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Ojo O, Shoele K. Branching pattern of flexible trees for environmental load mitigation. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:056003. [PMID: 35654029 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac759e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Wind-induced stress is the primary mechanical cause of tree failures. Among different factors, the branching mechanism plays a central role in the stress distribution and stability of trees in windstorms. A recent study showed that Leonardo da Vinci's original observation, stating that the total cross section of branches conserved across branching nodes is the optimal configuration for resisting wind-induced damage in rigid trees, is correct. However, the breaking risk and the optimal branching pattern of trees are also a function of their reconfiguration capabilities and the processes they employ to mitigate high wind-induced stress hotspots. In this study, using a numerical model of rigid and flexible branched trees, we explore the role of flexibility and branching patterns of trees in their reconfiguration and stress mitigation capabilities. We identify the robust optimal branching mechanism for an extensive range of tree flexibility. Our results show that the probability of a tree breaking at each branching level from the stem to terminal foliage strongly depends on the cross section changes in the branching nodes, the overall tree geometry, and the level of tree flexibility. Three response categories have been identified: the stress concentration in the main trunk, the uniform stress level through the tree's height, and substantial stress localization in the terminal branches. The reconfigurability of the tree determines the dominant response mode. The results suggest a very similar optimal branching law for both flexible and rigid trees wherein uniform stress distribution occurs throughout the tree's height. An exception is the very flexible branched plants in which the optimal branching pattern deviates from this prediction and is strongly affected by the reconfigurability of the tree.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Ojo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Joint College of Engineering, Florida A&M University-Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
| | - Kourosh Shoele
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Joint College of Engineering, Florida A&M University-Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
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Lauderbaugh LK, Holder CD. The biomechanics of leaf oscillations during rainfall events. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:1139-1154. [PMID: 34791162 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Plants are dynamic systems during rainfall events. As raindrops splash on leaf surfaces, the momentum of the raindrop is transferred to the leaf, causing the leaf to oscillate. The emphasis of this review is on the general principles of leaf oscillation models after raindrop impact and the ecological importance. Various leaf oscillation models and the underlying physical properties from biomechanics theory are highlighted. Additionally, we review experimental methods to derive the model parameters for and explore advances in our understanding of the raindrop-leaf impact process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leal K Lauderbaugh
- Dynamics and Control of Complex Systems Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
| | - Curtis D Holder
- Leaf Biomechanics and Ecohydrology Research Group (L-BERG), Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
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3
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Leaf vibrations produced by chewing provide a consistent acoustic target for plant recognition of herbivores. Oecologia 2020; 194:1-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-020-04672-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Rupp AIKS, Gruber P. Biomimetic Groundwork for Thermal Exchange Structures Inspired by Plant Leaf Design. Biomimetics (Basel) 2019; 4:E75. [PMID: 31783650 PMCID: PMC6963917 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics4040075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Geometry is a determining factor for thermal performance in both biological and technical systems. While biology has inspired thermal design before, biomimetic translation of leaf morphology into structural aspects of heat exchangers remains largely unaddressed. One determinant of plant thermal endurance against environmental exposure is leaf shape, which modulates the leaf boundary layer, transpiration, evaporative cooling, and convective exchange. Here, we lay the research groundwork for the extraction of design principles from leaf shape relations to heat and mass transfer. Leaf role models were identified from an extensive literature review on environmentally sensitive morphology patterns and shape-dependent exchange. Addressing canopy sun-shade dimorphism, sun leaves collected from multiple oak species exceeded significantly in margin extension and shape dissection. Abstracted geometries (i.e., elongated; with finely toothed edges; with few large-scale teeth) were explored with paper models of the same surface area in a controlled environment of minimal airflow, which is more likely to induce leaf thermal stress. For two model characteristic dimensions, evaporation rates were significantly faster for the dissected geometries. Shape-driven transfer enhancements were higher for the smaller models, and finely toothed edges reached local cooling up to 10 °C below air temperature. This investigation breaks new ground for solution-based biomimetics to inform the design of evaporation-assisted and passively enhanced thermal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariana I. K. S. Rupp
- Department of Biology, Biomimicry Research and Innovation Center, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Petra Gruber
- Myers School of Art and Department of Biology, Biomimicry Research and Innovation Center, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA;
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Tadrist L, Saudreau M, Hémon P, Amandolese X, Marquier A, Leclercq T, de Langre E. Foliage motion under wind, from leaf flutter to branch buffeting. J R Soc Interface 2019; 15:rsif.2018.0010. [PMID: 29743271 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The wind-induced motion of the foliage in a tree is an important phenomenon both for biological issues (photosynthesis, pathogens development or herbivory) and for more subtle effects such as on wi-fi transmission or animal communication. Such foliage motion results from a combination of the motion of the branches that support the leaves, and of the motion of the leaves relative to the branches. Individual leaf dynamics relative to the branch, and branch dynamics have usually been studied separately. Here, in an experimental study on a whole tree in a large-scale wind tunnel, we present the first empirical evidence that foliage motion is actually dominated by individual leaf flutter at low wind velocities, and by branch turbulence buffeting responses at higher velocities. The transition between the two regimes is related to a weak dependence of leaf flutter on wind velocity, while branch turbulent buffeting is strongly dependent on it. Quantitative comparisons with existing engineering-based models of leaf and branch motion confirm the prevalence of these two mechanisms. Simultaneous measurements of the wind-induced drag on the tree and of the light interception by the foliage show the role of an additional mechanism, reconfiguration, whereby leaves bend and overlap, limiting individual leaf flutter. We then discuss the consequences of these findings on the role of wind-mediated phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Tadrist
- Laboratoire d'hydrodynamique, CNRS, École Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France .,INRA, Physique et physiologie intégratives de l'arbre fruitier et forestier, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Marc Saudreau
- INRA, Physique et physiologie intégratives de l'arbre fruitier et forestier, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Pascal Hémon
- Laboratoire d'hydrodynamique, CNRS, École Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - Xavier Amandolese
- Laboratoire d'hydrodynamique, CNRS, École Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - André Marquier
- INRA, Physique et physiologie intégratives de l'arbre fruitier et forestier, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Tristan Leclercq
- Laboratoire d'hydrodynamique, CNRS, École Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - Emmanuel de Langre
- Laboratoire d'hydrodynamique, CNRS, École Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France
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de Langre E. Plant vibrations at all scales: a review. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:3521-3531. [PMID: 31063546 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant vibrations is a wide subject that covers topics ranging from the swaying of trees under wind to elastic waves made by an insect on a leaf to communicate with its neighbors. For this reason, the state of the art is somehow fragmented over several communities. This review aims at giving a general overview of the main results and challenges in plant vibrations. Several scales are considered, from the very small and local, in leaves or fruits, to large canopies of many plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel de Langre
- Département de Mécanique, LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
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Ciupak A, Dziwulska-Hunek A, Gładyszewska B, Kwaśniewska A. The relationship between physiological and mechanical properties of Acer platanoides L. and Tilia cordata Mill. leaves and their seasonal senescence. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4287. [PMID: 30862899 PMCID: PMC6414727 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40645-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The seasonal senescence of leaves in the phenological cycle coincides with the change of their strength properties which determine resistance to environmental conditions and the efficiency of the photosynthesis process. That affects the development, growth and condition of the plant. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to observe and compare the results of strength tests performed on the leaves of two species of trees popular in Poland - lime and maple. As well as chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic pigments content in the context of the changes occurring during the entire leaf life cycle. Obtained results showed that the strength properties of the tested leaves reached the minimum values in spring and the maximum in the summer similarly to the leaf greenness index. Whereas the fluorescence increased which the seasonal senescence in opposition to the photosynthesis efficiency of the leaves. Collected data revealed that strength parameters and photosynthetic pigment content were significantly higher for maple leaves than for lime leaves. Studies showed differences between physiological and mechanical properties of the leaves of two trees species, even if they grew under the same environmental conditions. It is concluded from the results that phenotype and physical parameters of leaves are related to seasonal senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Ciupak
- Department of Physics, University of Life Sciences, Akademicka 13, 20-950, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Agata Dziwulska-Hunek
- Department of Physics, University of Life Sciences, Akademicka 13, 20-950, Lublin, Poland
| | - Bożena Gładyszewska
- Department of Physics, University of Life Sciences, Akademicka 13, 20-950, Lublin, Poland
| | - Anita Kwaśniewska
- Department of Applied Physics, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 38 D, 20-618, Lublin, Poland
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Karban R, Orrock JL, Preisser EL, Sih A. A comparison of plants and animals in their responses to risk of consumption. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 32:1-8. [PMID: 27262943 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Both plants and animals reduce their risk of being eaten by detecting and responding to herbivore and predator cues. Plants tend to be less mobile and rely on more local information perceived with widely dispersed and redundant tissues. As such, plants can more easily multi-task. Plants are more tolerant of damage and use damage to their own tissues as reliable cues of risk; plants have a higher threshold before responding to the threat of herbivory. Plants also use diverse cues that include fragments of plant tissue and molecular patterns from herbivores, herbivore feeding, or microbial associates of herbivores. Instead of fleeing from attackers, plants reallocate valuable resources to organs at less risk. They minimize unnecessary defenses against unrealized risks and costs of failing to defend against actual risk. Plants can remember and learn, although these abilities are poorly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Karban
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - John L Orrock
- Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Evan L Preisser
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, United States
| | - Andrew Sih
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States
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Vermeij GJ. Plant defences on land and in water: why are they so different? ANNALS OF BOTANY 2016; 117:1099-109. [PMID: 27091505 PMCID: PMC4904178 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcw061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plants (attached photosynthesizing organisms) are eaten by a wide variety of herbivorous animals. Despite a vast literature on plant defence, contrasting patterns of antiherbivore adaptation among marine, freshwater and land plants have been little noticed, documented or understood. SCOPE Here I show how the surrounding medium (water or air) affects not only the plants themselves, but also the sensory and locomotor capacities of herbivores and their predators, and I discuss patterns of defence and host specialization of plants and herbivores on land and in water. I analysed the literature on herbivory with special reference to mechanical defences and sensory cues emitted by plants. Spines, hairs, asymmetrically oriented features on plant surfaces, and visual and olfactory signals that confuse or repel herbivores are common in land plants but rare or absent in water-dwelling plants. Small terrestrial herbivores are more often host-specific than their aquatic counterparts. I propose that patterns of selection on terrestrial herbivores and plants differ from those on aquatic species. Land plants must often attract animal dispersers and pollinators that, like their herbivorous counterparts, require sophisticated locomotor and sensory abilities. Plants counter their attractiveness to animal helpers by evolving effective contact defences and long-distance cues that mislead or warn herbivores. The locomotor and sensory world of small aquatic herbivores is more limited. These characteristics result from the lower viscosity and density of air compared with water as well as from limitations on plant physiology and signal transmission in water. Evolutionary innovations have not eliminated the contrasts in the conditions of life between water and land. CONCLUSION Plant defence can be understood fully when herbivores and their victims are considered in the broader context of other interactions among coexisting species and of the medium in which these interactions occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geerat J Vermeij
- University of California, Davis, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Lev-Yadun S. Plants are not sitting ducks waiting for herbivores to eat them. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2016; 11:e1179419. [PMID: 27136296 PMCID: PMC4973770 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2016.1179419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
There is a common attitude toward plants, accordingly, plants are waiting around to be found and eaten by herbivores. This common approach toward plants is a great underestimation of the huge and variable arsenal of defensive plant strategies. Plants do everything evolution has allowed them to do in order not to be eaten. Therefore, plants are not sitting ducks and many plants outsmart and even exploit many invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores and carnivores for pollination and for seed dispersal, and even carnivores and parasitoids for defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon, Israel
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Tadrist L, Darbois-Texier B. Are leaves optimally designed for self-support? An investigation on giant monocots. J Theor Biol 2016; 396:125-31. [PMID: 26920248 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2016.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Leaves are the organs that intercept light and create photosynthesis. Efficient light interception is provided by leaves oriented orthogonal to most of the sun rays. Except in the polar regions, this means orthogonal to the direction of acceleration due to gravity, or simply horizontal. The leaves of almost all terrestrial plants grow in a gravity field that tends to bend them downward and therefore may counteract light interception. Plants thus allocate biomass for self-support in order to maintain their leaves horizontal. To compete with other species (inter-species competition), as well as other individuals within the same species (intra-species competition), self-support must be achieved with the least biomass produced. This study examines to what extent leaves are designed to self-support. We show here that a basic mechanical model provides the optimal dimensions of a leaf for light interception and self-support. These results are compared to measurements made on leaves of various giant monocot species, especially palm trees and banana trees. The comparison between experiments and model predictions shows that the longer palms are optimally designed for self-support whereas shorter leaves are shaped predominantly by other parameters of selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Tadrist
- LadHyX, Department of Mechanics, École Polytechnique-CNRS, 91128 Palaiseau, France; Microfluidics Lab, Department of Aerospace and Mechanics, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium.
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12
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Vermeij GJ. Plants that lead: do some surface features direct enemy traffic on leaves and stems? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Geerat J. Vermeij
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; University of California; One Shields Avenue Davis CA 95616 USA
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Lev-Yadun S. Potential defence from herbivory by ‘dazzle effects’ and ‘trickery coloration’ of leaf variegation. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment; Faculty of Natural Sciences; University of Haifa - Oranim; Tivon 36006 Israel
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Vibrational Communication Networks: Eavesdropping and Biotic Noise. ANIMAL SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-43607-3_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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Lev-Yadun S. The enigmatic fast leaflet rotation in Desmodium motorium: butterfly mimicry for defense? PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2013; 8:e24473. [PMID: 23603964 PMCID: PMC3908938 DOI: 10.4161/psb.24473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
I propose that the enigmatic leaflet movements in elliptical circles every few minutes of the Indian telegraph (semaphore) plant Desmodium motorium ( = D. gyrans = Hedysarum gyrans = Codariocalyx motorius), which has intrigued scientists for centuries, is a new type of butterfly or general winged arthropod mimicry by this plant. Such leaflet movement may deceive a passing butterfly searching for an un-occupied site suitable to deposit its eggs, that the plant is already occupied. It may also attract insectivorous birds, reptiles or arthropods to the plant because it looks as if it is harboring a potential prey and while they patrol there, they can find insects or other invertebrates that indeed attack the plant. The possibility that diurnal mammalian herbivores may also be deterred by these movements should not be dismissed.
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