Brett C Singer
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
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7
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Marr LC, Tang JW. A Paradigm Shift to Align Transmission Routes With Mechanisms. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:1747-1749. [PMID: 34415335 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Current infection-control guidelines subscribe to a contact/droplet/airborne paradigm that is based on outdated understanding. Here, we propose to modify and align existing guidelines with a more accurate description of the different transmission routes. This will improve the effectiveness of control measures as more transmissible variants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linsey C Marr
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Julian W Tang
- Respiratory Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
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8
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Cortellessa G, Stabile L, Arpino F, Faleiros DE, van den Bos W, Morawska L, Buonanno G. Close proximity risk assessment for SARS-CoV-2 infection. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 794:148749. [PMID: 34225157 PMCID: PMC8242194 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Although the interpersonal distance represents an important parameter affecting the risk of infection due to respiratory viruses, the mechanism of exposure to exhaled droplets remains insufficiently characterized. In this study, an integrated risk assessment is presented for SARS-CoV-2 close proximity exposure between a speaking infectious subject and a susceptible subject. It is based on a three-dimensional transient numerical model for the description of exhaled droplet spread once emitted by a speaking person, coupled with a recently proposed SARS-CoV-2 emission approach. Particle image velocimetry measurements were conducted to validate the numerical model. The contribution of the large droplets to the risk is barely noticeable only for distances well below 0.6 m, whereas it drops to zero for greater distances where it depends only on airborne droplets. In particular, for short exposures (10 s) a minimum safety distance of 0.75 m should be maintained to lower the risk below 0.1%; for exposures of 1 and 15 min this distance increases to about 1.1 and 1.5 m, respectively. Based on the interpersonal distances across countries reported as a function of interacting individuals, cultural differences, and environmental and sociopsychological factors, the approach presented here revealed that, in addition to intimate and personal distances, particular attention must be paid to exposures longer than 1 min within social distances (of about 1 m).
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Affiliation(s)
- G Cortellessa
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy
| | - L Stabile
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy
| | - F Arpino
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy
| | - D E Faleiros
- Maritime and Transport Technology, TU Delft, Netherlands
| | - W van den Bos
- Maritime and Transport Technology, TU Delft, Netherlands
| | - L Morawska
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - G Buonanno
- Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, FR, Italy; International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.
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9
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Gupta H, Patwa AK, Nigam N, Kumar S. On aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2. J Family Med Prim Care 2021; 10:3161-3162. [PMID: 34660464 PMCID: PMC8483101 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_695_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Harish Gupta
- Department of Medicine, KG's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Ajay K Patwa
- Department of Medicine, KG's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.,Consultant (Medical Gastroenterology Unit) KG's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Nitu Nigam
- CFAR (Cytogenetics Unit), KG's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Satish Kumar
- Department of Medicine, KG's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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