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Deng W, Shang H, Tong Y, Liu X, Huang Q, He Y, Wu J, Ba X, Chen Z, Chen Y, Tang K. The application of nanoparticles-based ferroptosis, pyroptosis and autophagy in cancer immunotherapy. J Nanobiotechnology 2024; 22:97. [PMID: 38454419 PMCID: PMC10921615 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-024-02297-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs) have been applied for cancer therapy and achieved great success in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Nevertheless, the broad application of ICBs is limited by the low response rate. To address this issue, increasing studies have found that the induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells is becoming an emerging therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment, not only straightly killing tumor cells but also enhancing dying cells immunogenicity and activating antitumor immunity. ICD is a generic term representing different cell death modes containing ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy and apoptosis. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents usually inhibit tumor growth based on the apoptotic ICD, but most tumor cells are resistant to the apoptosis. Thus, the induction of non-apoptotic ICD is considered to be a more efficient approach for cancer therapy. In addition, due to the ineffective localization of ICD inducers, various types of nanomaterials have been being developed to achieve targeted delivery of therapeutic agents and improved immunotherapeutic efficiency. In this review, we briefly outline molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis, pyroptosis and autophagy, as well as their reciprocal interactions with antitumor immunity, and then summarize the current progress of ICD-induced nanoparticles based on different strategies and illustrate their applications in the cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Deng
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Haojie Shang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yonghua Tong
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xiao Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Qiu Huang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yu He
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Jian Wu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xiaozhuo Ba
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Zhiqiang Chen
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
| | - Kun Tang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
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Calmeiro J, Carrascal M, Gomes C, Falcão A, Cruz MT, Neves BM. Biomaterial-based platforms for in situ dendritic cell programming and their use in antitumor immunotherapy. J Immunother Cancer 2019; 7:238. [PMID: 31484548 PMCID: PMC6727507 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-019-0716-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are central players in the immune system, with an exquisite capacity to initiate and modulate immune responses. These functional characteristics have led to intense research on the development of DC-based immunotherapies, particularly for oncologic diseases. During recent decades, DC-based vaccines have generated very promising results in animal studies, and more than 300 clinical assays have demonstrated the safety profile of this approach. However, clinical data are inconsistent, and clear evidence of meaningful efficacy is still lacking. One of the reasons for this lack of evidence is the limited functional abilities of the used ex vivo-differentiated DCs. Therefore, alternative approaches for targeting and modulating endogenous DC subpopulations have emerged as an attractive concept. Here, we sought to revise the evolution of several strategies for the in situ mobilization and modulation of DCs. The first approaches using chemokine-secreting irradiated tumor cells are addressed, and special attention is given to the cutting-edge injectable bioengineered platforms, programmed to release chemoattractants, tumor antigens and DC maturating agents. Finally, we discuss how our increasing knowledge of DC biology, the use of neoantigens and their combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors can leverage the refinement of these polymeric vaccines to boost their antitumor efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Calmeiro
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Mylène Carrascal
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- Tecnimede Group, Sintra, Portugal
| | - Célia Gomes
- Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovation in Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Amílcar Falcão
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria Teresa Cruz
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Bruno Miguel Neves
- Department of Medical Sciences and Institute of Biomedicine - iBiMED, University of Aveiro, Agra do Crasto - Edifício 30, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
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Kamensek U, Tesic N, Sersa G, Cemazar M. Clinically Usable Interleukin 12 Plasmid without an Antibiotic Resistance Gene: Functionality and Toxicity Study in Murine Melanoma Model. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10030060. [PMID: 29495490 PMCID: PMC5876635 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10030060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmids, which are currently used in interleukin 12 (IL-12) gene electrotransfer (GET) clinical trials in the USA, contain antibiotic resistance genes and are thus, according to the safety recommendation of the European Medicines Agency (EMA), not suitable for clinical trials in the EU. In the current study, our aim was to prepare an IL-12 plasmid without an antibiotic resistance gene and test its functionality and toxicity after GET in a preclinical B16F10 mouse melanoma model. The antibiotic resistance-free plasmid encoding the human IL-12 fusion gene linked to the p21 promoter, i.e., p21-hIL-12-ORT, was constructed using operator-repressor titration (ORT) technology. Next, the expression profile of the plasmid after GET was determined in B16F10 cells and tumors. Additionally, blood chemistry, hematological and histological changes, and antitumor response were evaluated after GET of the plasmid in melanoma tumors. The results demonstrated a good expression and safety profile of the p21-hIL-12-ORT GET and indications of efficacy. We hope that the obtained results will help to accelerate the transfer of this promising treatment from preclinical studies to clinical application in the EU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urska Kamensek
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Natasa Tesic
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Polje 42, SI-6310 Isola, Slovenia.
| | - Gregor Sersa
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Maja Cemazar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Polje 42, SI-6310 Isola, Slovenia.
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Sadozai H, Gruber T, Hunger RE, Schenk M. Recent Successes and Future Directions in Immunotherapy of Cutaneous Melanoma. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1617. [PMID: 29276510 PMCID: PMC5727014 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The global health burden associated with melanoma continues to increase while treatment options for metastatic melanoma are limited. Nevertheless, in the past decade, the field of cancer immunotherapy has witnessed remarkable advances for the treatment of a number of malignancies including metastatic melanoma. Although the earliest observations of an immunological antitumor response were made nearly a century ago, it was only in the past 30 years, that immunotherapy emerged as a viable therapeutic option, in particular for cutaneous melanoma. As such, melanoma remains the focus of various preclinical and clinical studies to understand the immunobiology of cancer and to test various tumor immunotherapies. Here, we review key recent developments in the field of immune-mediated therapy of melanoma. Our primary focus is on therapies that have received regulatory approval. Thus, a brief overview of the pathophysiology of melanoma is provided. The purported functions of various tumor-infiltrating immune cell subsets are described, in particular the recently described roles of intratumoral dendritic cells. The section on immunotherapies focuses on strategies that have proved to be the most clinically successful such as immune checkpoint blockade. Prospects for novel therapeutics and the potential for combinatorial approaches are delineated. Finally, we briefly discuss nanotechnology-based platforms which can in theory, activate multiple arms of immune system to fight cancer. The promising advances in the field of immunotherapy signal the dawn of a new era in cancer treatment and warrant further investigation to understand the opportunities and barriers for future progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Sadozai
- Institute of Pathology, Experimental Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Gruber
- Institute of Pathology, Experimental Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Mirjam Schenk
- Institute of Pathology, Experimental Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Pedrotti LP, Sena AA, Rodriguez Galán MC, Cejas H, Correa SG. Intestinal mononuclear cells primed by systemic interleukin-12 display long-term ability to aggravate colitis in mice. Immunology 2017; 150:290-300. [PMID: 27891587 PMCID: PMC5290244 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To address whether the burst of systemic interleukin-12 (IL-12) influences intestinal inflammation elicited by luminal stimuli, we induced IL-12 release by cDNA injection in C57BL/6 mice and simultaneously started dextran sulphate sodium administration. The sequence of the inflammatory response triggered by IL-12 release was characterized by assessing myeloperoxidase activity and histological damage in colon samples on days 1, 3, 5 and 7 after colitis induction. To evaluate the persistence of IL-12 priming, colitis was induced in mice 7 or 60 days after cDNA injection. Under IL-12 influence, the development of acute colitis presented a faster and selective infiltration of inflammatory mononuclear cells in the lamina propria. Recruitment was driven by systemic cytokines rather than luminal antigens. Interestingly, when colitis was triggered 7 or 60 days after the cytokine storm, cells maintained the ability to worsen clinical signs of intestinal inflammation. Together, a systemic IL-12 burst effectively primed intestinal cells that became more prone to develop inflammatory responses. Activation was long-lasting because intestinal cells maintained their inflammatory potential and their ability to aggravate colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano P. Pedrotti
- ImmunologyDepartment of Clinical Biochemistry‐CIBICI (CONICET)Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de CórdobaCórdobaArgentina
| | - Angela A. Sena
- ImmunologyDepartment of Clinical Biochemistry‐CIBICI (CONICET)Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de CórdobaCórdobaArgentina
| | - María Cecilia Rodriguez Galán
- ImmunologyDepartment of Clinical Biochemistry‐CIBICI (CONICET)Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de CórdobaCórdobaArgentina
| | - Hugo Cejas
- ImmunologyDepartment of Clinical Biochemistry‐CIBICI (CONICET)Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de CórdobaCórdobaArgentina
| | - Silvia G. Correa
- ImmunologyDepartment of Clinical Biochemistry‐CIBICI (CONICET)Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de CórdobaCórdobaArgentina
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6
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Abstract
Immunotherapy using dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccination is an approved approach for harnessing the potential of a patient's own immune system to eliminate tumor cells in metastatic hormone-refractory cancer. Overall, although many DC vaccines have been tested in the clinic and proven to be immunogenic, and in some cases associated with clinical outcome, there remains no consensus on how to manufacture DC vaccines. In this review we will discuss what has been learned thus far about human DC biology from clinical studies, and how current approaches to apply DC vaccines in the clinic could be improved to enhance anti-tumor immunity.
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7
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Huang H, Wu X, Cao L, Wang L. Preparation and Identification of Monoclonal Antibody Against C1q/TNF-Related Protein 4. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2016; 35:280-284. [DOI: 10.1089/mab.2016.0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- He Huang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaotong Wu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Lulu Cao
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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Wang X, Li T, Wang W, Yuan W, Liu H, Cheng Y, Wang P, Zhang Y, Han W. Cytokine-like 1 Chemoattracts Monocytes/Macrophages via CCR2. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:4090-9. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Lee SR, Park YK, Shin BA, Park HR. Effects of tumor vaccine expressing Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor and interleukin-18 fusion on cancer cells and its possible application for cancer immunotherapy. Cytokine 2016; 89:143-154. [PMID: 26868088 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To access antitumor effects of a combined Granulocyte Macrophage-Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin-18 (IL-18), cDNA fusion of murine GM-CSF and mature IL-18 (GMIL-18) was constructed and transfected in mammalian cells. GMIL-18 fusion protein was highly secreted and displayed bifunctional activities, possessing immune response initiation and cytokine roles, including IFN-γ induction in mouse splenocytes and increased proliferation of GM-CSF-dependent cells, M-NSF-60. The GMIL-18 secreting tumor vaccine was generated and it strongly stimulated differentiation of dendrite cells (DCs) and effusive CD8+ and CD4+ cell infiltration into tumor mice. Moreover, growth of CT26 mouse colon cancer cells was significantly retarded by GMIL-18 (CT26GMIL-18), but not by CT26GM-CSF- or CT26IL-18. The efficiency of prophylactic vaccination was greater than that of therapeutic vaccination in terms of tumor size and its inhibitory role in proliferation. In micrometastasis analysis of tumor models, γ-ray irradiated GMIL-18 tumor vaccine showed a smaller number of liver-meta tumor nodules in mouse liver cells. We concluded that bifunctional GMIL-18 fusion protein could be applied as an immune therapy for cancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Rok Lee
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 501-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Kyu Park
- Department of Surgery, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Boo Ahn Shin
- Deprtment of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Ryoung Park
- Division of Liberal Arts & Teacher Training, Kwangju Women's University, Gwangju 506-713, Republic of Korea.
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10
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Abstract
The colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are the master regulators of granulocyte and macrophage populations. There are four different aspects of the connection between the CSFs and cancer: (a) the CSFs can accelerate the regeneration of protective white cells damaged by chemotherapy; (b) the CSFs can mobilize stem cells to the peripheral blood in convenient numbers for transplantation; (c) the CSFs can enhance anticancer immune responses and (d) the CSFs are potentially involved in the genesis of the myeloid leukemias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald Metcalf
- Cancer and Haematology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Victoria, Australia. Telephone: 61-3-9345-2555;
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11
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Hsu YJ, Hsu JH, Lin KC. Yam storage protein dioscorins modulate cytokine gene expression in BALB/c and C57BL/6 lymphocytes. FOOD AGR IMMUNOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2015.1048787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jhen Hsu
- Department of Life Science and Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien County 974, Taiwan
| | - Jung-Hsin Hsu
- Department of Life Science and Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien County 974, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Chih Lin
- Department of Life Science and Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien County 974, Taiwan
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12
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Liu H, Zou X, Li T, Wang X, Yuan W, Chen Y, Han W. Enhanced production of secretory glycoprotein VSTM1-v2 with mouse IgGκ signal peptide in optimized HEK293F transient transfection. J Biosci Bioeng 2015; 121:133-9. [PMID: 26140918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2015.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
VSTM1-v2 is a secretory glycoprotein identified by our laboratory. Our previous study revealed that VSTM1-v2 could promote differentiation and activation of Th17 cells. To explore the role of VSTM1-v2 in the immune system further, a source of abundant high-quality recombinant protein is warranted. However, high-level expression of bioactive VSTM1-v2 is difficult due to its weak secretion capacity. To obtain sufficient recombinant VSTM1-v2, we developed an improved expression and purification system by replacing the native signal peptide with a mouse IgGκ signal peptide that did not alter the protein cleavage site. We also optimized parameters for a transient gene expression system in HEK293F cells suspended in serum-free media with polyethyleneimine. Finally, 3.6 mg/L recombinant VSTM1-v2 protein with N-glycosylation and no less than 95% purity was obtained through one-step purification with Ni affinity chromatography. The final yield after purification was increased by more than 7-fold compared to the yield from our previously reported HEK293T system (from 0.5 mg/L to 3.6 mg/L). More importantly, VSTM1-v2 protein exhibited excellent bioactivity. In conclusion, the improved system is not only a dependable source of abundant bioactive VSTM1-v2 for functional studies but also demonstrates a highly efficient approach for enhancing the production of proteins in a short time period, especially for secretory proteins with poor yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huihui Liu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiajuan Zou
- Proteomics Laboratory, Medical and Healthy Analytical Center, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Ting Li
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Wanqiong Yuan
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yingyu Chen
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Wenling Han
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100191, China.
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Liu H, Wang X, Shi S, Chen Y, Han W. Efficient production of FAM19A4, a novel potential cytokine, in a stable optimized CHO-S cell system. Protein Expr Purif 2015; 113:1-7. [PMID: 25979463 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
FAM19A4 is a novel potential cytokine identified by our group, which can chemoattract macrophages, promote phagocytosis against zymosan and increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) release. To further explore the role of FAM19A4 in immune system, abundant recombinant protein with high quality is indispensable. For efficient production of FAM19A4, we used an improved CHO-S cell expression system on the basis of pMH3 vector containing GC-rich regions which were novel ubiquitous chromatin opening elements (UCOEs). We selected CHO-S cells stably expressing FAM19A4 with G418 and screened cell clones with high level of FAM19A4 expression by immune blot and his-ELISA, adapted cell clones to serum-free suspension culture. Afterwards, we obtained the highest FAM19A4 expressing cell clone (2#) through 40 ml batch culture. We optimized the fed-batch culture condition and discovered the final cell viability was critical for FAM19A4 production successfully. Then we scaled 2# clone up to 3 L in fed-batch culture and obtained 22 mg (7.33 mg/L, averagely) endotoxin free FAM19A4 protein with purity over 95% using Ni affinity chromatography and size exclusion chromatography. The final yield was increased 3.6-folds compared to that of our previously reported transient system. Besides, the purified FAM19A4 protein showed chemotactic activity on macrophages. In summary, we developed a stable optimized fed-batch CHO-S cell system to produce FAM19A4, which not only provided sufficient bioactive FAM19A4 protein for further research but also offered an efficient strategy for other recombinant protein production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huihui Liu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Shuang Shi
- Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Yingyu Chen
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Wenling Han
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China.
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14
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Safety and antitumor effect of oncolytic and helper-dependent adenoviruses expressing interleukin-12 variants in a hamster pancreatic cancer model. Gene Ther 2015; 22:696-706. [PMID: 25938192 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2015.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Gene transfer of potent immunostimulatory cytokines such as interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a potential treatment for advanced cancer. Different vectors and IL-12 modifications have been developed to avoid side effects associated with high serum levels of the cytokine, while preserving its antitumor properties. Here we have evaluated two alternative strategies using the Syrian hamster as a model for pancreatic cancer metastatic to the liver. Local administration of an oncolytic adenovirus (OAV) expressing a single-chain version of IL-12 caused transient, very intense elevations of IL-12 in serum, resulting in severe toxicity at sub-therapeutic doses. Anchoring IL-12 to the membrane of infected cells by fusion with the transmembrane domain of CD4 reduced systemic exposure to IL-12 and increased the tolerance to the OAV. However, only a modest increase in the therapeutic range was achieved because antitumor potency was also reduced. In contrast, systemic administration of a helper-dependent adenoviral vector (HDAd) equipped with a Mifepristone-inducible expression system allowed sustained and controlled IL-12 production from the liver. This treatment was well tolerated and inhibited the progression of hepatic metastases. We conclude that HDAds are safer than OAVs for the delivery of IL-12, and are promising vectors for immunogene therapy approaches against pancreatic cancer.
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15
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Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-23 play important roles in the development of experimental autoimmune disease models and numerous afflictions affecting humans. Preclinical data over the last 20 years combined with successful clinical trials has identified a clear relationship between IL-12, IL-23 and the generation of pathogenic T helper cells capable of orchestrating tissue inflammation. Observations made in the clinic have shown that IL-12p40, a common subunit shared by IL-12 and IL-23, is critical to pathologies associated with psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and tumor growth. These advancements have set in motion the development of a number of potential therapeutics aimed at manipulating IL-12/23 signaling pathways in both mice and humans. This review will discuss a brief history of the understanding and expansion of the IL-12 cytokine family, some difficulties associated with preclinical data interpretation and finally the medicinal interventions that have been developed to combat IL-12/23-driven autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew L Croxford
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Paulina Kulig
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Burkhard Becher
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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IL-12 is required for mTOR regulation of memory CTLs during viral infection. Genes Immun 2014; 15:413-23. [PMID: 24898389 PMCID: PMC4156562 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2014.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The induction of functional memory CTLs is a major goal of vaccination against
intracellular pathogens. IL-12 is critical for the generation of memory CTLs, and
inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin can effectively enhance the memory CTL response. Yet, the
role of IL-12 in mTOR’s regulation of memory CTL is unknown. Here, we hypothesized
that the immunostimulatory effects of mTOR on memory CTLs requires IL-12 signaling. Our
results revealed that rapamycin increased the generation of memory CTLs in vaccinia virus
infection, and this enhancement was dependent upon the IL-12 signal. Furthermore, IL-12
receptor deficiency diminished the secondary expansion of rapamycin-regulated memory, and
resultant secondary memory CTLs were abolished. Rapamycin enhanced IL-12 signaling by up
regulating IL-12 receptor β2 expression and STAT4 phosphorylation in CTLs during
early infection. In addition, rapamycin continually suppressed T-bet expression in both WT
and IL-12 receptor knockout CTLs. These results indicate an essential role for IL-12 in
the regulation of memory CTLs by mTOR, and highlight the importance of considering the
interplay between cytokines and adjuvants during vaccine design.
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17
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Li T, Wang W, Chen Y, Han W. Preparation and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against VSTM1. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2014; 32:283-9. [PMID: 23909423 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2012.0119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
VSTM1 (V-set and transmembrane domain containing 1) is a novel membrane molecule identified from immunogenomics, which has two main isoforms, VSTM1-v1 and VSTM1-v2. VSTM1-v1 is a type I transmembrane protein, and VSTM1-v2 is a classical secretory protein, lacking only the transmembrane domain compared with VSTM1-v1. This study was designed to generate VSTM1-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) for further exploration of its expression and function. Mice were immunized with two recombinant prokaryotic proteins of GST-VSTM1-v2 and VSTM1-v2 without any tag. Hybridomas were generated by the fusion of the splenocytes to Sp2/0 myeloma cells. Three hybridoma cell lines (2C11, 6E11, and 7A8) stable in secreting anti-VSTM1 MAb were obtained and further characterized. All three MAbs were IgG2b isotype and effective in detecting the overexpressed VSTM1 in both Western blot and flow cytometry assays, while recognizing the endogenous VSTM1 in Western blot analysis only. These MAbs could be helpful in the basic study of VSTM1 and in revealing the interesting conformation difference between the overexpressed and endogenous proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Li
- Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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Kamensek U, Sersa G, Cemazar M. Evaluation of p21 promoter for interleukin 12 radiation induced transcriptional targeting in a mouse tumor model. Mol Cancer 2013; 12:136. [PMID: 24219565 PMCID: PMC3832904 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-12-136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Radiation induced transcriptional targeting is a gene therapy approach that takes advantage of the targeting abilities of radiotherapy by using radio inducible promoters to spatially and temporally limit the transgene expression. Cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (CDKN1A), also known as p21, is a crucial regulator of the cell cycle, mediating G1 phase arrest in response to a variety of stress stimuli, including DNA damaging agents like irradiation. The aim of the study was to evaluate the suitability of the p21 promoter for radiation induced transcriptional targeting with the objective to test the therapeutic effectiveness of the combined radio-gene therapy with p21 promoter driven therapeutic gene interleukin 12. METHODS To test the inducibility of the p21 promoter, three reporter gene experimental models with green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of p21 promoter were established by gene electrotransfer of plasmid DNA: stably transfected cells, stably transfected tumors, and transiently transfected muscles. Induction of reporter gene expression after irradiation was determined using a fluorescence microplate reader in vitro and by non-invasive fluorescence imaging using fluorescence stereomicroscope in vivo. The antitumor effect of the plasmid encoding the p21 promoter driven interleukin 12 after radio-gene therapy was determined by tumor growth delay assay and by quantification of intratumoral and serum levels of interleukin 12 protein and intratumoral concentrations of interleukin 12 mRNA. RESULTS Using the reporter gene experimental models, p21 promoter was proven to be inducible with radiation, the induction was not dose dependent, and it could be re-induced. Furthermore radio-gene therapy with interleukin 12 under control of the p21 promoter had a good antitumor therapeutic effect with the statistically relevant tumor growth delay, which was comparable to that of the same therapy using a constitutive promoter. CONCLUSIONS In this study p21 promoter was proven to be a suitable candidate for radiation induced transcriptional targeting. As a proof of principle the therapeutic value was demonstrated with the radio-inducible interleukin 12 plasmid providing a synergistic antitumor effect to radiotherapy alone, which makes this approach feasible for the combined treatment with radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregor Sersa
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maja Cemazar
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Izola, Slovenia
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Lubong Sabado
- NYU Langone Medical Center Cancer Institute; New York University School of Medicine, New York; New York
| | - Nina Bhardwaj
- NYU Langone Medical Center Cancer Institute; New York University School of Medicine, New York; New York
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Ohgidani M, Furugaki K, Shinkai K, Kunisawa Y, Itaka K, Kataoka K, Nakano K. Block/homo polyplex micelle-based GM-CSF gene therapy via intraperitoneal administration elicits antitumor immunity against peritoneal dissemination and exhibits safety potentials in mice and cynomolgus monkeys. J Control Release 2013; 167:238-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 01/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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21
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Wei F, Wang H, Zhang J, Chen X, Li C, Huang Q. Pharmacokinetics of combined gene therapy expressing constitutive human GM-CSF and hyperthermia-regulated human IL-12. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2013; 32:5. [PMID: 23352035 PMCID: PMC3564871 DOI: 10.1186/1756-9966-32-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background An adenovirus that expresses both interleukin (IL)-12 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating-factor (GM-CSF) has been proven to be very effective in treating several tumors, but causes serious normal tissue toxicities. Methods In this study, a novel adenoviral vector was constructed by placing the human GM-CSF gene under the control of the CMV-IE promoter and human IL-12 gene under the control of heat shock protein 70B gene promoter. Both hGM-CSF and hIL-12 expressions in virus-infected tumor cells were analyzed in vitro and in vivo when underlying single or multiple rounds of hyperthermia. Results We observed constitutive high expression of human GM-CSF and heat-induced expression of human IL-12 after a single round of hyperthermia post viral infection. The heat-induced hIL-12 expression exhibited a pulse-like pattern with a peak at 24 hrs followed by a decline 48 hrs post heat stress. Repeated heat treatment was more effective in inducing hIL-12 expression than a one-time heat treatment. Interestedly, we also observed that constitutive expression of hGM-CSF could be stimulated by heat stress in tested tumor cells. Conclusion Our study provided a novel strategy for combined gene therapy that allows constitutive expression of a non-toxic gene such as GM-CSF and heat-induced expression of a toxic gene such as IL-12. In addition, our study also showed that hyperthermia can be used to trigger gene expression in temporal and special manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Wei
- Experimental Research Center, First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 85 Wujin Road, Shanghai, 200080, China.
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Choi IK, Yun CO. Recent developments in oncolytic adenovirus-based immunotherapeutic agents for use against metastatic cancers. Cancer Gene Ther 2013; 20:70-6. [PMID: 23306610 DOI: 10.1038/cgt.2012.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Recurrent or metastatic cancer in most cases remains an incurable disease, and thus alternative treatment strategies, such as oncolytic virotherapy, are of great interest for clinical application. Oncolytic adenoviruses (Ads) have many advantages as virotherapeutic agents and have been safely employed in the clinics. However, the efficacy of oncolytic Ads is insufficient to eradicate tumors and current clinical applications are restricted to local administration against primary tumors because of immunological obstacles and poor tumor-cell targeting. Thus, alternative viable approaches are needed to establish therapies based on oncolytic Ad that will eliminate both primary and metastatic cancers. To this end, rational design of oncolytic Ads that express immunostimulatory genes has been employed. Even when restricted to local viral delivery, these oncolytic Ad-based immunotherapeutics have been shown to exert systemic antitumor immunity and result in eradication of both primary and metastatic cancers. Moreover, oncolytic Ad-based immunotherapeutics in combination with either dendritic cell-based vaccine or radiotherapy further strengthen the systemic tumor-specific immunity, resulting in complete suppression of both local and distant tumor metastatic growth. This review will focus on the most recent updates in strategies to develop potent oncolytic Ad-based immunotherapeutics for use in cancer gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-K Choi
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
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23
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Seth R, Khan AA, Pencavel T, Harrington KJ, Harris PA. Targeted gene delivery by free-tissue transfer in oncoplastic reconstruction. Lancet Oncol 2012; 13:e392-402. [DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(12)70235-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Absence of LTB4/BLT1 axis facilitates generation of mouse GM-CSF-induced long-lasting antitumor immunologic memory by enhancing innate and adaptive immune systems. Blood 2012; 120:3444-54. [PMID: 22936657 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-10-383240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BLT1 is a high-affinity receptor for leukotriene B4 (LTB4) that is a potent lipid chemoattractant for myeloid leukocytes. The role of LTB4/BLT1 axis in tumor immunology, including cytokine-based tumor vaccine, however, remains unknown. We here demonstrated that BLT1-deficient mice rejected subcutaneous tumor challenge of GM-CSF gene-transduced WEHI3B (WGM) leukemia cells (KO/WGM) and elicited robust antitumor responses against second tumor challenge with WEHI3B cells. During GM-CSF-induced tumor regression, the defective LTB4/BLT1 signaling significantly reduced tumor-infiltrating myeloid-derived suppressor cells, increased the maturation status of dendritic cells in tumor tissues, enhanced their CD4(+) T-cell stimulation capacity and migration rate of dendritic cells that had phagocytosed tumor-associated antigens into tumor-draining lymph nodes, suggesting a positive impact on GM-CSF-sensitized innate immunity. Furthermore, KO/WGM mice displayed activated adaptive immunity by attenuating regulatory CD4(+) T subsets and increasing numbers of Th17 and memory CD44(hi)CD4(+) T subsets, both of which elicited superior antitumor effects as evidenced by adoptive cell transfer. In vivo depletion assays also revealed that CD4(+) T cells were the main effectors of the persistent antitumor immunity. Our data collectively underscore a negative role of LTB4/BLT1 signaling in effective generation and maintenance of GM-CSF-induced antitumor memory CD4(+) T cells.
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25
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Mentor-Marcel RA, Bobe G, Sardo C, Wang LS, Kuo CT, Stoner G, Colburn NH. Plasma cytokines as potential response indicators to dietary freeze-dried black raspberries in colorectal cancer patients. Nutr Cancer 2012; 64:820-5. [PMID: 22823889 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2012.697597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Oral consumption of freeze-dried black raspberries attenuated neoplastic changes in colorectal tissue markers of apoptosis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. To determine whether plasma concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were associated with berry treatment and changes in colorectal tissue markers of apoptosis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis, plasma and biopsy samples of adenocarcinoma and adjacent normal-appearing colorectal tissue were collected before and during berry treatment from 24 CRC patients who had not received prior therapy and drank a slurry of black raspberry powder (20 g in 100 ml drinking water) 3 times a day for 1 to 9 wk. Plasma concentrations of GM-CSF (+0.12 ± 0.04 pg/mL; P = 0.01) and IL-8 (-1.61 ± 0.71 pg/mL; P = 0.04) changed in patients receiving berries for more than 10 days. These changes were correlated with beneficial changes in markers of proliferation (r(ΔGM-CSF, ΔKi67 carcinoma - normal) = -0.51) and apoptosis (r(ΔIL-8, ΔTUNEL carcinoma - normal) = -0.52) observed in colorectal tissue taken within the same week. Plasma concentrations of GM-CSF and IL-8 may serve as noninvasive indicators to monitor tissue response to berry-based interventions for CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roycelynn A Mentor-Marcel
- Laboratory of Cancer Prevention, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, Maryland, USA
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Ustekinumab in psoriasis immunopathology with emphasis on the Th17-IL23 axis: a primer. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012:147413. [PMID: 22754278 PMCID: PMC3384985 DOI: 10.1155/2012/147413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Psoriasis is a chronic relapsing immunoinflammatory dermatosis that is commonly associated with systemic comorbidities. The pathogenic importance of interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-23 is beyond doubt, as well as the involvement of T helper cells (Th)1 and Th17 cells. There is upregulation of the p40 subunit shared by IL-12 and IL-23 and of the IL-23 p19 subunit, but not an increased expression of the IL-12 p35 subunit. This indicates that IL-23 appears more involved than IL-12 in the pathogenesis of psoriatic plaques. Ustekinumab is a fully human monoclonal antibody of the immunoglobulin (Ig) G1 class targeting the p40 subunit common to both IL-12 and IL-23, thus inhibiting both IL-12 and IL-23 receptor-mediated signalling. Ustekinumab is part of the recent biologic therapies active in psoriasis, autoimmune arthritides, and inflammatory bowel diseases.
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27
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Cancer therapy and vaccination. J Immunol Methods 2012; 382:1-23. [PMID: 22658969 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2012.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2011] [Revised: 04/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, both in developed and in developing nations. It may affect people at all ages, even fetuses, but the risk for most varieties increases with age. Current therapeutic approaches which include surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy are associated with adverse side effects arising from lack of specificity for tumors. The goal of any therapeutic strategy is to impact on the target tumor cells with limited detrimental effect to normal cell function. Immunotherapy is cancer specific and can target the disease with minimal impact on normal tissues. Cancer vaccines are capable of generating an active tumor-specific immune response and serve as an ideal treatment due to their specificity for tumor cells and long lasting immunological memory that may safeguard against recurrences. Cancer vaccines are designed to either prevent (prophylactic) or treat established cancer (therapeutic). Identification of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) has led to increased efforts to develop vaccination strategies. Vaccines may be composed of whole cells or cell extracts, genetically modified tumor cells to express costimulatory molecules, dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with TAAs, immunization with soluble proteins or synthetic peptides, recombinant viruses or bacteria encoding tumor-associated antigens, and plasmid DNA encoding TSAs or TAAs in conjunction with appropriate immunomodulators. All of these antitumor vaccination approaches aim to induce specific immunological responses and localized to TAAs, destroying tumor cells alone and leaving the vast majority of other healthy cells of the body untouched.
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Abstract
Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder affecting approximately 2% of individuals worldwide. An improved understanding of the pathogenesis of psoriasis has led to the development of targeted biologic therapies. Briakinumab (ABT-874) is a recombinant human antibody that blocks the biological activity of the cytokines interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-23 through their shared subunit p40. IL-12 and IL-23 are key mediators in T-cell differentiation and have been shown to play a significant role in maintaining inflammation and abnormal keratinocyte function in psoriasis patients through development and stimulation of Th1 and Th17 subsets, respectively. In one phase II and four phase III studies (including two 52-week trials), the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI)-75 score at weeks 12 and 52 was achieved by at least 80.6% and 66.2% (p < 0.001) of patients receiving more than one dose of briakinumab every 4 weeks, respectively, with high proportions of patients achieving PASI-90 and PASI-100 scores (at least 55.4% and 28.8%, respectively; p < 0.001). These studies indicate safety and tolerance of briakinumab therapy for patients with moderate-to-severe chronic plaque psoriasis. In one clinical trial, therapy was associated with increased incidence of major cardiac events. Available results from two briakinumab trials show its positive impact on health-related quality of life. However, the manufacturer has now withdrawn the application in the EU and US.
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Suchorska WM, Dams-Kozlowska H, Kazimierczak U, Wysocki PJ, Mackiewicz A. Hyper-interleukin-11 novel designer molecular adjuvant targeting gp130 for whole cell cancer vaccines. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2011; 11:1555-67. [PMID: 21995459 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2011.627852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hyper-IL-11 (H11) is a fusion protein comprising IL-11 and soluble IL-11 receptor directly targeting gp130. We evaluated efficacy of H11 as a molecular adjuvant in therapeutic whole tumor cell vaccine formulation. METHODS H11 was tested in ectopic and orthotopic murine renal cell carcinoma (RENCA) models. H11 cDNA was transduced into RENCA cells (RENCA-H11). Mice were immunized with RENCA-H11 or control vaccine (RENCA-IRR) in prophylactic, adjuvant and therapeutic settings. Tumor formation, survival and immune mechanisms activated by H11 were studied. RESULTS Biologically active H11 was secreted by RENCA-H11 cells. Immunization with RENCA-H11 resulted in mounting specific anti-RENCA response. Treatment of tumor bearing mice in adjuvant setting prevented disease recurrence in therapeutic setting eradicated tumors. In induction phase H11 inhibited T-regulatory cell formation and activated recruitment and maturation of dendritic cells. Downstream of immunization tumors were densely infiltrated by CD8(+), CD4(+), NK cells, cells expressing CD8(+)CD69(+) and CD4(+)CD62L(low). CONCLUSIONS H11 is a good candidate for adjuvant of whole tumor cell vaccines. Direct targeting of gp130 leads to induction of specific and long lasting anticancer immune response. Enhancement of tumor antigen presentation, abrogation of immune tolerance, and activation of NK cells and generation of memory cells lead to eradication of existing tumors.
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30
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The immuno-regulatory effects of Schisandra chinensis and its constituents on human monocytic leukemia cells. Molecules 2011; 16:4836-49. [PMID: 21666550 PMCID: PMC6264271 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16064836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Revised: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Many diseases occur when the immune system is weakened. Intracellular signals activate immuno-responsive cells to produce cytokines that modulate the immune response. Schisandra chinensis has been used traditionally to treat general fatigue, neurasthenia, and spontaneous sweating. In the present study, the effect of constituents of S. chinensis on cytokine release by human monocytic leukemia cells (THP-1) was tested using microparticle-based flow cytometric analysis. Two major lignans, schizandrin (Sch) and gomisin A (Gom A), were identified and shown to induce interleukin (IL)-8, macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β), and granulocyte-macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) release by THP-1 cells. By reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or quantitative real-time PCR, there was a dose-dependent increase of IL-8, MIP-1β and GM-CSF mRNA levels. Thus, Sch and Gom A from S. chinensis enhance cytokine release by THP-1 cells and this effect occurs through mRNA upregulation. Upregulation of MIP-1β and GM-CSF in particular may have clinical applications. Therefore, S. chinensis may be therapeutically beneficial by promoting humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.
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Kurzeja M, Rudnicka L, Olszewska M. New interleukin-23 pathway inhibitors in dermatology: ustekinumab, briakinumab, and secukinumab. Am J Clin Dermatol 2011; 12:113-25. [PMID: 21348542 DOI: 10.2165/11538950-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-23 is an important regulator of T helper-17 lymphocytes, which influence the cutaneous immune system by production of IL-17 and several other proinflammatory cytokines. This pathway has been recently linked to the pathogenesis of psoriasis and numerous other skin diseases. A newly developed biologic drug, ustekinumab (CNTO-1275), which targets the p40 subunit of IL-12 and IL-23, was approved by the US FDA and the European Medicines Agency in 2009 for the treatment of moderate to severe psoriasis. Administered as subcutaneous injections of 45 mg at weeks 0 and 4, and then every 12 weeks, ustekinumab produces a 75% improvement in the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) in 66.4-75.7% of patients and a Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) score of 0 or 1 in 55-56% of patients after 12 weeks of therapy. A recent clinical trial also indicates the possible efficacy of ustekinumab in psoriatic arthritis. The proportion of patients who had at least one adverse event through 12 weeks in clinical studies was 51.6-57.6% in the ustekinumab group and 50.4% in the placebo group. Serious adverse events were observed in 1.4-1.6% of patients treated with ustekinumab and in 1.4% of patients receiving placebo. Injection-site reactions occurred in 1-2% of patients and 5% of patients developed anti-ustekinumab antibodies. Further studies are needed to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of ustekinumab. Another biologic drug that targets the same molecules, briakinumab (ABT-874), has recently had its approval application withdrawn in the US and Europe to conduct further analysis and clinical trials. The company plans resubmission at a later date. Other IL-23 pathway inhibitors in the pipeline include anti-p19 monoclonal antibody and apilimod (STA-5326), which interfere with IL-23 activity, as well as secukinumab (AIN-457), LY-2439821, and AMG-827, which exhibit their activity at other targets of the IL-23 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kurzeja
- Department of Dermatology, Central Clinical Hospital of Ministry of Internal Affairs and Administration, Warsaw, Poland
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32
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Choi IK, Lee JS, Zhang SN, Park J, Sonn CH, Lee KM, Yun CO. Oncolytic adenovirus co-expressing IL-12 and IL-18 improves tumor-specific immunity via differentiation of T cells expressing IL-12Rβ2 or IL-18Rα. Gene Ther 2011; 18:898-909. [PMID: 21451575 PMCID: PMC3169807 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2011.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The oncolytic adenovirus (Ad) is currently being advanced as a promising antitumor remedy as it selectively replicates in tumor cells and can transfer and amplify therapeutic genes. Interleukin (IL)-12 induces a potent antitumor effect by promoting natural killer (NK) cell and cytotoxic T cell activities. IL-18 also augments cytotoxicity of NK cells and proliferation of T cells. This effect further enhances the function of IL-12 in a synergistic manner. Therefore, we investigated for the first time an effective cancer immunogene therapy of syngeneic tumors via intratumoral administration of oncolytic Ad co-expressing IL-12 and IL-18, RdB/IL-12/IL-18. Intratumoral administration of RdB/IL-12/IL-18 improved antitumor effects, as well as increased survival, in B16-F10 murine melanoma model. The ratio of T-helper type 1/2 cytokine as well as the levels of IL-12, IL-18, interferon-γ and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor was markedly elevated in RdB/IL-12/IL-18-treated tumors. Mice injected with RdB/IL-12/IL-18 also showed enhanced cytotoxicity of tumor-specific immune cells. Consistent with these results, immense necrosis and infiltration of NK cells, as well as CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, were observed in RdB/IL-12/IL-18-treated tumor tissues. Importantly, tumors treated with RdB/IL-12/IL-18 showed an elevated number of T cells expressing IL-12Rβ2 or IL-18Rα. These results provide a new insight into therapeutic mechanisms of IL-12 plus IL-18 and provide a potential clinical cancer immunotherapeutic agent for improved antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-K Choi
- Graduate Program for Nanomedical Science, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
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Shurin MR, Gregory M, Morris JC, Malyguine AM. Genetically modified dendritic cells in cancer immunotherapy: a better tomorrow? Expert Opin Biol Ther 2011; 10:1539-53. [PMID: 20955111 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2010.526105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Dendritic cells (DC) are powerful antigen-presenting cells that induce and maintain primary cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses directed against tumor antigens. Consequently, there has been much interest in their application as antitumor vaccines. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW A large number of DC-based vaccine trials targeting a variety of cancers have been conducted; however, the rate of reported clinically significant responses remains low. Modification of DC to express tumor antigens or immunostimulatory molecules through the transfer of genes or mRNA transfection offers a logical alternative with potential advantages over peptide- or protein antigen-loaded DC. In this article, we review the current results and future prospects for genetically modified DC vaccines for the treatment of cancer. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Genetically-modified dendritic cell-based vaccines represent a powerful tool for cancer therapy. Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the potential of dendritic cell vaccines alone or in combination with other therapeutic modalities. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Genetically modified DC-based anti-cancer vaccination holds promise, perhaps being best employed in the adjuvant setting with minimal residual disease after primary therapy, or in combination with other antitumor or immune-enhancing therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Shurin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Genetic determinants of mycophenolate-related anemia and leukopenia after transplantation. Transplantation 2011; 91:309-16. [PMID: 21107304 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0b013e318200e971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycophenolate-related anemia and leukopenia are well-known toxicities after transplantation. Toxicity leads to dose reduction, addition of colony-stimulating factors or erythropoietin, or discontinuation of immunosuppressive therapy. The causes of and risk factors associated with toxicity are unclear. METHODS We studied the association between mycophenolate-related anemia and leukopenia and 2724 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in 978 patients undergoing living or deceased donor kidney transplant. Patients were followed up to time of first anemia (hemoglobin<10 gm/dL or hematocrit<30%) or first leukopenia (white blood cell [WBC] count <3000 cells/mm), which required clinical intervention in the first 6 months after transplant. RESULTS Anemia occurred in 87 (9.5%) subjects and leukopenia in 224 (22.9%). In single SNP analyses, none of the SNPs were associated with time to leukopenia at a false discovery rate (FDR) of 20%. However, SNPs from the IL12A, HUS, CYP2C8 genes were associated with time to anemia, allowing for an FDR of 20%. To assess the independence of these SNPs as predictors of anemia, we conducted a multi-SNP analysis including one SNP from each of the three genes. All three SNPs were associated with time to anemia, after adjusting for recipient age, weight, posttransplant dialysis and antiviral drug use, and stratifying by clinical center. CONCLUSION Although these SNPs require validation in an independent population, our results suggest that genetics may play a role in risk of mycophenolate-related hematologic toxicity. This may ultimately provide for better management of maintenance immunosuppression and gives insights into potential mechanism(s) by which toxicity occurs.
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Pajtasz-Piasecka E, Indrová M. Dendritic cell-based vaccines for the therapy of experimental tumors. Immunotherapy 2010; 2:257-68. [PMID: 20635932 DOI: 10.2217/imt.10.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are believed to be the most potent antigen-presenting cells able to link the innate and adaptive immune systems. Many studies have focused on different immunotherapeutic approaches to applying DCs as tools to improve anticancer therapy. Although a number of investigations suggesting the benefit of DC-based vaccination during anticancer therapy have been reported, the general knowledge regarding the ultimate methods of DC-vaccine preparation is still unsatisfactory. In this article, the perspectives of DC-based anti-tumor immunotherapy and optimizing strategies of DC vaccination in humans in light of results obtained in mouse models are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elzbieta Pajtasz-Piasecka
- Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology & Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland.
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Sabado RL, Bhardwaj N. Directing dendritic cell immunotherapy towards successful cancer treatment. Immunotherapy 2010; 2:37-56. [PMID: 20473346 DOI: 10.2217/imt.09.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of dendritic cells (DCs) for tumor immunotherapy represents a powerful approach for harnessing the patient's own immune system to eliminate tumor cells. However, suboptimal conditions for generating potent immunostimulatory DCs, as well as the induction of tolerance and suppression mediated by the tumors and its microenvironment have contributed to limited success. Combining DC vaccines with new approaches that enhance immunogenicity and overcome the regulatory mechanisms underlying peripheral tolerance may be the key to achieving effective and durable anti-tumor immune responses that translate to better clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Lubong Sabado
- New York University School of Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center Cancer Institute, 550 First Avenue SML 1303, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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Beebe SJ, Schoenbach KH, Heller R. Bioelectric applications for treatment of melanoma. Cancers (Basel) 2010; 2:1731-70. [PMID: 24281185 PMCID: PMC3837335 DOI: 10.3390/cancers2031731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2010] [Revised: 09/14/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Two new cancer therapies apply bioelectric principles. These methods target tumor structures locally and function by applying millisecond electric fields to deliver plasmid DNA encoding cytokines using electrogene transfer (EGT) or by applying rapid rise-time nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs). EGT has been used to locally deliver cytokines such as IL-12 to activate an immune response, resulting in bystander effects. NsPEFs locally induce apoptosis-like effects and affect vascular networks, both promoting tumor demise and restoration of normal vascular homeostasis. EGT with IL-12 is in melanoma clinical trials and nsPEFs are used in models with B16F10 melanoma in vitro and in mice. Applications of bioelectrics, using conventional electroporation and extensions of it, provide effective alternative therapies for melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Beebe
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics/Old Dominion University 4211 Monarch Way, Suite 300, Norfolk, Virginia 23508, USA.
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Abstract
The very deep knowledge acquired on the genetics and molecular biology of herpes simplex virus (HSV), has allowed the development of potential replication-competent and replication-defective vectors for several applications in human healthcare. These include delivery and expression of human genes to cells of the nervous systems, selective destruction of cancer cells, prophylaxis against infection with HSV or other infectious diseases, and targeted infection to specific tissues or organs. Replication-defective recombinant vectors are non-toxic gene transfer tools that preserve most of the neurotropic features of wild type HSV-1, particularly the ability to express genes after having established latent infections, and are thus proficient candidates for therapeutic gene transfer settings in neurons. A replication-defective HSV vector for the treatment of pain has recently entered in phase 1 clinical trial. Replication-competent (oncolytic) vectors are becoming a suitable and powerful tool to eradicate brain tumours due to their ability to replicate and spread only within the tumour mass, and have reached phase II/III clinical trials in some cases. The progress in understanding the host immune response induced by the vector is also improving the use of HSV as a vaccine vector against both HSV infection and other pathogens. This review briefly summarizes the obstacle encountered in the delivery of HSV vectors and examines the various strategies developed or proposed to overcome such challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Manservigi
- Department of Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine - Section of Microbiology, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
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Manservigi R, Argnani R, Marconi P. HSV Recombinant Vectors for Gene Therapy. Open Virol J 2010; 4:123-56. [PMID: 20835362 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901004030123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2009] [Revised: 03/13/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The very deep knowledge acquired on the genetics and molecular biology of herpes simplex virus (HSV), has allowed the development of potential replication-competent and replication-defective vectors for several applications in human healthcare. These include delivery and expression of human genes to cells of the nervous systems, selective destruction of cancer cells, prophylaxis against infection with HSV or other infectious diseases, and targeted infection to specific tissues or organs. Replication-defective recombinant vectors are non-toxic gene transfer tools that preserve most of the neurotropic features of wild type HSV-1, particularly the ability to express genes after having established latent infections, and are thus proficient candidates for therapeutic gene transfer settings in neurons. A replication-defective HSV vector for the treatment of pain has recently entered in phase 1 clinical trial. Replication-competent (oncolytic) vectors are becoming a suitable and powerful tool to eradicate brain tumours due to their ability to replicate and spread only within the tumour mass, and have reached phase II/III clinical trials in some cases. The progress in understanding the host immune response induced by the vector is also improving the use of HSV as a vaccine vector against both HSV infection and other pathogens. This review briefly summarizes the obstacle encountered in the delivery of HSV vectors and examines the various strategies developed or proposed to overcome such challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Manservigi
- Department of Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine - Section of Microbiology, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
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Abstract
The four colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are glycoproteins that regulate the generation and some functions of infection-protective granulocytes and macrophages. Recombinant granulocyte-CSF (G-CSF) and granulocyte-macrophage-CSF (GM-CSF) have now been used to increase dangerously low white blood cell levels in many millions of cancer patients following chemotherapy. These CSFs also release haematopoietic stem cells to the peripheral blood, and these cells have now largely replaced bone marrow as more effective populations for transplantation to cancer patients who have treatment-induced bone marrow damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald Metcalf
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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Kayashima H, Toshima T, Okano S, Taketomi A, Harada N, Yamashita YI, Tomita Y, Shirabe K, Maehara Y. Intratumoral neoadjuvant immunotherapy using IL-12 and dendritic cells is an effective strategy to control recurrence of murine hepatocellular carcinoma in immunosuppressed mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:698-708. [PMID: 20498356 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0900187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Liver transplantation is accepted as an effective therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, recurrence is one of the most fatal complications. The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of intratumoral immunotherapy using IL-12 gene therapy and dendritic cell injection for the purpose of effective treatment for HCC under conditions of immunosuppression. We found that the combined immunotherapy significantly induced sustained and high amounts of intratumoral IL-12 and IFN-gamma proteins and that it induced high HCC-specific CTL activity under immunosuppression as compared with each monotherapy or control. The combined immunotherapy also exerted effective antitumor effects on the immunosuppressed host, resulting in significant suppression of growth of the s.c. established tumor and complete suppression of lung and liver metastasis, without rejection of a fully allogeneic skin graft. These antitumor effects were dependent on both T cells and NK cells. Noteworthily, the combined intratumoral immunotherapy and tumor resection (that is, neoadjuvant immunotherapy) resulted in achievement of tumor-free and long-term survival of the some immunosuppressed mice, even when the mice were challenged with i.v. injection of HCC at the time of tumor resection. In contrast, all of the mice treated with neoadjuvant immunotherapy using monotherapy or control therapy suffered from lung and liver metastasis. These results suggest that intratumoral neoadjuvant immunotherapy using IL-12 gene therapy and dendritic cell therapy is a potent effective strategy to control recurrence of HCC in patients after liver transplantation for HCC and may be applicable to general cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroto Kayashima
- Department of Surgery and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Targeting inhibitory pathways in cancer immunotherapy. Curr Opin Immunol 2010; 22:385-90. [PMID: 20466529 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2010.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The clinical success of adaptive transfer of in vitro expanded antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells isolated from patients' tumors has demonstrated that effector cells of the adaptive immune system can effectively eliminate even large tumor masses. Nevertheless, cancer vaccines that aim to expand such CD8(+) T cells in situ have had remarkably little success in spite of numerous attempts. Recent advances in basic immunology have revealed layers of complexity controlling activation and maintenance of adaptive immune responses that are tightly controlled by immunoinhibitory pathways to avoid horror autotoxicus. During tumor progression the activities of negative pathways increase and together with cancer immune evasion tactics presumably prevent induction of an efficacious immune response by cancer vaccines that solely provide more antigen to an already suppressed system. Cancer vaccines may thus need to readjust the imbalance of the cancer patients' immune system by inhibiting immunoinhibitors; such regimens have shown preclinical efficacy and are now entering clinical trials hopefully ending the Kafkaesque futility of cancer vaccines.
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