Influence of finite-sites mutation, population subdivision and sampling schemes on patterns of nucleotide polymorphism for species with molecular hyperdiversity

Patterns of Genomic Diversity in a Fig-Associated Close Relative of Caenorhabditis elegans

The evolution of reproductive mode is expected to have profound impacts on the genetic composition of populations. At the same time, ecological interactions can generate close associations among species, which can in turn generate a high degree of overlap in their spatial distributions. Caenorhabditis elegans is a hermaphroditic nematode that has enabled extensive advances in developmental genetics. Caenorhabditis inopinata, the sister species of C. elegans, is a gonochoristic nematode that thrives in figs and obligately disperses on fig wasps. Here, we describe patterns of genomic diversity in C. inopinata. We performed RAD-seq on individual worms isolated from the field across three Okinawan island populations. C. inopinata is about five times more diverse than C. elegans. Additionally, C. inopinata harbors greater differences in diversity among functional genomic regions (such as between genic and intergenic sequences) than C. elegans. Conversely, C. elegans harbors greater differences in diversity between high-recombining chromosome arms and low-recombining chromosome centers than C. inopinata. FST is low among island population pairs, and clear population structure could not be easily detected among islands, suggesting frequent migration of wasps between islands. These patterns of population differentiation appear comparable with those previously reported in its fig wasp vector. These results confirm many theoretical population genetic predictions regarding the evolution of reproductive mode and suggest C. inopinata population dynamics may be driven by wasp dispersal. This work sets the stage for future evolutionary genomic studies aimed at understanding the evolution of sex as well as the evolution of ecological interactions.

Males, Outcrossing, and Sexual Selection in Caenorhabditis Nematodes

Males of Caenorhabditis elegans provide a crucial practical tool in the laboratory, but, as the rarer and more finicky sex, have not enjoyed the same depth of research attention as hermaphrodites. Males, however, have attracted the attention of evolutionary biologists who are exploiting the C. elegans system to test longstanding hypotheses about sexual selection, sexual conflict, transitions in reproductive mode, and genome evolution, as well as to make new discoveries about Caenorhabditis organismal biology. Here, we review the evolutionary concepts and data informed by study of males of C. elegans and other Caenorhabditis We give special attention to the important role of sperm cells as a mediator of inter-male competition and male-female conflict that has led to drastic trait divergence across species, despite exceptional phenotypic conservation in many other morphological features. We discuss the evolutionary forces important in the origins of reproductive mode transitions from males being common (gonochorism: females and males) to rare (androdioecy: hermaphrodites and males) and the factors that modulate male frequency in extant androdioecious populations, including the potential influence of selective interference, host-pathogen coevolution, and mutation accumulation. Further, we summarize the consequences of males being common vs rare for adaptation and for trait divergence, trait degradation, and trait dimorphism between the sexes, as well as for molecular evolution of the genome, at both micro-evolutionary and macro-evolutionary timescales. We conclude that C. elegans male biology remains underexploited and that future studies leveraging its extensive experimental resources are poised to discover novel biology and to inform profound questions about animal function and evolution.

Balancing selection on allorecognition genes in the colonial ascidian Botryllus schlosseri

Allorecognition is the capability of an organism to recognize its own or related tissues. The colonial ascidian Botryllus schlosseri, which comprises five genetically distinct and divergent species (Clades A-E), contains two adjacent genes that control allorecognition: fuhc^sec and fuhc^tm. These genes have been characterized extensively in Clade A and are highly polymorphic. Using alleles from 10 populations across the range of Clade A, we investigated the type and strength of selection maintaining this variation. Both fuhc genes exhibit higher within-population variation and lower population differentiation measures (F_ST) than neutral loci. The fuhc genes contain a substantial number of codons with >95% posterior probability of d_N/d_S > 1. fuhc^sec and fuhc^tm also have polymorphisms shared between Clade A and Clade E that were present prior to speciation (trans-species polymorphisms). These results provide robust evidence that the fuhc genes are evolving under balancing selection.

Mutation Rate Variation is a Primary Determinant of the Distribution of Allele Frequencies in Humans

The site frequency spectrum (SFS) has long been used to study demographic history and natural selection. Here, we extend this summary by examining the SFS conditional on the alleles found at the same site in other species. We refer to this extension as the "phylogenetically-conditioned SFS" or cSFS. Using recent large-sample data from the Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC), combined with primate genome sequences, we find that human variants that occurred independently in closely related primate lineages are at higher frequencies in humans than variants with parallel substitutions in more distant primates. We show that this effect is largely due to sites with elevated mutation rates causing significant departures from the widely-used infinite sites mutation model. Our analysis also suggests substantial variation in mutation rates even among mutations involving the same nucleotide changes. In summary, we show that variable mutation rates are key determinants of the SFS in humans.

Contrasting genetic structure between mitochondrial and nuclear markers in the dengue fever mosquito from Rio de Janeiro: implications for vector control

Dengue is the most prevalent global arboviral disease that affects over 300 million people every year. Brazil has the highest number of dengue cases in the world, with the most severe epidemics in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Rio). The effective control of dengue is critically dependent on the knowledge of population genetic structuring in the primary dengue vector, the mosquito Aedes aegypti. We analyzed mitochondrial and nuclear genomewide single nucleotide polymorphism markers generated via Restriction-site Associated DNA sequencing, as well as traditional microsatellite markers in Ae. aegypti from Rio. We found four divergent mitochondrial lineages and a strong spatial structuring of mitochondrial variation, in contrast to the overall nuclear homogeneity across Rio. Despite a low overall differentiation in the nuclear genome, we detected strong spatial structure for variation in over 20 genes that have a significantly altered expression in response to insecticides, xenobiotics, and pathogens, including the novel biocontrol agent Wolbachia. Our results indicate that high genetic diversity, spatially unconstrained admixing likely mediated by male dispersal, along with locally heterogeneous genetic variation that could affect insecticide resistance and mosquito vectorial capacity, set limits to the effectiveness of measures to control dengue fever in Rio.

Description of Caenorhabditis sinica sp. n. (Nematoda: Rhabditidae), a nematode species used in comparative biology for C. elegans

We re-isolated in China a relative of the nematode model Caenorhabditis elegans that was previously referred to informally as C. sp. 5. In spite of its importance for comparative biology, C. sp. 5 has remained morphologically uncharacterized. Therefore, we now provide detailed description of morphology and anatomy, assigning the name of Caenorhabditis sinica sp. n. to this nematode that is found frequently in China. C. sinica sp. n. belongs to the Elegans group in the genus Caenorhabditis, being phylogenetically close to C. briggsae although differing in reproductive mode. The gonochoristic C. sinica sp. n. displays two significantly larger distal parts of uteri filled with sperms in the female/hermaphroditic gonad than does the androdioecious C. briggsae. The new species can be differentiated morphologically from all known Caenorhabditis species within the Elegans group by presenting a uniquely shaped, three-pointed hook structure on the male precloacal lip. The lateral field of C. sinica sp. n. is marked by three ridges that are flanked by two additional incisures, sometimes appearing as five ridges in total. This study ends the prolonged period of the 'undescribed' anonymity for C. sinica sp. n. since its discovery and use in comparative biological research. Significant and crossing-direction dependent hybrid incompatibilities in F1 and F2 crossing progeny make C. sinica sp. n. an excellent model for studies of population and speciation genetics. The abundance of nematode species lacking detailed taxonomic characterization deserves renewed attention to address the species description gap for this important yet morphologically 'difficult' group of animals.

Purifying selection, drift, and reversible mutation with arbitrarily high mutation rates

Some species exhibit very high levels of DNA sequence variability; there is also evidence for the existence of heritable epigenetic variants that experience state changes at a much higher rate than sequence variants. In both cases, the resulting high diversity levels within a population (hyperdiversity) mean that standard population genetics methods are not trustworthy. We analyze a population genetics model that incorporates purifying selection, reversible mutations, and genetic drift, assuming a stationary population size. We derive analytical results for both population parameters and sample statistics and discuss their implications for studies of natural genetic and epigenetic variation. In particular, we find that (1) many more intermediate-frequency variants are expected than under standard models, even with moderately strong purifying selection, and (2) rates of evolution under purifying selection may be close to, or even exceed, neutral rates. These findings are related to empirical studies of sequence and epigenetic variation.

A recent global selective sweep on the age-1 phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase regulator of the insulin-like signaling pathway within Caenorhabditis remanei

The discovery that genetic pathways can be manipulated to extend lifespan has revolutionized our understanding of aging, yet their function within natural populations remains poorly characterized. In particular, evolutionary theories of aging predict tradeoffs in resource investment toward somatic maintenance vs. reproductive output that should impose strong natural selection on genetic components that influence this balance. To explore such selective pressure at the molecular level, we examine population genetic variation in the insulin-like signaling pathway of the nematode Caenorhabditis remanei. We document a recent global selective sweep on the phosphoinositide-3-kinase pathway regulator, age-1, the first life-extension gene to have been identified. In particular, we find that age-1 has 5−20 times less genetic variation than any other insulin-like signaling pathway components and that evolutionary signatures of selection center on the age-1 locus within its genomic environment. These results demonstrate that critical components of aging-related pathways can be subject to shifting patterns of strong selection, as predicted by theory. This highly polymorphic outcrossing species offers high-resolution, population-level analyses of molecular variation as a complement to functional genetic studies within the self-reproducing C. elegans model system.

An experimental test on the probability of extinction of new genetic variants

In 1927, J.B.S. Haldane reasoned that the probability of fixation of new beneficial alleles is twice their fitness effect. This result, later generalized by M. Kimura, has since become the cornerstone of modern population genetics. There is no experimental test of Haldane's insight that new beneficial alleles are lost with high probability. Here we demonstrate that extinction rates decrease with increasing initial numbers of beneficial alleles, as expected, by performing invasion experiments with inbred lines of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We further show that the extinction rates of deleterious alleles are higher than those of beneficial alleles, also as expected. Interestingly, we also find that for these inbred lines, when at intermediate frequencies, the fate of invaders might not result in their ultimate fixation or loss but on their maintenance. Our study confirms the key results from classical population genetics and highlights that the nature of adaptation can be complex.

Specialist versus generalist life histories and nucleotide diversity in Caenorhabditis nematodes

Species with broad ecological amplitudes with respect to a key focal resource, niche generalists, should maintain larger and more connected populations than niche specialists, leading to the prediction that nucleotide diversity will be lower and more subdivided in specialists relative to their generalist relatives. This logic describes the specialist-generalist variation hypothesis (SGVH). Some outbreeding species of Caenorhabditis nematodes use a variety of invertebrate dispersal vectors and have high molecular diversity. By contrast, Caenorhabditis japonica lives in a strict association and synchronized life cycle with its dispersal host, the shield bug Parastrachia japonensis, itself a diet specialist. Here, we characterize sequence variation for 20 nuclear loci to investigate how C. japonica's life history shapes nucleotide diversity. We find that C. japonica has more than threefold lower polymorphism than other outbreeding Caenorhabditis species, but that local populations are not genetically disconnected. Coupled with its restricted range, we propose that its specialist host association contributes to a smaller effective population size and lower genetic variation than host generalist Caenorhabditis species with outbreeding reproductive modes. A literature survey of diverse organisms provides broader support for the SGVH. These findings encourage further testing of ecological and evolutionary hypotheses with comparative population genetics in Caenorhabditis and other taxa.

Molecular hyperdiversity defines populations of the nematode Caenorhabditis brenneri

The biology of Sydney Brenner's eponymous species of nematode, Caenorhabditis brenneri, is little known to science, despite its famous sibling Caenorhabditis elegans. Here we demonstrate that C. brenneri harbors the most molecular diversity of any eukaryote, with its 14.1% of polymorphic synonymous sites between individuals being 150-fold greater than humans and most comparable to hyperdiverse bacteria. This diversity is not an artifact of cryptic species divergence but reflects an enormous pan-tropical population, confirmed by fully viable genetic crosses between continents, extensive intralocus recombination, selection on codon use, and only weak geographic genetic structure. These findings in an animal galvanize tests of theory about the evolution of complexity in genomes and phenotypes and enable molecular population genetics methods to finely resolve uncharacterized functional noncoding elements.

Distribution of long-range linkage disequilibrium and Tajima's D values in Scandinavian populations of Norway Spruce (Picea abies)

The site frequency spectrum of mutations (SFS) and linkage disequilibrium (LD) are the two major sources of information in population genetics studies. In this study we focus on the levels of LD and the SFS and on the effect of sample size on summary statistics in 10 Scandinavian populations of Norway spruce. We found that previous estimates of a low level of LD were highly influenced by both sampling strategy and the fact that data from multiple loci were analyzed jointly. Estimates of LD were in fact heterogeneous across loci and increased within individual populations compared with the estimate from the total data. The variation in levels of LD among populations most likely reflects different demographic histories, although we were unable to detect population structure by using standard approaches. As in previous studies, we also found that the SFS-based test Tajima’s D was highly sensitive to sample size, revealing that care should be taken to draw strong conclusions from this test when sample size is small. In conclusion, the results from this study are in line with recent studies in other conifers that have revealed a more complex and variable pattern of LD than earlier studies suggested and with studies in trees and humans that suggest that Tajima’s D is sensitive to sample size. This has large consequences for the design of future association and population genetic studies in Norway spruce.

Molecular hyperdiversity and evolution in very large populations

The genomic density of sequence polymorphisms critically affects the sensitivity of inferences about ongoing sequence evolution, function and demographic history. Most animal and plant genomes have relatively low densities of polymorphisms, but some species are hyperdiverse with neutral nucleotide heterozygosity exceeding 5%. Eukaryotes with extremely large populations, mimicking bacterial and viral populations, present novel opportunities for studying molecular evolution in sexually reproducing taxa with complex development. In particular, hyperdiverse species can help answer controversial questions about the evolution of genome complexity, the limits of natural selection, modes of adaptation and subtleties of the mutation process. However, such systems have some inherent complications and here we identify topics in need of theoretical developments. Close relatives of the model organisms Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster provide known examples of hyperdiverse eukaryotes, encouraging functional dissection of resulting molecular evolutionary patterns. We recommend how best to exploit hyperdiverse populations for analysis, for example, in quantifying the impact of noncrossover recombination in genomes and for determining the identity and micro-evolutionary selective pressures on noncoding regulatory elements.

Genomic signatures of selection at linked sites: unifying the disparity among species

Population genetics theory supplies powerful predictions about how natural selection interacts with genetic linkage to sculpt the genomic landscape of nucleotide polymorphism. Both the spread of beneficial mutations and the removal of deleterious mutations act to depress polymorphism levels, especially in low-recombination regions. However, empiricists have documented extreme disparities among species. Here we characterize the dominant features that could drive differences in linked selection among species--including roles for selective sweeps being 'hard' or 'soft'--and the concealing effects of demography and confounding genomic variables. We advocate targeted studies of closely related species to unify our understanding of how selection and linkage interact to shape genome evolution.

A high load of non-neutral amino-acid polymorphisms explains high protein diversity despite moderate effective population size in a marine bivalve with sweepstakes reproduction

Marine bivalves show among the greatest allozyme diversity ever reported in Eukaryotes, putting them historically at the heart of the neutralist-selectionist controversy on the maintenance of genetic variation. Although it is now acknowledged that this high diversity is most probably a simple consequence of a large population size, convincing support for this explanation would require a rigorous assessment of the silent nucleotide diversity in natural populations of marine bivalves, which has not yet been done. This study investigated DNA sequence polymorphism in a set of 37 nuclear loci in wild samples of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis. Silent diversity was found to be only moderate (0.7%), and there was no departure from demographic equilibrium under the Wright-Fisher model, suggesting that the effective population size might not be as large as might have been expected. In accordance with allozyme heterozygosity, nonsynonymous diversity was comparatively very high (0.3%), so that the nonsynonymous to silent diversity ratio reached a value rarely observed in any other organism. We estimated that one-quarter of amino acid-changing mutations behave as neutral in O. edulis, and as many as one-third are sufficiently weakly selected to segregate at low frequency in the polymorphism. Finally, we inferred that one oyster is expected to carry more than 4800 non-neutral alleles (or 4.2 cM(-1)). We conclude that a high load of segregating non-neutral amino-acid polymorphisms contributes to high protein diversity in O. edulis. The high fecundity of marine bivalves together with an unpredictable and highly variable success of reproduction and recruitment (sweepstakes reproduction) might produce a greater decoupling between Ne and N than in other organisms with lower fecundities, and we suggest this could explain why a higher segregating load could be maintained for a given silent mutation effective size.

Species richness, distribution and genetic diversity of Caenorhabditis nematodes in a remote tropical rainforest

BACKGROUND

In stark contrast to the wealth of detail about C. elegans developmental biology and molecular genetics, biologists lack basic data for understanding the abundance and distribution of Caenorhabditis species in natural areas that are unperturbed by human influence.

METHODS

Here we report the analysis of dense sampling from a small, remote site in the Amazonian rain forest of the Nouragues Natural Reserve in French Guiana.

RESULTS

Sampling of rotting fruits and flowers revealed proliferating populations of Caenorhabditis, with up to three different species co-occurring within a single substrate sample, indicating remarkable overlap of local microhabitats. We isolated six species, representing the highest local species richness for Caenorhabditis encountered to date, including both tropically cosmopolitan and geographically restricted species not previously isolated elsewhere. We also documented the structure of within-species molecular diversity at multiple spatial scales, focusing on 57 C. briggsae isolates from French Guiana. Two distinct genetic subgroups co-occur even within a single fruit. However, the structure of C. briggsae population genetic diversity in French Guiana does not result from strong local patterning but instead presents a microcosm of global patterns of differentiation. We further integrate our observations with new data from nearly 50 additional recently collected C. briggsae isolates from both tropical and temperate regions of the world to re-evaluate local and global patterns of intraspecific diversity, providing the most comprehensive analysis to date for C. briggsae population structure across multiple spatial scales.

CONCLUSIONS

The abundance and species richness of Caenorhabditis nematodes is high in a Neotropical rainforest habitat that is subject to minimal human interference. Microhabitat preferences overlap for different local species, although global distributions include both cosmopolitan and geographically restricted groups. Local samples for the cosmopolitan C. briggsae mirror its pan-tropical patterns of intraspecific polymorphism. It remains an important challenge to decipher what drives Caenorhabditis distributions and diversity within and between species.

Evidence for selection on a chordate histocompatibility locus

Allorecognition is the ability of an organism to differentiate self or close relatives from unrelated individuals. The best known applications of allorecognition are the prevention of inbreeding in hermaphroditic species (e.g., the self-incompatibility [SI] systems in plants), the vertebrate immune response to foreign antigens mediated by MHC loci, and somatic fusion, where two genetically independent individuals physically join to become a chimera. In the few model systems where the loci governing allorecognition outcomes have been identified, the corresponding proteins have exhibited exceptional polymorphism. But information about the evolution of this polymorphism outside MHC is limited. We address this subject in the ascidian Botryllus schlosseri, where allorecognition outcomes are determined by a single locus, called FuHC (Fusion/HistoCompatibility). Molecular variation in FuHC is distributed almost entirely within populations, with very little evidence for differentiation among different populations. Mutation plays a larger role than recombination in the creation of FuHC polymorphism. A selection statistic, neutrality tests, and distribution of variation within and among different populations all provide evidence for selection acting on FuHC, but are not in agreement as to whether the selection is balancing or directional.

Global population genetic structure of Caenorhabditis remanei reveals incipient speciation

Mating system transitions dramatically alter the evolutionary trajectories of genomes that can be revealed by contrasts of species with disparate modes of reproduction. For such transitions in Caenorhabditis nematodes, some major causes of genome variation in selfing species have been discerned. And yet, we have only limited understanding of species-wide population genetic processes for their outcrossing relatives, which represent the reproductive state of the progenitors of selfing species. Multilocus-multipopulation sequence polymorphism data provide a powerful means to uncover the historical demography and evolutionary processes that shape genomes. Here we survey nucleotide polymorphism across the X chromosome for three populations of the outcrossing nematode Caenorhabditis remanei and demonstrate its divergence from a fourth population describing a closely related new species from China, C. sp. 23. We find high genetic variation globally and within each local population sample. Despite geographic barriers and moderate genetic differentiation between Europe and North America, considerable gene flow connects C. remanei populations. We discovered C. sp. 23 while investigating C. remanei, observing strong genetic differentiation characteristic of reproductive isolation that was confirmed by substantial F2 hybrid breakdown in interspecific crosses. That C. sp. 23 represents a distinct biological species provides a cautionary example of how standard practice can fail for mating tests of species identity in this group. This species pair permits full application of divergence population genetic methods to obligately outcrossing species of Caenorhabditis and also presents a new focus for interrogation of the genetics and evolution of speciation with the Caenorhabditis model system.