MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE SPERM QUALITY ADVANTAGE IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

Sperm metabolic rate predicts female mating frequency across Drosophila species

Female mating rates vary widely, even among closely related species, but the reasons for this variation are not fully understood. Across Drosophila species, female mating frequencies are positively associated with sperm length. This association may be due in part to sperm limitation, with longer-spermed species transferring fewer sperm, or to cryptic female choice. However, a previously overlooked factor is sperm metabolic rate, which may correlate with sperm length. If faster-metabolizing sperm accumulate age-related cellular damage more quickly, then females should remate sooner to obtain fresh sperm. Alternatively, frequent female mating may select for increased sperm competitiveness via increased metabolism. Here, we measure sperm metabolism across 13 Drosophila species and compare these measures to published data on female mating rate and on sperm length. Using fluorescent lifetime imaging microscopy, we quantify NAD(P)H metabolism ex vivo, in intact organs. Phylogenetically controlled regression reveals that sperm metabolic rate is positively associated with sperm length and with female mating frequency. Path analysis shows sperm length driving sperm metabolism and sperm metabolism either driving or being driven by female mating rate. While the causal directionality of these relationships remains to be fully resolved, and the effect of sperm metabolism on sperm aging and/or sperm competitiveness remains to be established, our results demonstrate the importance of sperm metabolism in sexual selection.

Divergent natural selection alters male sperm competition success in Drosophila melanogaster

Sexually selected traits may also be subject to non‐sexual selection. If optimal trait values depend on environmental conditions, then “narrow sense” (i.e., non‐sexual) natural selection can lead to local adaptation, with fitness in a certain environment being highest among individuals selected under that environment. Such adaptation can, in turn, drive ecological speciation via sexual selection. To date, most research on the effect of narrow‐sense natural selection on sexually selected traits has focused on precopulatory measures like mating success. However, postcopulatory traits, such as sperm function, can also be under non‐sexual selection, and have the potential to contribute to population divergence between different environments. Here, we investigate the effects of narrow‐sense natural selection on male postcopulatory success in Drosophila melanogaster. We chose two extreme environments, low oxygen (10%, hypoxic) or high CO₂ (5%, hypercapnic) to detect small effects. We measured the sperm defensive (P1) and offensive (P2) capabilities of selected and control males in the corresponding selection environment and under control conditions. Overall, selection under hypoxia decreased both P1 and P2, while selection under hypercapnia had no effect. Surprisingly, P1 for both selected and control males was higher under both ambient hypoxia and ambient hypercapnia, compared to control conditions, while P2 was lower under hypoxia. We found limited evidence for local adaptation: the positive environmental effect of hypoxia on P1 was greater in hypoxia‐selected males than in controls. We discuss the implications of our findings for the evolution of postcopulatory traits in response to non‐sexual and sexual selection.

Drosophila female reproductive glands contribute to mating plug composition and the timing of sperm ejection

Reproductive traits that influence female remating and competitive fertilization rapidly evolve in response to sexual selection and sexual conflict. One such trait, observed across diverse animal taxa, is the formation of a structural plug inside the female reproductive tract (FRT), either during or shortly after mating. In Drosophila melanogaster, male seminal fluid forms a mating plug inside the female bursa, which has been demonstrated to influence sperm entry into storage and latency of female remating. Processing of the plug, including its eventual ejection from the female's reproductive tract, influences the competitive fertilization success of her mates and is mediated by female × male genotypic interactions. However, female contributions to plug formation and processing have received limited attention. Using developmental mutants that lack glandular FRT tissues, we reveal that these tissues are essential for mating plug ejection. We further use proteomics to demonstrate that female glandular proteins, and especially proteolytic enzymes, contribute to mating plug composition and have a widespread impact on plug formation and composition. Together, these phenotypic and molecular data identify female contributions to intersexual interactions that are a potential mechanism of post-copulatory sexual selection.

Sperm Cyst "Looping": A Developmental Novelty Enabling Extreme Male Ornament Evolution

Postcopulatory sexual selection is credited as a principal force behind the rapid evolution of reproductive characters, often generating a pattern of correlated evolution between interacting, sex-specific traits. Because the female reproductive tract is the selective environment for sperm, one taxonomically widespread example of this pattern is the co-diversification of sperm length and female sperm-storage organ dimension. In Drosophila, having testes that are longer than the sperm they manufacture was believed to be a universal physiological constraint. Further, the energetic and time costs of developing long testes have been credited with underlying the steep evolutionary allometry of sperm length and constraining sperm length evolution in Drosophila. Here, we report on the discovery of a novel spermatogenic mechanism—sperm cyst looping—that enables males to produce relatively long sperm in short testis. This phenomenon (restricted to members of the saltans and willistoni species groups) begins early during spermatogenesis and is potentially attributable to heterochronic evolution, resulting in growth asynchrony between spermatid tails and the surrounding spermatid and somatic cyst cell membranes. By removing the allometric constraint on sperm length, this evolutionary innovation appears to have enabled males to evolve extremely long sperm for their body mass while evading delays in reproductive maturation time. On the other hand, sperm cyst looping was found to exact a cost by requiring greater total energetic investment in testes and a pronounced reduction in male lifespan. We speculate on the ecological selection pressures underlying the evolutionary origin and maintenance of this unique adaptation.

How biases in sperm storage relate to sperm use during oviposition in female yellow dung flies

Precise mechanisms underlying sperm storage and utilization are largely unknown, and data directly linking stored sperm to paternity remain scarce. We used competitive microsatellite PCR to study the effects of female morphology, copula duration and oviposition on the proportion of stored sperm provided by the second of two copulating males (S2) in Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), the classic model for sperm competition studies. We genotyped all offspring from potentially mixed-paternity clutches to establish the relationship between a second male’s stored sperm (S2) and paternity success (P2). We found consistent skew in sperm storage across the three female spermathecae, with relatively more second-male sperm stored in the singlet spermatheca than in the doublet spermathecae. S2 generally decreased with increasing spermathecal size, consistent with either heightened first-male storage in larger spermathecae, or less efficient sperm displacement in them. Additionally, copula duration and several two-way interactions influenced S2, highlighting the complexity of postcopulatory processes and sperm storage. Importantly, S2 and P2 were strongly correlated. Manipulation of the timing of oviposition strongly influenced observed sperm-storage patterns, with higher S2 when females laid no eggs before being sacrificed than when they oviposited between copulations, an observation consistent with adaptive plasticity in insemination. Our results identified multiple factors influencing sperm storage, nevertheless suggesting that the proportion of stored sperm is strongly linked to paternity (i.e., a fair raffle). Even more detailed data in this vein are needed to evaluate the general importance of sperm competition relative to cryptic female choice in postcopulatory sexual selection.

Coevolution between female seminal receptacle and sperm morphology in the semiaquatic measurer bug Hydrometra stagnorum L. (Heteroptera, Hydrometridae)

The coevolution between sperm length and size of the female sperm-storage organs is described for the first time within Heteroptera. The long sperm of the measurer bug Hydrometra stagnorum is characterized by the unusually long acrosome with its anterior region helically arranged, and by a very short nucleus. The sperm flagellum has a 9 + 9+2 conventional axoneme and crystallized mitochondrial derivatives. The female spermatheca consists of an extraordinarily long spermathecal duct ending with an apical spermathecal bulb into which flows also the secretions of a relatively short spermathecal gland. Both spermathecal duct and gland have a thin epithelium lined by a cuticle, beneath which a complex of secretory and duct forming cells are present. The secretions of these two structures flow into the apical spermathecal bulb. A thick layer of muscle fibers surrounds the epithelium. These results confirm the opinion that the dimensions of the female reproductive sperm-storage organs are able to drive the sperm morphology.

How female × male and male × male interactions influence competitive fertilization in Drosophila melanogaster

How males and females contribute to joint reproductive success has been a long‐standing question in sexual selection. Under postcopulatory sexual selection, paternity success is predicted to derive from complex interactions among females engaging in cryptic female choice and males engaging in sperm competition. Such interactions have been identified as potential sources of genetic variation in sexually selected traits but are also expected to inhibit trait diversification. To date, studies of interactions between females and competing males have focused almost exclusively on genotypes and not phenotypic variation in sexually selected traits. Here, we characterize within‐ and between‐sex interactions in Drosophila melanogaster using isogenic lines with heritable variation in both male and female traits known to influence competitive fertilization. We confirmed, and expanded on, previously reported genotypic interactions within and between the sexes, and showed that several reproductive events, including sperm transfer, female sperm ejection, and sperm storage, were explained by two‐ and three‐way interactions among sex‐specific phenotypes. We also documented complex interactions between the lengths of competing males’ sperm and the female seminal receptacle, which are known to have experienced rapid female‐male co‐diversification. Our results highlight the nonindependence of sperm competition and cryptic female choice and demonstrate that complex interactions between the sexes do not limit the ability of multivariate systems to respond to directional sexual selection.

Post-ejaculatory modifications to sperm (PEMS)

Mammalian sperm must spend a minimum period of time within a female reproductive tract to achieve the capacity to fertilize oocytes. This phenomenon, termed sperm 'capacitation', was discovered nearly seven decades ago and opened a window into the complexities of sperm-female interaction. Capacitation is most commonly used to refer to a specific combination of processes that are believed to be widespread in mammals and includes modifications to the sperm plasma membrane, elevation of intracellular cyclic AMP levels, induction of protein tyrosine phosphorylation, increased intracellular Ca2+ levels, hyperactivation of motility, and, eventually, the acrosome reaction. Capacitation is only one example of post-ejaculatory modifications to sperm (PEMS) that are widespread throughout the animal kingdom. Although PEMS are less well studied in non-mammalian taxa, they likely represent the rule rather than the exception in species with internal fertilization. These PEMS are diverse in form and collectively represent the outcome of selection fashioning complex maturational trajectories of sperm that include multiple, sequential phenotypes that are specialized for stage-specific functionality within the female. In many cases, PEMS are critical for sperm to migrate successfully through the female reproductive tract, survive a protracted period of storage, reach the site of fertilization and/or achieve the capacity to fertilize eggs. We predict that PEMS will exhibit widespread phenotypic plasticity mediated by sperm-female interactions. The successful execution of PEMS thus has important implications for variation in fitness and the operation of post-copulatory sexual selection. Furthermore, it may provide a widespread mechanism of reproductive isolation and the maintenance of species boundaries. Despite their possible ubiquity and importance, the investigation of PEMS has been largely descriptive, lacking any phylogenetic consideration with regard to divergence, and there have been no theoretical or empirical investigations of their evolutionary significance. Here, we (i) clarify PEMS-related nomenclature; (ii) address the evolutionary origin, maintenance and divergence in PEMS in the context of the protracted life history of sperm and the complex, selective environment of the female reproductive tract; (iii) describe taxonomically widespread types of PEMS: sperm activation, chemotaxis and the dissociation of sperm conjugates; (iv) review the occurence of PEMS throughout the animal kingdom; (v) consider alternative hypotheses for the adaptive value of PEMS; (vi) speculate on the evolutionary implications of PEMS for genomic architecture, sexual selection, and reproductive isolation; and (vii) suggest fruitful directions for future functional and evolutionary analyses of PEMS.

Sexual selection and the evolution of sperm morphology in sharks

Post-copulatory sexual selection, and sperm competition in particular, is a powerful selective force shaping the evolution of sperm morphology. Although mounting evidence suggests that post-copulatory sexual selection influences the evolution of sperm morphology among species, recent evidence also suggests that sperm competition influences variation in sperm morphology at the intraspecific level. However, contradictory empirical results and limited taxonomic scope have led to difficulty in assessing the generality of sperm morphological responses to variation in the strength of sperm competition. Here, we use phylogenetically controlled analyses to explore the effects of sperm competition on sperm morphology and variance in sharks, a basal vertebrate group characterized by wide variation in rates of multiple mating by females, and consequently sperm competition risk. Our analyses reveal that shark species experiencing greater levels of sperm competition produce sperm with longer flagella and that sperm flagellum length is less variable in species under higher sperm competition risk. In contrast, neither the length of the sperm head and midpiece nor variation in sperm head and midpiece length was associated with sperm competition risk. Our findings demonstrate that selection influences both the inter- and intraspecific variation in sperm morphology and suggest that the flagellum is an important target of sexual selection in sharks. These findings provide important insight into patterns of selection on the ejaculate in a basal vertebrate lineage.

Death of new microRNA genes in Drosophila via gradual loss of fitness advantages

The prevalence of de novo coding genes is controversial due to length and coding constraints. Noncoding genes, especially small ones, are freer to evolve de novo by comparison. The best examples are microRNAs (miRNAs), a large class of regulatory molecules ∼22 nt in length. Here, we study six de novo miRNAs in Drosophila, which, like most new genes, are testis-specific. We ask how and why de novo genes die because gene death must be sufficiently frequent to balance the many new births. By knocking out each miRNA gene, we analyzed their contributions to the nine components of male fitness (sperm production, length, and competitiveness, among others). To our surprise, the knockout mutants often perform better than the wild type in some components, and slightly worse in others. When two of the younger miRNAs are assayed in long-term laboratory populations, their total fitness contributions are found to be essentially zero. These results collectively suggest that adaptive de novo genes die regularly, not due to the loss of functionality, but due to the canceling out of positive and negative fitness effects, which may be characterized as "quasi-neutrality." Since de novo genes often emerge adaptively and become lost later, they reveal ongoing period-specific adaptations, reminiscent of the "Red-Queen" metaphor for long-term evolution.

A male's seminal fluid increases later competitors' productivity

Polyandrous females allow for sexual selection to persist after mating. In the event that females successfully mate with more than one male, sperm competition can occur. Seminal fluid proteins can indirectly affect a male's success in sperm competition through reducing the remating behaviour of females and can directly influence sperm competition through directly displacing competitor sperm or inducing females to eject it. These direct effects on competitor sperm are thought to contribute to the 'second male advantage', whereby the second male to mate sires the majority of offspring. Here, we show an additional mechanism where seminal proteins already present within a mated female appear to enhance offspring production of later competitor males, and contribute to second male advantage. Counter to expectation, increased offspring production was not due to a priming effect of greater early female productivity, nor was it through a general and consistent increase in offspring production. Instead, enhanced productivity was solely through lengthening the time that offspring are sired by the second male, indicating that seminal proteins from the first male to mate may enhance second male advantage through a presumably unintended protective effect on subsequent competitor sperm.

Sperm form and function: what do we know about the role of sexual selection?

Sperm morphological variation has attracted considerable interest and generated a wealth of predominantly descriptive studies over the past three centuries. Yet, apart from biophysical studies linking sperm morphology to swimming velocity, surprisingly little is known about the adaptive significance of sperm form and the selective processes underlying its tremendous diversification throughout the animal kingdom. Here, we first discuss the challenges of examining sperm morphology in an evolutionary context and why our understanding of it is far from complete. Then, we review empirical evidence for how sexual selection theory applies to the evolution of sperm form and function, including putative secondary sexual traits borne by sperm.

Unravelling anisogamy: egg size and ejaculate size mediate selection on morphology in free-swimming sperm

Gamete dimorphism (anisogamy) defines the sexes in most multicellular organisms. Theoretical explanations for its maintenance usually emphasize the size-related selection pressures of sperm competition and zygote survival, assuming that fertilization of all eggs precludes selection for phenotypes that enhance fertility. In external fertilizers, however, fertilization is often incomplete due to sperm limitation, and the risk of polyspermy weakens the advantage of high sperm numbers that is predicted to limit sperm size, allowing alternative selection pressures to target free-swimming sperm. We asked whether egg size and ejaculate size mediate selection on the free-swimming sperm of Galeolaria caespitosa, a marine tubeworm with external fertilization, by comparing relationships between sperm morphology and male fertility across manipulations of egg size and sperm density. Our results suggest that selection pressures exerted by these factors may aid the maintenance of anisogamy in external fertilizers by limiting the adaptive value of larger sperm in the absence of competition. In doing so, our study offers a more complete explanation for the stability of anisogamy across the range of sperm environments typical of this mating system and identifies new potential for the sexes to coevolve via mutual selection pressures exerted by gametes at fertilization.

Experimental evolution reveals that sperm competition intensity selects for longer, more costly sperm

It is the differences between sperm and eggs that fundamentally underpin the differences between the sexes within reproduction. For males, it is theorized that widespread sperm competition leads to selection for investment in sperm numbers, achieved by minimizing sperm size within limited resources for spermatogenesis in the testis. Here, we empirically examine how sperm competition shapes sperm size, after more than 77 generations of experimental selection of replicate lines under either high or low sperm competition intensities in the promiscuous flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. After this experimental evolution, populations had diverged significantly in their sperm competitiveness, with sperm in ejaculates from males evolving under high sperm competition intensities gaining 20% greater paternity than sperm in ejaculates from males that had evolved under low sperm competition intensity. Males did not change their relative investment into sperm production following this experimental evolution, showing no difference in testis sizes between high and low intensity regimes. However, the more competitive males from high sperm competition intensity regimes had evolved significantly longer sperm and, across six independently selected lines, there was a significant association between the degree of divergence in sperm length and average sperm competitiveness. To determine whether such sperm elongation is costly, we used dietary restriction experiments, and revealed that protein-restricted males produced significantly shorter sperm. Our findings therefore demonstrate that sperm competition intensity can exert positive directional selection on sperm size, despite this being a costly reproductive trait.

Postmating Female Control: 20 Years of Cryptic Female Choice

Cryptic female choice (CFC) represents postmating intersexual selection arising from female-driven mechanisms at or after mating that bias sperm use and impact male paternity share. Although biologists began to study CFC relatively late, largely spurred by Eberhard's book published 20 years ago, the field has grown rapidly since then. Here, we review empirical progress to show that numerous female processes offer potential for CFC, from mating through to fertilization, although seldom has CFC been clearly demonstrated. We then evaluate functional implications, and argue that, under some conditions, CFC might have repercussions for female fitness, sexual conflict, and intersexual coevolution, with ramifications for related evolutionary phenomena, such as speciation. We conclude by identifying directions for future research in this rapidly growing field.

Sperm Navigation Mechanisms in the Female Reproductive Tract

Fertilization, the union of an oocyte and a sperm, is a fundamental process that restores the diploid genome and initiates embryonic development. For the sperm, fertilization is the end of a long journey, one that starts in the male testis before transitioning to the female reproductive tract's convoluted tubule architecture. Historically, motile sperm were thought to complete this journey using luck and numbers. A different picture of sperm has emerged recently as cells that integrate complex sensory information for navigation. Chemical, physical, and thermal cues have been proposed to help guide sperm to the waiting oocyte. Molecular mechanisms are being delineated in animal models and humans, revealing common features, as well as important differences. Exposure to pheromones and nutritional signals can modulate guidance mechanisms, indirectly impacting sperm motility performance and fertility. These studies highlight the importance of sensory information and signal transduction in fertilization.

Resolving mechanisms of short-term competitive fertilization success in the red flour beetle

Postcopulatory sexual selection occurs when sperm from multiple males occupy a female's reproductive tract at the same time and is expected to generate strong selection pressures on traits related to competitive fertilization success. However, knowledge of competitive fertilization success mechanisms and characters targeted by resulting selection is limited, partially due to the difficulty of discriminating among sperm from different males within the female reproductive tract. Here, we resolved mechanisms of competitive fertilization success in the promiscuous flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. Through creation of transgenic lines with fluorescent-tagged sperm heads, we followed the fate of focal male sperm in female reproductive tracts while tracking paternity across numerous rematings. Our results indicate that a given male's sperm persist and fertilize eggs through at least seven rematings. Additionally, the proportion of a male's sperm in the bursa (the site of spermatophore deposition), which is influenced by both timing of female's ejecting excess sperm and male size, significantly predicted paternity share in the 24h following a mating. Contrary to expectation, proportional representation of sperm within the female's specialized sperm-storage organ did not significantly predict paternity, though spermathecal sperm may play a role in fertilization when females do not have access to mates for longer time periods. We address the adaptive significance of the identified reproductive mechanisms in the context of T. castaneum's unique mating system and ecology.

Convergent evolution of sperm gigantism and the developmental origins of sperm size variability in Caenorhabditis nematodes

Sperm cells provide essential, if usually diminutive, ingredients to successful sexual reproduction. Despite this conserved function, sperm competition and coevolution with female traits can drive spectacular morphological change in these cells. Here, we characterize four repeated instances of convergent evolution of sperm gigantism in Caenorhabditis nematodes using phylogenetic comparative methods on 26 species. Species at the extreme end of the 50-fold range of sperm-cell volumes across the genus have sperm capable of comprising up to 5% of egg-cell volume, representing severe attenuation of the magnitude of anisogamy. Furthermore, we uncover significant differences in mean and variance of sperm size among genotypes, between sexes, and within and between individuals of identical genotypes. We demonstrate that the developmental basis of sperm size variation, both within and between species, becomes established during an early stage of sperm development at the formation of primary spermatocytes, while subsequent meiotic divisions contribute little further sperm size variability. These findings provide first insights into the developmental determinants of inter- and intraspecific sperm size differences in Caenorhabditis. We hypothesize that life history and ecological differences among species favored the evolution of alternative sperm competition strategies toward either many smaller sperm or fewer larger sperm.

How sexual selection can drive the evolution of costly sperm ornamentation

Post-copulatory sexual selection (PSS), fuelled by female promiscuity, is credited with the rapid evolution of sperm quality traits across diverse taxa. Yet, our understanding of the adaptive significance of sperm ornaments and the cryptic female preferences driving their evolution is extremely limited. Here we review the evolutionary allometry of exaggerated sexual traits (for example, antlers, horns, tail feathers, mandibles and dewlaps), show that the giant sperm of some Drosophila species are possibly the most extreme ornaments in all of nature and demonstrate how their existence challenges theories explaining the intensity of sexual selection, mating-system evolution and the fundamental nature of sex differences. We also combine quantitative genetic analyses of interacting sex-specific traits in D. melanogaster with comparative analyses of the condition dependence of male and female reproductive potential across species with varying ornament size to reveal complex dynamics that may underlie sperm-length evolution. Our results suggest that producing few gigantic sperm evolved by (1) Fisherian runaway selection mediated by genetic correlations between sperm length, the female preference for long sperm and female mating frequency, and (2) longer sperm increasing the indirect benefits to females. Our results also suggest that the developmental integration of sperm quality and quantity renders post-copulatory sexual selection on ejaculates unlikely to treat male-male competition and female choice as discrete processes.

Breeding system, shell size and age at sexual maturity affect sperm length in stylommatophoran gastropods

BACKGROUND

Sperm size and quality are key factors for fertilization success. There is increasing empirical evidence demonstrating that sperm form and function are influenced by selective pressures. Theoretical models predict that sperm competition could favour the evolution of longer sperm. In hermaphrodites, self-fertilizing species are expected to have shorter sperm than cross-fertilizing species, which use sperm stored from several mating partners for the fertilization of their eggs and thus are exposed to intense sperm competition. We tested this hypothesis by comparing original data on sperm length in 57 species of simultaneously hermaphroditic stylommatophoran gastropods from Europe and South America with respect to the species' breeding system. We used 28S rRNA nuclear and COI mitochondrial sequence data to construct a molecular phylogeny. Phylogenetic generalized linear models were applied to examine the potential influence of morphological and life-history characters.

RESULTS

The best-fit model revealed that the breeding system and age at sexual maturity influence sperm length in gastropods. In general, species with predominant cross-fertilization had longer sperm than species with predominant self-fertilization or a mixed breeding system. Across species with shells (snails), sperm length also increased with shell size.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides evidence that sperm length in stylommatophoran gastropods is influenced by the risk of sperm competition, as well as by age at sexual maturity and shell size. This finding extends present knowledge of sperm evolution to a group of so far poorly studied simultaneous hermaphrodites.

Giant spermatozoa of Diasemopsis (Diopsidae, Diptera) - Structural, ultrastructural and functional aspects

The spermatozoa of Diasemopsis comoroensis and Diasemopsis meigenii differ from the conventional brachyceran type in several respects. Not only are they very long but they are also extraordinarily wide, especially at the very end of the tail. The latter is effected by two cellular components: oversized mitochondrial derivatives and a prominent central band, which is a peculiar structure not known from any other spermatozoa. Based on its position with respect to the other organelles and its origin during early spermiogenesis, the central band is interpreted as a derivative of the centriolar adjunct material. Like the axoneme, the mitochondrial derivatives and the central band extend through the entire length of the spermatozoon tail. The spermatozoon tail is helical and can be coiled up into a tight cone-shaped spiral with a peculiar corkscrew shaped end portion. The potential adaptive significance of these features and their coevolution with the morphology of the female's multi-chambered ventral receptacle are discussed, as are sperm competition and cryptic female choice.

Morphology-function relationships and repeatability in the sperm of Passer sparrows

Sperm performance is likely to be an important determinant of male reproductive success, especially when females copulate with multiple males. Understanding sperm performance is therefore crucial to fully understand the evolution of male reproductive strategies. In this study, we examined the repeatability of sperm morphology and motility measures over three breeding seasons, and we studied relationships between sperm morphology and function. We conducted this study in wild-derived captive house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and Spanish sparrows (P. hispaniolensis). Results for the two species were similar. As predicted from results in other passerine species, total sperm length was highly repeatable across ejaculates, and repeatability for the length of other components was moderate. The repeatability of sperm swimming speed across ejaculates was lower, but statistically significant, suggesting that sperm velocity may be a relatively dynamic trait. Surprisingly, swimming speed did not correlate with the relative length of the midpiece, and it correlated negatively with the relative length of the flagellum and with total sperm length. This pattern is the opposite of what theory predicts and differs from what has been found in house sparrows before. Also contrary to previous work, we found no evidence that total sperm length correlates with sperm longevity. These results therefore highlight the need for a better understanding of relationships between sperm morphology and function in passerine birds.

Increase in male reproductive success and female reproductive investment in invasive populations of the harlequin ladybird Harmonia axyridis

Reproductive strategy affects population dynamics and genetic parameters that can, in turn, affect evolutionary processes during the course of biological invasion. Life-history traits associated with reproductive strategy are therefore potentially good candidates for rapid evolutionary shifts during invasions. In a series of mating trials, we examined mixed groups of four males from invasive and native populations of the harlequin ladybird Harmonia axyridis mating freely during 48 hours with one female of either type. We recorded the identity of the first male to copulate and after the 48 h-period, we examined female fecundity and share of paternity, using molecular markers. We found that invasive populations have a different profile of male and female reproductive output. Males from invasive populations are more likely to mate first and gain a higher proportion of offspring with both invasive and native females. Females from invasive populations reproduce sooner, lay more eggs, and have offspring sired by a larger number of fathers than females from native populations. We found no evidence of direct inbreeding avoidance behaviour in both invasive and native females. This study highlights the importance of investigating evolutionary changes in reproductive strategy and associated traits during biological invasions.

Postcopulatory sexual selection generates speciation phenotypes in Drosophila

BACKGROUND

Identifying traits that reproductively isolate species, and the selective forces underlying their divergence, is a central goal of evolutionary biology and speciation research. There is growing recognition that postcopulatory sexual selection, which can drive rapid diversification of interacting ejaculate and female reproductive tract traits that mediate sperm competition, may be an engine of speciation. Conspecific sperm precedence (CSP) is a taxonomically widespread form of reproductive isolation, but the selective causes and divergent traits responsible for CSP are poorly understood.

RESULTS

To test the hypothesis that postcopulatory sexual selection can generate reproductive isolation, we expressed GFP or RFP in sperm heads of recently diverged sister species, Drosophila simulans and D. mauritiana, to enable detailed resolution of species-specific sperm precedence mechanisms. Between-species divergence in sperm competition traits and mechanisms prompted six a priori predictions regarding mechanisms of CSP and degree of cross asymmetry in reproductive isolation. We resolved four distinct mechanisms of CSP that were highly consistent with predictions. These comprise interactions between multiple sex-specific traits, including two independent mechanisms by which females exert sophisticated control over sperm fate to favor the conspecific male.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirm that reproductive isolation can quickly arise from diversifying (allopatric) postcopulatory sexual selection. This experimental approach to "speciation phenotypes" illustrates how knowledge of sperm precedence mechanisms can be used to predict the mechanisms and extent of reproductive isolation between populations and species.

An analytical framework for estimating fertilization bias and the fertilization set from multiple sperm-storage organs

How sperm from competing males are used to fertilize eggs is poorly understood yet has important implications for postcopulatory sexual selection. Sperm may be used in direct proportion to their numerical representation within the fertilization set or with a bias toward one male over another. Previous theoretical treatments have assumed a single sperm-storage organ, but many taxa possess multiple organs or store sperm within multiple regions of the reproductive tract. In Drosophila, females store sperm in two distinct storage organ types: the seminal receptacle (SR) and the paired spermathecae. Here, we expand previous "raffle" models to describe "fertilization bias" independently for sperm within the SR and the spermathecae and estimate the fertilization set based on the relative contribution of sperm from the different sperm-storage organ types. We apply this model to three closely related species to reveal rapid divergence in the fertilization set and the potential for female sperm choice.

Female mediation of competitive fertilization success in Drosophila melanogaster

How females store and use sperm after remating can generate postcopulatory sexual selection on male ejaculate traits. Variation in ejaculate performance traits generally is thought to be intrinsic to males but is likely to interact with the environment in which sperm compete (e.g., the female reproductive tract). Our understanding of female contributions to competitive fertilization success is limited, however, in part because of the challenges involved in observing events within the reproductive tract of internally fertilizing species while discriminating among sperm from competing males. Here, we used females from crosses among isogenic lines of Drosophila melanogaster, each mated to two genetically standardized males (the first with green- and the second with red-tagged sperm heads) to demonstrate heritable variation in female remating interval, progeny production rate, sperm-storage organ morphology, and a number of sperm performance, storage, and handling traits. We then used multivariate analyses to examine relationships between this female-mediated variation and competitive paternity. In particular, the timing of female ejection of excess second-male and displaced first-male sperm was genetically variable and, by terminating the process of sperm displacement, significantly influenced the relative numbers of sperm from each male competing for fertilization, and consequently biased paternity. Our results demonstrate that females do not simply provide a static arena for sperm competition but rather play an active and pivotal role in postcopulatory processes. Resolving the adaptive significance of genetic variation in female-mediated mechanisms of sperm handling is critical for understanding sexual selection, sexual conflict, and the coevolution of male and female reproductive traits.

Inbreeding reveals mode of past selection on male reproductive characters in Drosophila melanogaster

Directional dominance is a prerequisite of inbreeding depression. Directionality arises when selection drives alleles that increase fitness to fixation and eliminates dominant deleterious alleles, while deleterious recessives are hidden from it and maintained at low frequencies. Traits under directional selection (i.e., fitness traits) are expected to show directional dominance and therefore an increased susceptibility to inbreeding depression. In contrast, traits under stabilizing selection or weakly linked to fitness are predicted to exhibit little-to-no inbreeding depression. Here, we quantify the extent of inbreeding depression in a range of male reproductive characters and then infer the mode of past selection on them. The use of transgenic populations of Drosophila melanogaster with red or green fluorescent-tagged sperm heads permitted in vivo discrimination of sperm from competing males and quantification of characteristics of ejaculate composition, performance, and fate. We found that male attractiveness (mating latency) and competitive fertilization success (P2) both show some inbreeding depression, suggesting they may have been under directional selection, whereas sperm length showed no inbreeding depression suggesting a history of stabilizing selection. However, despite having measured several sperm quality and quantity traits, our data did not allow us to discern the mechanism underlying the lowered competitive fertilization success of inbred (f = 0.50) males.

Rapid diversification of sperm precedence traits and processes among three sibling Drosophila species

Postcopulatory sexual selection is credited with driving rapid evolutionary diversification of reproductive traits and the formation of reproductive isolating barriers between species. This judgment, however, has largely been inferred rather than demonstrated due to general lack of knowledge about processes and traits underlying variation in competitive fertilization success. Here, we resolved processes determining sperm fate in twice-mated females, using transgenic Drosophila simulans and Drosophila mauritiana populations with fluorescently labeled sperm heads. Comparisons among these two species and Drosophila melanogaster revealed a shared motif in the mechanisms of sperm precedence, with postcopulatory sexual selection potentially occurring during any of the three discrete stages: (1) insemination; (2) sperm storage; and (3) sperm use for fertilization, and involving four distinct phenomena: (1) sperm transfer; (2) sperm displacement; (3) sperm ejection; and (4) sperm selection for fertilizations. Yet, underlying the qualitative similarities were significant quantitative differences in nearly every relevant character and process. We evaluate these species differences in light of concurrent investigations of within-population variation in competitive fertilization success and postmating/prezygotic reproductive isolation in hybrid matings between species to forge an understanding of the relationship between microevolutionary processes and macroevolutionary patterns as pertains to postcopulatory sexual selection in this group.

Do male secondary sexual characters signal ejaculate quality? A meta-analysis

There are two reasons why researchers are interested in the phenotypic relationship between the expression of male secondary sexual characters (SSCs) and 'ejaculate quality' (defined as sperm/ejaculate traits that are widely assumed to increase female fertility and/or sperm competitiveness). First, if the relationship is positive then females could gain a direct benefit by choosing more attractive males for fertility assurance reasons ('the phenotype-linked fertility' hypothesis). Second, there is much interest in the direction of the correlation between traits favoured by pre-copulatory sexual selection (i.e. affecting mating success) and those favoured by post-copulatory sexual selection (i.e. increasing sperm competitiveness). If the relationship is negative this could lead to the two forms of selection counteracting each other. Theory predicts that the direction of the relationship could be either positive or negative depending on the underlying genetic variance and covariance in each trait, the extent of variation among males in condition (resources available to allocate to reproductive traits), and variation among males in the cost or rate of mating. We conducted a meta-analysis to determine the average relationship between the expression of behavioural and morphological male secondary sexual characters and four assays of ejaculate quality (sperm number, viability, swimming speed and size). Regardless of how the data were partitioned the mean relationship was consistently positive, but always statistically non-significant. The only exception was that secondary sexual character expression was weakly but significantly positively correlated with sperm viability (r = 0.07, P < 0.05). There was no significant difference in the strength or direction of the relationship between behavioural and morphological SSCs, nor among relationships using the four ejaculate quality assays. The implications of our findings are discussed.

The genetic basis of female multiple mating in a polyandrous livebearing fish

The widespread occurrence of female multiple mating (FMM) demands evolutionary explanation, particularly in the light of the costs of mating. One explanation encapsulated by "good sperm" and "sexy-sperm" (GS-SS) theoretical models is that FMM facilitates sperm competition, thus ensuring paternity by males that pass on genes for elevated sperm competitiveness to their male offspring. While support for this component of GS-SS theory is accumulating, a second but poorly tested assumption of these models is that there should be corresponding heritable genetic variation in FMM - the proposed mechanism of postcopulatory preferences underlying GS-SS models. Here, we conduct quantitative genetic analyses on paternal half-siblings to test this component of GS-SS theory in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), a freshwater fish with some of the highest known rates of FMM in vertebrates. As with most previous quantitative genetic analyses of FMM in other species, our results reveal high levels of phenotypic variation in this trait and a correspondingly low narrow-sense heritability (h(2) = 0.11). Furthermore, although our analysis of additive genetic variance in FMM was not statistically significant (probably owing to limited statistical power), the ensuing estimate of mean-standardized additive genetic variance (I(A) = 0.7) was nevertheless relatively low compared with estimates published for life-history traits across a broad range of taxa. Our results therefore add to a growing body of evidence that FMM is characterized by relatively low additive genetic variation, thus apparently contradicting GS-SS theory. However, we qualify this conclusion by drawing attention to potential deficiencies in most designs (including ours) that have tested for genetic variation in FMM, particularly those that fail to account for intersexual interactions that underlie FMM in many systems.

How multivariate ejaculate traits determine competitive fertilization success in Drosophila melanogaster

Success in sperm competition, occurring whenever females mate with multiple males, is predicted to be influenced by variation in ejaculate quality and interactions among competing sperm. Yet, apart from sperm number, relevant ejaculate characteristics and sperm-sperm interactions are poorly understood, particularly within a multivariate framework and the natural selective environment of the female reproductive tract. Here, we used isogenic lines of Drosophila melanogaster with distinguishable sperm to demonstrate and partition genetic variation in multiple sperm quality and performance traits. Next, by competing males from different lines, we show how rival sperm significantly influence each other's velocity and reveal that males with relatively slow and/or long sperm better displace rival sperm and resist displacement, thus avoiding ejection by the female from her reproductive tract. Finally, we establish fitness consequences of genetic variation in sperm quality and its role in securing a numerical advantage in storage by showing that offspring paternity is determined strictly by the representation of stored, competing sperm. These results provide novel insight into complex postcopulatory processes, illustrate that different ejaculate traits are critical at different biologically relevant time-points, and provide a critical foundation for elucidating the role of postcopulatory sexual selection in trait diversification and speciation.

The male and female reproductive systems of Zorotypus hubbardi Caudell, 1918 (Zoraptera)

Here we present an ultrastructural study of the male and female reproductive systems of Zorotypus hubbardi and compare the findings to those presented in an earlier study. The male reproductive system consists of small testes and thin and short deferent ducts opening into a huge seminal vesicle. At the end of the deferent duct a wiredrawer structure is present which initiates the spermatophore formation. A long ejaculatory duct, originating from the seminal vesicle, receives the secretions of three accessory glands. The copulatory organ is a relatively stout structure consisting of two cuticular claspers connected to a ventral sclerite. The testes contain very large and few germ cells (32 sperm in each cyst) which give rise to large sperm characterized by two giant mitochondrial derivatives, two large accessory bodies, and an axoneme with accessory tubules with 17 protofilaments in their tubular wall. In the seminal vesicle the sperm are joined by a secretion to form an elongate spermatophore. The female system consists of panoistic ovarioles, two lateral oviducts, and a common oviduct which receives the spermathecal duct of a huge spermathecal sac in the terminal part of the vagina. The duct is an anterior prolongation of the sac. Its distal part turns back twisting around its proximal portion. At this level a conspicuous muscle layer gives rise to a valve. The bent spermatophore is hosted in the spermathecal sac, with the sperm heads placed in the proximal part of the spermathecal duct. The opening of the duct is close to the female genital opening. The reproductive systems of Zorotypus caudelli and Z. hubbardi, apart from a distinctly different general organization, also have a different sperm structure: those of the former species are free long-moving cells, while the sperm of Z. hubbardi are giant cells joined in a spermatophore. This allows to hypothesize and discuss a different reproductive behaviour in the two species: monandric in Z. hubbardi and polyandric in Z. caudelli. Apparently different forms of selection have resulted in a very uniform general morphology in Zoraptera, and in highly divergent features related to the reproductive system. The presence of 17 protofilaments in the accessory microtubules of the flagellar axoneme is a potential synapomorphy of Zoraptera and Phasmatodea.

Convergence, recurrence and diversification of complex sperm traits in diving beetles (Dytiscidae)

Sperm display remarkable morphological diversity among even closely related species, a pattern that is widely attributed to postcopulatory sexual selection. Surprisingly few studies have used phylogenetic analyses to discern the details of evolutionary diversification in ornaments and armaments subject to sexual selection, and the origins of novel sperm traits and their subsequent modification are particularly poorly understood. Here we investigate sperm evolution in diving beetles (Dytiscidae), revealing dramatic diversification in flagellum length, head shape, presence of sperm heteromorphism, and the presence/type of sperm conjugation, an unusual trait where two or more sperm unite for motility or transport. Sperm conjugation was found to be the ancestral condition in diving beetles, with subsequent diversification into three forms, each exhibiting varying degrees of evolutionary loss, convergence, and recurrence. Sperm head shape, but not length or heteromorphism, was found to evolve in a significantly correlated manner with conjugation, consistent with the different mechanisms of head alignment and binding required for the different forms of conjugation. Our study reveals that sperm morphological evolution is channeled along particular evolutionary pathways (i.e., conjugate form), yet subject to considerable diversification within those pathways through modification in sperm length, head shape, and heteromorphism.

Mitochondria-driven cell elongation mechanism for competing sperms

Sexual competition has selected a number of extreme phenotypes like the tail ornament of peacock male. Sperm tail of Drosophilidae elongate up to 6 cm as a result of evolutionary selection for reproductive fitness among competing sperms. Sperm elongation takes place post meiotically and can proceed in the absence of an axoneme. Here, we used primary cultures of elongating spermatids of D. melanogaster to demonstrate that sperm elongation is driven by interdependent extension of giant mitochondria and microtubule array that is formed around the mitochondrial surface. This work established that, in addition to functioning as an energy source, mitochondria can serve as internal skeleton for shaping cell morphology.

Female reproductive tract form drives the evolution of complex sperm morphology

The coevolution of female mate preferences and exaggerated male traits is a fundamental prediction of many sexual selection models, but has largely defied testing due to the challenges of quantifying the sensory and cognitive bases of female preferences. We overcome this difficulty by focusing on postcopulatory sexual selection, where readily quantifiable female reproductive tract structures are capable of biasing paternity in favor of preferred sperm morphologies and thus represent a proximate mechanism of female mate choice when ejaculates from multiple males overlap within the tract. Here, we use phylogenetically controlled generalized least squares and logistic regression to test whether the evolution of female reproductive tract design might have driven the evolution of complex, multivariate sperm form in a family of aquatic beetles. The results indicate that female reproductive tracts have undergone extensive diversification in diving beetles, with remodeling of size and shape of several organs and structures being significantly associated with changes in sperm size, head shape, gains/losses of conjugation and conjugate size. Further, results of Bayesian analyses suggest that the loss of sperm conjugation is driven by elongation of the female reproductive tract. Behavioral and ultrastructural examination of sperm conjugates stored in the female tract indicates that conjugates anchor in optimal positions for fertilization. The results underscore the importance of postcopulatory sexual selection as an agent of diversification.

Maintenance of sperm variation in a highly promiscuous wild bird

Postcopulatory sexual selection is an important force in the evolution of reproductive traits, including sperm morphology. In birds, sperm morphology is known to be highly heritable and largely condition-independent. Theory predicts, and recent comparative work corroborates, that strong selection in such traits reduces intraspecific phenotypic variation. Here we show that some variation can be maintained despite extreme promiscuity, as a result of opposing, copulation-role-specific selection forces. After controlling for known correlates of siring success in the superb fairy-wren (Malurus cyaneus), we found that (a) lifetime extra-pair paternity success was associated with sperm with a shorter flagellum and relatively large head, and (b) males whose sperm had a longer flagellum and a relatively smaller head achieved higher within-pair paternity. In this species extrapair copulations occur in the same morning, but preceding, pair copulations during a female's fertile period, suggesting that shorter and relatively larger-headed sperm are most successful in securing storage (defense), whereas the opposite phenotype might be better at outcompeting stored sperm (offense). Furthermore, since cuckolding ability is a major contributor to differential male reproductive output, stronger selection on defense sperm competition traits might explain the short sperm of malurids relative to other promiscuous passerines.

Drosophila sperm swim backwards in the female reproductive tract and are activated via TRPP2 ion channels

Background

Sperm have but one purpose, to fertilize an egg. In various species including Drosophila melanogaster female sperm storage is a necessary step in the reproductive process. Amo is a homolog of the human transient receptor potential channel TRPP2 (also known as PKD2), which is mutated in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. In flies Amo is required for sperm storage. Drosophila males with Amo mutations produce motile sperm that are transferred to the uterus but they do not reach the female storage organs. Therefore Amo appears to be a mediator of directed sperm motility in the female reproductive tract but the underlying mechanism is unknown.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Amo exhibits a unique expression pattern during spermatogenesis. In spermatocytes, Amo is restricted to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) whereas in mature sperm, Amo clusters at the distal tip of the sperm tail. Here we show that flagellar localization of Amo is required for sperm storage. This raised the question of how Amo at the rear end of sperm regulates forward movement into the storage organs. In order to address this question, we used in vivo imaging of dual labelled sperm to demonstrate that Drosophila sperm navigate backwards in the female reproductive tract. In addition, we show that sperm exhibit hyperactivation upon transfer to the uterus. Amo mutant sperm remain capable of reverse motility but fail to display hyperactivation and directed movement, suggesting that these functions are required for sperm storage in flies.

Conclusions/Significance

Amo is part of a signalling complex at the leading edge of the sperm tail that modulates flagellar beating and that guides a backwards path into the storage organs. Our data support an evolutionarily conserved role for TRPP2 channels in cilia.

Sustained elongation of sperm tail promoted by local remodeling of giant mitochondria in Drosophila

BACKGROUND

Sperm length in Drosophilidae varies from a few hundred microns to 6 cm as a result of evolutionary selection. In postcopulatory competition, longer sperm have an advantage in positioning their head closer to the egg. Sperm cell elongation can proceed in the absence of an axoneme, suggesting that a mechanism besides intraflagellar transport emerged to sustain it.

RESULTS

Here we report that sperm elongation in Drosophila melanogaster is driven by the interdependent extension of giant mitochondria and microtubule array that is formed around the mitochondrial surface. In primary cultures of elongating spermatids, we demonstrated that the mitochondrial integrity and local dynamics of microtubules at the tail tip region are essential for uniaxial elongation of the sperm tail. Mitochondria-microtubule linker protein Milton accumulated on mitochondria near the tail tip and is required for the sliding movement of microtubules. Disruption of Milton and its associated protein dMiro, and of potential microtubule crosslinkers Nebbish and Fascetto, caused strong elongation defects, indicating that mitochondria-microtubule association and microtubule crosslinking are required for spermatid tail elongation.

CONCLUSIONS

Mitochondria play unexpected roles in sperm tail elongation in Drosophila by providing a structural platform for microtubule reorganization to support the robust elongation taking place at the tip of the very long sperm tail. The identification of mitochondria as an organizer of cytoskeletal dynamics extends our understanding of mechanisms of cell morphogenesis.

Resolving variation in the reproductive tradeoff between sperm size and number

Spermatozoa are amongst the most variable cells, and three factors are thought to account for this variation in design: fertilization mode, phylogeny, and postcopulatory sexual selection. In addition, it has long been assumed that a tradeoff exists between sperm size and number, and although postcopulatory sexual selection affects both traits, empirical evidence for a tradeoff has so far been elusive. Our recent theoretical model predicts that the nature of a direct tradeoff between sperm size and number varies with sperm competition mechanism and sperm competition risk. We test these predictions using a comparative approach in two very different taxa with different sperm competition mechanisms: passerine birds (mechanism: simple raffle) and Drosophila fruit flies (sperm displacement). We show that in both groups, males increase their total ejaculate investment with increasing sperm competition risk, but whereas passerine birds allocate disproportionately to sperm number, drosophilids allocate disproportionately to sperm size. This striking difference between the two groups can be at least partly explained by sperm competition mechanisms depending on sperm size relative to the size of the female reproductive tract: in large animals (passerines), sperm numbers are advantageous in sperm competition owing to dilution inside the female tract, whereas in small animals (drosophilids), large sperm are advantageous for physical competition (sperm displacement). Our study provides two important results. First, we provide convincing evidence for the existence of a sperm size-number tradeoff. Second, we show that by considering both sperm competition mechanism and dilution, can we account for variation in sperm size between different taxa.

Sperm competition leads to functional adaptations in avian testes to maximize sperm quantity and quality

The outcome of sperm competition (i.e. competition for fertilization between ejaculates from different males) is primarily determined by the relative number and quality of rival sperm. Therefore, the testes are under strong selection to maximize both sperm number and quality, which are likely to result in trade-offs in the process of spermatogenesis (e.g. between the rate of spermatogenesis and sperm length or sperm energetics). Comparative studies have shown positive associations between the level of sperm competition and both relative testis size and the proportion of seminiferous (sperm-producing) tissue within the testes. However, it is unknown how the seminiferous tissue itself or the process of spermatogenesis might evolve in response to sperm competition. Therefore, we quantified the different germ cell types and Sertoli cells (SC) in testes to assess the efficiency of sperm production and its associations with sperm length and mating system across 10 species of New World Blackbirds (Icteridae) that show marked variation in sperm length and sperm competition level. We found that species under strong sperm competition generate more round spermatids (RS)/spermatogonium and have SC that support a greater number of germ cells, both of which are likely to increase the maximum sperm output. However, fewer of the RS appeared to elongate to mature spermatozoa in these species, which might be the result of selection for discarding spermatids with undesirable characteristics as they develop. Our results suggest that, in addition to overall size and gross morphology, testes have also evolved functional adaptations to maximize sperm quantity and quality.