Identification of activating region (AR) of Escherichia coli LysR-type transcription factor CysB and CysB contact site on RNA polymerase alpha subunit at the cysP promoter

AraC Functional Suppressors of Mutations in the C-Terminal Domain of the RpoA Subunit of the Escherichia coli RNA Polymerase

In E. coli, transcriptional activation is often mediated by the C-terminal domain of RpoA, the α subunit of RNA polymerase. Random mutations that prevent activation of the arabinose PBAD promoter are clustered in the RpoA C-terminal domain (α-CTD). We have isolated functional suppressors of rpoA α-CTD mutations that map to araC, the main transcriptional regulator of ara genes, or to the PBAD promoter. No mutation was found in the DNA regulatory region between araC and PBAD. Most suppressors that improve PBAD transcription are localized to the N-terminal domain of AraC. One class of araC mutations generates substitutions in the core of the N-terminal domain, suggesting that they affect its conformation. Other suppressors localize to the flexible N-terminal arm of AraC. Some, but not all, suppressors confer an arabinose constitutive phenotype. Suppression by both classes of araC mutations requires the α-CTD to stimulate expression from PBAD. Surprisingly, in rpoA+ strains lacking Crp, the cAMP receptor protein, these araC mutations largely restore arabinose gene expression and can essentially bypass Crp activation. Thus, the N-terminal domain of AraC exhibits at least three distinct activities: dimerization, arabinose binding, and transcriptional activation. Finally, one mutation maps to the AraC C-terminal domain and can synergize with AraC mutations in the N-terminal domain.

The Structure of the LysR-type Transcriptional Regulator, CysB, Bound to the Inducer, N-acetylserine

In Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, cysteine biosynthesis requires the products of 20 or more cys genes co-ordinately regulated by CysB. Under conditions of sulphur limitation and in the presence of the inducer, N-acetylserine, CysB binds to cys promoters and activates the transcription of the downstream coding sequences. CysB is a homotetramer, comprising an N-terminal DNA binding domain (DBD) and a C-terminal effector binding domain (EBD). The crystal structure of a dimeric EBD fragment of CysB from Klebsiella aerogenes revealed a protein fold similar to that seen in Lac repressor but with a different symmetry in the dimer so that the mode of DNA binding was not apparent. To elucidate the subunit arrangement in the tetramer, we determined the crystal structure of intact CysB in complex with N-acetylserine. The tetramer has two subunit types that differ in the juxtaposition of their winged helix-turn-helix DNA binding domains with respect to the effector binding domain. In the assembly, the four EBDs form a core with the DNA binding domains arranged in pairs on the surface. N-acetylserine makes extensive polar interactions in an enclosed binding site, and its binding is accompanied by substantial conformational rearrangements of surrounding residues that are propagated to the protein surface where they appear to alter the arrangement of the DNA binding domains. The results are (i) discussed in relation to the extensive mutational data available for CysB and (ii) used to propose a structural mechanism of N-acetylserine induced CysB activation.

Versatility and Complexity: Common and Uncommon Facets of LysR-Type Transcriptional Regulators

LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) form one of the largest families of bacterial regulators. They are widely distributed and contribute to all aspects of metabolism and physiology. Most are homotetramers, with each subunit composed of an N-terminal DNA-binding domain followed by a long helix connecting to an effector-binding domain. LTTRs typically bind DNA in the presence or absence of a small-molecule ligand (effector). In response to cellular signals, conformational changes alter DNA interactions, contact with RNA polymerase, and sometimes contact with other proteins. Many are dual-function repressor-activators, although different modes of regulation may occur at multiple promoters. This review presents an update on the molecular basis of regulation, the complexity of regulatory schemes, and applications in biotechnology and medicine. The abundance of LTTRs reflects their versatility and importance. While a single regulatory model cannot describe all family members, a comparison of similarities and differences provides a framework for future study.

The transcriptional regulator RbcR controls ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) genes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved in cyanobacteria, primary producers of striking ecological importance. Like plants, cyanobacteria use the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle for CO₂ fixation, fuelled by ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). In a competitive reaction this enzyme also fixes O₂ which makes it rather ineffective. To mitigate this problem, cyanobacteria evolved a CO₂ concentrating mechanism (CCM) to pool CO₂ in the vicinity of RuBisCO. However, the regulation of these carbon (C) assimilatory systems is understood only partially. Using the model Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 we characterized an essential LysR-type transcriptional regulator encoded by gene sll0998. Transcript profiling of a knockdown mutant revealed diminished expression of several genes involved in C acquisition, including rbcLXS, sbtA and ccmKL encoding RuBisCO and parts of the CCM, respectively. We demonstrate that the Sll0998 protein binds the rbcL promoter and acts as a RuBisCO regulator (RbcR). We propose ATTA(G/A)-N₅ -(C/T)TAAT as the binding motif consensus. Our data validate RbcR as a regulator of inorganic C assimilation and define the regulon controlled by it. Biological CO₂ fixation can sustain efforts to reduce its atmospheric concentrations and is fundamental for the light-driven production of chemicals directly from CO₂ . Information about the involved regulatory and physiological processes is crucial to engineer cyanobacterial cell factories.

Inactivation of RNase P in Escherichia coli significantly changes post-transcriptional RNA metabolism

Ribonuclease P (RNase P), which is required for the 5'-end maturation of tRNAs in every organism, has been shown to play a limited role in other aspects of RNA metabolism in Escherichia coli. Using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq), we demonstrate that RNase P inactivation affects the abundances of ~46% of the expressed transcripts in E. coli and provide evidence that its essential function is its ability to generate pre-tRNAs from polycistronic tRNA transcripts. The RNA-seq results agreed with the published data and northern blot analyses of 75/83 transcripts (mRNAs, sRNAs, and tRNAs). Changes in transcript abundances in the RNase P mutant also correlated with changes in their half-lives. Inactivating the stringent response did not alter the rnpA49 phenotype. Most notably, increases in the transcript abundances were observed for all genes in the cysteine regulons, multiple toxin-antitoxin modules, and sigma S-controlled genes. Surprisingly, poly(A) polymerase (PAP I) modulated the abundances of ~10% of the transcripts affected by RNase P. A comparison of the transcriptomes of RNase P, RNase E, and RNase III mutants suggests that they affect distinct substrates. Together, our work strongly indicates that RNase P is a major player in all aspects of post-transcriptional RNA metabolism in E. coli.

Functional and structural analysis of catabolite control protein C that responds to citrate

Catabolite control protein C (CcpC) belongs to the LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) family, which regulates the transcription of genes encoding the tricarboxylic acid branch enzymes of the TCA cycle by responding to a pathway-specific metabolite, citrate. The biological function of CcpC has been characterized several times, but the structural basis for the molecular function of CcpC remains elusive. Here, we report the characterization of a full-length CcpC from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BaCcpC-FL) and a crystal structure of the C-terminal inducer-binding domain (IBD) complexed with citrate. BaCcpC required both dyad symmetric regions I and II to recognize the citB promoter, and the presence of citrate reduced citB promoter binding. The crystal structure of CcpC-IBD shows two subdomains, IBD-I and IBD-II, and a citrate molecule buried between them. Ile100, two arginines (Arg147 and Arg260), and three serines (Ser129, Ser189, and Ser191) exhibit strong hydrogen-bond interactions with citrate molecules. A structural comparison of BaCcpC-IBD with its homologues showed that they share the same tail-to-tail dimer alignment, but the dimeric interface and the rotation between these molecules exhibit significant differences. Taken together, our results provide a framework for understanding the mechanism underlying the functional divergence of the CcpC protein.

Assembly and regulation of the chlorhexidine-specific efflux pump AceI

Acinetobacter baumannii has become challenging to treat due to its multidrug resistance mediated by active drug efflux pumps. The prototype member of the proteobacterial antimicrobial compound efflux (PACE) family, AceI of A. baumannii, is implicated in the transport of widely used antiseptic chlorhexidine, while AceR is associated with regulating the expression of the aceI gene. Here we apply native mass spectrometry to show that AceI forms dimers at high pH, and that chlorhexidine binding facilitates the functional form of the protein. Also, we demonstrate how AceR affects the interaction between RNA polymerase and promoter DNA both in the presence and in the absence of chlorhexidine. Overall, these results provide insight into the assembly and regulation of the PACE family.

Few antibiotics are effective against Acinetobacter baumannii, one of the most successful pathogens responsible for hospital-acquired infections. Resistance to chlorhexidine, an antiseptic widely used to combat A. baumannii, is effected through the proteobacterial antimicrobial compound efflux (PACE) family. The prototype membrane protein of this family, AceI (Acinetobacter chlorhexidine efflux protein I), is encoded for by the aceI gene and is under the transcriptional control of AceR (Acinetobacter chlorhexidine efflux protein regulator), a LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) protein. Here we use native mass spectrometry to probe the response of AceI and AceR to chlorhexidine assault. Specifically, we show that AceI forms dimers at high pH, and that binding to chlorhexidine facilitates the functional form of the protein. Changes in the oligomerization of AceR to enable interaction between RNA polymerase and promoter DNA were also observed following chlorhexidine assault. Taken together, these results provide insight into the assembly of PACE family transporters and their regulation via LTTR proteins on drug recognition and suggest potential routes for intervention.

Substrate recognition and ATPase activity of the E. coli cysteine/cystine ABC transporter YecSC-FliY

Sulfur is essential for biological processes such as amino acid biogenesis, iron-sulfur cluster formation, and redox homeostasis. To acquire sulfur-containing compounds from the environment, bacteria have evolved high-affinity uptake systems, predominant among which is the ABC transporter family. Theses membrane-embedded enzymes use the energy of ATP hydrolysis for transmembrane transport of a wide range of biomolecules against concentration gradients. Three distinct bacterial ABC import systems of sulfur-containing compounds have been identified, but the molecular details of their transport mechanism remain poorly characterized. Here we provide results from a biochemical analysis of the purified Escherichia coli YecSC-FliY cysteine/cystine import system. We found that the substrate-binding protein FliY binds l-cystine, l-cysteine, and d-cysteine with micromolar affinities. However, binding of the l- and d-enantiomers induced different conformational changes of FliY, where the l- enantiomer-substrate-binding protein complex interacted more efficiently with the YecSC transporter. YecSC had low basal ATPase activity that was moderately stimulated by apo FliY, more strongly by d-cysteine-bound FliY, and maximally by l-cysteine- or l-cystine-bound FliY. However, at high FliY concentrations, YecSC reached maximal ATPase rates independent of the presence or nature of the substrate. These results suggest that FliY exists in a conformational equilibrium between an open, unliganded form that does not bind to the YecSC transporter and closed, unliganded and closed, liganded forms that bind this transporter with variable affinities but equally stimulate its ATPase activity. These findings differ from previous observations for similar ABC transporters, highlighting the extent of mechanistic diversity in this large protein family.

Regulatory associations between the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids and xanthan biosynthesis in Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris B100

The γ-proteobacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) B100 synthesizes the exopolysaccharide xanthan, a commercially relevant thickening agent produced commonly by industrial scale fermentation. This work was inspired by the observation that methionine is an inhibitor of xanthan formation in growth experiments. Therefore, the global effects of methionine supplementation were characterized through cultivation experiments, genome-wide microarray hybridizations and qRT-PCR. Specific pull down of DNA-binding proteins by using the intergenic regions upstream of xanA, gumB and gumD led to the identification of six transcriptional regulators, among them the LysR-family transcriptional regulator CysB. An insertion mutant of this gene was analyzed by growth experiments, microarray experiments and qRT-PCR. Based on our experimental data, we developed a model that describes the methionine-dependent co-regulation of xanthan and sulfur-containing compounds in Xanthomonas. These data substantially contribute to better understand the impact of methionine as a compound in xanthan production media used in industrial fermentations.

Engineering Escherichia coli for autoinducible production of L-valine: An example of an artificial positive feedback loop in amino acid biosynthesis

Artificial metabolically regulated inducible expression systems are often used for the production of essential compounds. In most cases, the application of such systems enables regulating the expression of an entire group of genes in response to any internal signal such as an aerobic/anaerobic switch, a transition to stationary phase, or the exhausting of essential compounds. In this work, we demonstrate an example of another type of artificial autoinducible module, denoted a positive feedback module. This positive feedback module generates an inducer molecule that in turn enhances its own synthesis, promoting an activation signal. Due to the use of acetolactate, an intermediate of the L-valine biosynthetic pathway, as a specific inducer molecule, we realized a positive feedback loop in the biosynthetic pathway of branched chain amino acids. Such positive feedback was demonstrated to improve the production of a target compound.

Ethanol effects on the overexpression of heterologous catalase in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3)

A novel method involving ethanol-induced increase in the heterologous recombinant protein expression in E. coli cells was commonly used in recent studies. However, the detailed mechanism of this method is still to be revealed. This work used comparative transcriptomic analysis and numerous experiments to uncover the mechanism of ethanol effects on the expression of heterologous catalase in the recombinant strain E. coli BL21 (pET26b-katA). The key regulatory genes malK and prpD were found to have the most significant effects on the expression of heterologous catalase. Thus, the maltose ABC transporter and carbon metabolism from propanoate metabolism to citrate cycle were found to be the main regulatory pathways activated by ethanol to enhance the synthesis of heterologous proteins. Based on these mechanisms, a universally applicable E. coli expression host strain for improving the expression of heterologous proteins might be constructed.

The soluble transhydrogenase UdhA affecting the glutamate-dependent acid resistance system of Escherichia coli under acetate stress

The soluble transhydrogenase (UdhA) is one of two transhydrogenases that play a role in maintaining the balance between NAD(H) pools and NADP(H) pools in Escherichia coli. Although UdhA has been extensively used in metabolic engineering and biocatalysis for cofactor regeneration, its role in acid resistance has not been reported. Here we used DNA microarray to explore the impact of UdhA on transcript levels. We demonstrated that during growth on acetate, the expression of genes involved in the respiratory chain and Gad acid resistance system was inhibited in the udhA-knockout strain. The deletion of udhA significantly repressed the expression of six genes (gadA, gadB, gadC, gadE, hdeA and hdeB) which are involved in Gad acid resistance and resulted in low survival of the bacterium at a low pH of 4.9. Moreover, UdhA was essential for NADH production which is important for the adaptive growth of E. coli on acetate, while NADH concentration in the udhA-knockout strain was quite low and supplemental NADH significantly increased the expression of acid resistance genes and survival of the udhA-knockout strain. These results demonstrated that UdhA is an important source of NADH of E. coli growth on acetate and affects Gad acid resistance system under acetate stress.

Summary: UdhA function stated in this study helps us to understand the physiological roles of UdhA affecting NADH production and Gad acid resistance system in E.coli in acetate environment.

Amino acid residues critical for DNA binding and inducer recognition in CbnR, a LysR-type transcriptional regulator from Cupriavidus necator NH9

CbnR, a LysR-type transcriptional regulator from Cupriavidus necator NH9, activates the transcription of chlorocatechol-degradative enzymes. To activate the transcription, CbnR needs to bind not only to the cbnA promoter but also to the inducer. In this study, the transcriptional activity and DNA-binding activity of twenty-five mutants of CbnR were analyzed. Of the 17 mutants of the DNA-binding domain, 11 mutants lost their ability to activate transcription. While most mutants without transcriptional activation did not show DNA-binding activity, Asn17Ala, Gln29Ala, and Pro30Ala retained DNA-binding activity, suggesting that transcriptional activation by CbnR requires more than its binding to promoter DNA. Of the 8 mutants of the regulatory domain, 6 mutants changed their responses to the inducer, when compared with wild-type CbnR. Interestingly, Arg199Ala and Val246Ala induced constitutive expression of the cbnA promoter without the inducer, suggesting that these mutations brought about a conformational change mimicking that induced by the inducer molecule.

Biosynthesis of Cysteine

The synthesis of L-cysteine from inorganic sulfur is the predominant mechanism by which reduced sulfur is incorporated into organic compounds. L-cysteineis used for protein and glutathione synthesis and serves as the primary source of reduced sulfur in L-methionine, lipoic acid, thiamin, coenzyme A (CoA), molybdopterin, and other organic molecules. Sulfate and thiosulfate uptake in E. coli and serovar Typhimurium are achieved through a single periplasmic transport system that utilizes two different but similar periplasmic binding proteins. Kinetic studies indicate that selenate and selenite share a single transporter with sulfate, but molybdate also has a separate transport system. During aerobic growth, the reduction of sulfite to sulfide is catalyzed by NADPH-sulfite reductase (SiR), and serovar Typhimurium mutants lacking this enzyme accumulate sulfite from sulfate, implying that sulfite is a normal intermediate in assimilatory sulfate reduction. L-Cysteine biosynthesis in serovar Typhimurium and E. coli ceases almost entirely when cells are grown on L-cysteine or L-cystine, owing to a combination of end product inhibition of serine transacetylase by L-cysteine and a gene regulatory system known as the cysteine regulon, wherein genes for sulfate assimilation and alkanesulfonate utilization are expressed only when sulfur is limiting. In vitro studies with the cysJIH, cysK, and cysP promoters have confirmed that they are inefficient at forming transcription initiation complexes without CysB and N-acetyl-L-serine. Activation of the tauA and ssuE promoters requires Cbl. It has been proposed that the three serovar Typhimurium anaerobic reductases for sulfite, thiosulfate, and tetrathionate may function primarily in anaerobic respiration.

CbbR, the Master Regulator for Microbial Carbon Dioxide Fixation

Biological carbon dioxide fixation is an essential and crucial process catalyzed by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms to allow ubiquitous atmospheric CO2 to be reduced to usable forms of organic carbon. This process, especially the Calvin-Bassham-Benson (CBB) pathway of CO2 fixation, provides the bulk of organic carbon found on earth. The enzyme ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO) performs the key and rate-limiting step whereby CO2 is reduced and incorporated into a precursor organic metabolite. This is a highly regulated process in diverse organisms, with the expression of genes that comprise the CBB pathway (the cbb genes), including RubisCO, specifically controlled by the master transcriptional regulator protein CbbR. Many organisms have two or more cbb operons that either are regulated by a single CbbR or employ a specific CbbR for each cbb operon. CbbR family members are versatile and accommodate and bind many different effector metabolites that influence CbbR's ability to control cbb transcription. Moreover, two members of the CbbR family are further posttranslationally modified via interactions with other transcriptional regulator proteins from two-component regulatory systems, thus augmenting CbbR-dependent control and optimizing expression of specific cbb operons. In addition to interactions with small effector metabolites and other regulator proteins, CbbR proteins may be selected that are constitutively active and, in some instances, elevate the level of cbb expression relative to wild-type CbbR. Optimizing CbbR-dependent control is an important consideration for potentially using microbes to convert CO2 to useful bioproducts.

Function of MsiR on canavanine-mediated repression in Mesorhizobium tianshanense

Mesorhizobium tianshanense employs MsiA as canavanine exporter, which is upregulated by MsiR, to successfully form a symbiosis with the legume Glycyrrhiza uralensis. In this research, through gel-shift and bacterial two-hybrid examination, MsiR was found to spontaneously form dimers and bind to msiA promoter without additional canavanine. Six truncated forms of MsiR were constructed, and the conserved helix-turn-helix (HTH), substrate-binding, and surface-loop domains were found essential for MsiR functions. Random mutagenesis was used to study the functional sites of MsiR. Seven point mutants were selected, in which three mutants constitutively induced msiA expression without additional canavanine, two mutants partially changed substrate specificity, and the other two were almost null mutants. Results from the site mutation show that the functional subunits (HTH domain, dimerization interface domains, and C-terminal) are important in the conformation and induction ability of MsiR.

Mapping of protein-protein interactions of E. coli RNA polymerase with microfluidic mechanical trapping

The biophysical details of how transcription factors and other proteins interact with RNA polymerase are of great interest as they represent the nexus of how structure and function interact to regulate gene expression in the cell. We used an in vitro microfluidic approach to map interactions between a set of ninety proteins, over a third of which are transcription factors, and each of the four subunits of E. coli RNA polymerase, and we compared our results to those of previous large-scale studies. We detected interactions between RNA polymerase and transcription factors that earlier high-throughput screens missed; our results suggest that such interactions can occur without DNA mediation more commonly than previously appreciated.

Isolation and characterization of mutant Sinorhizobium meliloti NodD1 proteins with altered responses to luteolin

NodD1, a member of the NodD family of LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs), mediates nodulation (nod) gene expression in the soil bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti in response to the plant-secreted flavonoid luteolin. We used genetic screens and targeted approaches to identify NodD1 residues that show altered responses to luteolin during the activation of nod gene transcription. Here we report four types of NodD1 mutants. Type I (NodD1 L69F, S104L, D134N, and M193I mutants) displays reduced or no activation of nod gene expression. Type II (NodD1 K205N) is constitutively active but repressed by luteolin. Type III (NodD1 L280F) demonstrates enhanced activity with luteolin compared to that of wild-type NodD1. Type IV (NodD1 D284N) shows moderate constitutive activity yet can still be induced by luteolin. In the absence of luteolin, many mutants display a low binding affinity for nod gene promoter DNA in vitro. Several mutants also show, as does wild-type NodD1, increased affinity for nod gene promoters with added luteolin. All of the NodD1 mutant proteins can homodimerize and heterodimerize with wild-type NodD1. Based on these data and the crystal structures of several LTTRs, we present a structural model of wild-type NodD1, identifying residues important for inducer binding, protein multimerization, and interaction with RNA polymerase at nod gene promoters.

Most mutant OccR proteins that are defective in positive control hold operator DNA in a locked high-angle bend

OccR is a LysR-type transcriptional regulator of Agrobacterium tumefaciens that positively regulates the octopine catabolism operon of the Ti plasmid. Positive control of the occ genes occurs in response to octopine, a nutrient released from crown gall tumors. OccR also functions as an autorepressor in the presence or absence of octopine. OccR binds to a site between occQ and occR in the presence or absence of octopine, although octopine triggers a conformational change that shortens the DNA footprint and relaxes a DNA bend. In order to determine the roles of this conformational change in transcriptional activation, we isolated 11 OccR mutants that were defective in activation of the occQ promoter but were still capable of autorepression. The mutations in these mutants spanned most of the length of the protein. Two additional positive-control mutants were isolated using site-directed mutagenesis. Twelve mutant proteins displayed a high-angle DNA bend in the presence or absence of octopine. One mutant, the L26A mutant, showed ligand-responsive DNA binding similar to that of wild-type OccR and therefore must be impaired in a subsequent step in activation.

ATP requirement for acidic resistance in Escherichia coli

ATP participates in many cellular metabolic processes as a major substrate to supply energy. Many systems for acidic resistance (AR) under extremely acidic conditions have been reported, but the role of ATP has not been examined. To clarify whether or not ATP is necessary for the AR in Escherichia coli, the AR of mutants deficient in genes for ATP biosynthesis was investigated in this study. The deletion of purA or purB, each of which encodes enzymes to produce AMP from inosinate (IMP), markedly decreased the AR. The content of ATP in these mutants decreased rapidly at pH 2.5 compared to that of the wild type. The AR was again decreased significantly by the mutation of adk, which encoded an enzyme to produce ADP from AMP. The DNA damage in the purA and purB mutants was higher than that in the wild type. These results demonstrated that metabolic processes that require ATP participate in survival under extremely acidic conditions, and that one such system is the ATP-dependent DNA repair system.

Mapping of the interactions between partition proteins Delta and Omega of plasmid pSM19035 from Streptococcus pyogenes

Formation of the segrosome, a nucleoprotein complex crucial for proper functioning of plasmid partition systems, involves interactions between specific partition proteins (ParA-like and ParB-like), ATP and specific DNA sequences (the centromeric sites). Although partition systems have been studied for many years, details of the segrosome formation are not yet clear. Organization of the pSM19035-encoded partition system is unique; in contrast with other known par systems, here, the δ and ω genes do not constitute an operon. Moreover, Omega [a ParB-like protein which has a Ribbon-Helix-Helix (RHH) structure] recognizes multiple centromeric sequences located in the promoters of δ, ω and copS (copy-number control gene). The ParA-like protein Delta is a Walker-type ATPase. In this work, we identify the interaction domains and requirements for dimerization and hetero-interactions of the Delta and Omega proteins of pSM19035 plasmid. The RHH structures are involved in Omega dimerization in vivo and its N-terminal unstructured part is indispensable for association with Delta, both in vivo and in vitro. Omega does not need to form dimers to interact with Delta. ATP binding is not required for Delta dimerization but is important for interaction with Omega in vivo. The in vitro interaction between Delta and Omega depends on ATP but does not require the presence of specific DNA segments (the centromere) recognized by Omega. The C-terminal part of the Delta protein (aa 198-284) is indispensable for interaction with Omega. Delta most probably interacts with Omega as a dimer since two amino acid substitutions in a conserved region between the A' and B motifs abolish both the dimerization of Delta and its interaction with Omega.

Genetic analysis of the nitrogen assimilation control protein from Klebsiella pneumoniae

The nitrogen assimilation control protein (NAC) from Klebsiella pneumoniae is a typical LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) in many ways. However, the lack of a physiologically relevant coeffector for NAC and the fact that NAC can carry out many of its functions as a dimer make NAC unusual among the LTTRs. In the absence of a crystal structure for NAC, we analyzed the effects of amino acid substitutions with a variety of phenotypes in an attempt to identify functionally important features of NAC. A substitution that changed the glutamine at amino acid 29 to alanine (Q29A) resulted in a NAC that was seriously defective in binding to DNA. The H26D substitution resulted in a NAC that could bind and repress transcription but not activate transcription. The I71A substitution resulted in a NAC polypeptide that remained monomeric. NAC tetramers can bind to both long and shorter binding sites (like other LTTRs). However, the absence of a coeffector to induce the conformational change needed for the switch from the former to the latter raised a question. Are there two conformations of NAC, analogous to the other LTTRs? The G217R substitution resulted in a NAC that could bind to the longer sites but had difficulty in binding to the shorter sites, and the I222R and A230R substitutions resulted in a NAC that could bind to the shorter sites but had difficulty in binding properly to the longer sites. Thus, there appear to be two conformations of NAC that can freely interconvert in the absence of a coeffector.

A NAC for regulating metabolism: the nitrogen assimilation control protein (NAC) from Klebsiella pneumoniae

The nitrogen assimilation control protein (NAC) is a LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) that is made under conditions of nitrogen-limited growth. NAC's synthesis is entirely dependent on phosphorylated NtrC from the two-component Ntr system and requires the unusual sigma factor σ54 for transcription of the nac gene. NAC activates the transcription of σ70-dependent genes whose products provide the cell with ammonia or glutamate. NAC represses genes whose products use ammonia and also represses its own transcription. In addition, NAC also subtly adjusts other cellular functions to keep pace with the supply of biosynthetically available nitrogen.

Properties of the NAC (nitrogen assimilation control protein)-binding site within the ureD promoter of Klebsiella pneumoniae

The nitrogen assimilation control protein (NAC) of Klebsiella pneumoniae is a LysR-type transcriptional regulator that activates transcription when bound to a DNA site (ATAA-N5-TnGTAT) centered at a variety of distances from the start of transcription. The NAC-binding site from the hutU promoter (NBShutU) is centered at -64 relative to the start of transcription but can activate the lacZ promoter from sites at -64, -54, -52, and -42 but not from sites at -47 or -59. However, the NBSs from the ureD promoter (ureDp) and codB promoter (codBp) are centered at -47 and -59, respectively, and NAC is fully functional at these promoters. Therefore, we compared the activities of the NBShutU and NBSureD within the context of ureDp as well as within codBp. The NBShutU functioned at both of these sites. The NBSureD has the same asymmetric core as the NBShutU. Inverting the NBSureD abolished more than 99% of NAC's ability to activate ureDp. The key to the activation lies in the TnG segment of the TnGTAT half of the NBSureD. Changing TnG to GnT, TnT, or GnG drastically reduced ureDp activation (to 0.5%, 6%, or 15% of wild-type activation, respectively). The function of the NBSureD, like that of the NBShutU, requires that the TnGTAT half of the NBS be on the promoter-proximal (downstream) side of the NBS. Taken together, our data suggest that the positional specificity of an NBS is dependent on the promoter in question and is more flexible than previously thought, allowing considerable latitude both in distance and on the face of the DNA helix for the NBS relative to that of RNA polymerase.

Structural studies on the full-length LysR-type regulator TsaR from Comamonas testosteroni T-2 reveal a novel open conformation of the tetrameric LTTR fold

LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) constitute the largest family of regulators in prokaryotes. The full-length structures of the LTTR TsaR from Comamonas testosteroni T-2 and its complex with the natural inducer para-toluensulfonate have been characterized by X-ray diffraction. Both ligand-free and complexed forms reveal a dramatically different quaternary structure from that of CbnR from Ralstonia eutropha, or a putative LysR-type regulator from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the only other determined full-length structures of tetrameric LTTRs. Although all three show a head-to-head tetrameric ring, TsaR displays an open conformation, whereas CbnR and PA01-PR present additional contacts in opposing C-terminal domains that close the ring. Such large differences may be due to a broader structural versatility than previously assumed or either, reflect the intrinsic flexibility of tetrameric LTTRs. On the grounds of the sliding dimer hypothesis of LTTR activation, we propose a structural model in which the closed structures could reflect the conformation of a ligand-free LTTR, whereas inducer binding would bring about local changes to disrupt the interface linking the two compact C-terminal domains. This could lead to a TsaR-like, open structure, where the pairs of recognition helices are closer to each other by more than 10 A.

Crystal structure of ArgP from Mycobacterium tuberculosis confirms two distinct conformations of full-length LysR transcriptional regulators and reveals its function in DNA binding and transcriptional regulation

Mycobacterium tuberculosis presents a challenging medical problem partly due to its persistent nonreplicative state. The inhibitor of chromosomal replication (iciA) protein encoded by M. tuberculosis has been suggested to inhibit chromosome replication initiation in vitro. However, iciA has also been identified as arginine permease (ArgP), a regulatory transcription factor for arginine outward transport. In order to understand the function of ArgP, we have determined its crystal structure by X-ray crystallography to a resolution of 2.7 A. ArgP is a member of the LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) and forms a homodimer with each subunit containing two domains: a DNA binding domain (DBD) and a regulatory domain (RD). Two conformationally distinct subunits were identified: closed subunit and open subunit. This phenomenon was first observed in LTTR CbnR, but not in LTTR CrgA, and might be common in LTTRs. We identified two forms of dimers: DBD-type dimers and RD-type dimers. The former is confirmed in solution, and the latter is considered to form oligomers during function. We provide the first structural insights into the interaction of the extreme C-terminal residues with the DBD, which is confirmed by mutagenesis and analytical ultracentrifugation to be important for stability of the functional dimer. The structure serves as a model to suggest how three critical aspects, namely, DNA binding, homo-oligomerization, and interaction with RNAP, are mediated during regulation processing. A model is proposed for the LysR family of dimeric regulators.

The properties of NodD were affected by mere variation in length within its hinge region

In Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae, NodD, a member of the LysR-type transcriptional regulators, while auto-regulating, activates transcription of other nod genes in the presence of naringenin. A hinge region of NodD was previously identified in our laboratory as a functional region independent of its N-terminal DNA-binding and C-terminal regulatory domain. Further study was carried out to see the possible effect of the length variation in the hinge region on NodD properties. To our surprise, as many as seven classes of phenotypes were observed. Class I is deficient of activating nodA transcription and abolishes auto-regulation; class II is able to activate nodA transcription independently of naringenin and abolishes auto-regulation; class III retains autoregulating but partial activating ability; class IV is able to activate transcription independently of naringenin and retains auto-regulation; in class V, nodA is transcribed constitutively but the transcription level is drastically down-regulated in the presence of naringenin; in class VI, nodA is transcribed constitutively with higher induction ratio; in class VII, nodA is transcribed constitutively with lower induction ratio. To learn more about the possible mechanism, circular permutation assays were done, which showed that the length variation of the hinge of NodD caused by mutation led to the change in bend angles of nod promoter. This finding should help to get an insight into how transcriptional regulation is mediated by NodD at the molecular level as well as to understand the regulatory system of this important family.

A small functional intramolecular region of NodD was identified by mutation

In Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae, NodD, as a member of the LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs), exerts auto-regulation and activates transcription of other nod genes in the presence of naringenin. LTTRs were typically composed of N-terminal DNA-binding domain and C-terminal regulatory domain. In this study, by systematic insertion mutation, a region of 12 amino acids in length of NodD was identified as functional domain. Insertion mutants in this region appeared to acquire the ability of constitutively activating nodA gene and retained their auto-regulation properties. This identified region was shown to be a hinge of NodD as revealed through the model built using Swiss- PDB Viewer software. It is the first time to report that as a member of LysR family, NodD has been shown to contain a short intramolecular domain that influences its performance.

The structure of CrgA from Neisseria meningitidis reveals a new octameric assembly state for LysR transcriptional regulators

LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) form the largest family of bacterial regulators acting as both auto-repressors and activators of target promoters, controlling operons involved in a wide variety of cellular processes. The LTTR, CrgA, from the human pathogen Neisseria meningitidis, is upregulated during bacterial–host cell contact. Here, we report the crystal structures of both regulatory domain and full-length CrgA, the first of a novel subclass of LTTRs that form octameric rings. Non-denaturing mass spectrometry analysis and analytical ultracentrifugation established that the octameric form of CrgA is the predominant species in solution in both the presence and absence of an oligonucleotide encompassing the CrgA-binding sequence. Furthermore, analysis of the isolated CrgA–DNA complex by mass spectrometry showed stabilization of a double octamer species upon DNA binding. Based on the observed structure and the mass spectrometry findings, a model is proposed in which a hexadecameric array of two CrgA oligomers binds to its DNA target site.

Structure and function of the LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) family proteins

The LysR family of transcriptional regulators represents the most abundant type of transcriptional regulator in the prokaryotic kingdom. Members of this family have a conserved structure with an N-terminal DNA-binding helix-turn-helix motif and a C-terminal co-inducer-binding domain. Despite considerable conservation both structurally and functionally, LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) regulate a diverse set of genes, including those involved in virulence, metabolism, quorum sensing and motility. Numerous structural and transcriptional studies of members of the LTTR family are helping to unravel a compelling paradigm that has evolved from the original observations and conclusions that were made about this family of transcriptional regulators.

Protein-protein interactions between CbbR and RegA (PrrA), transcriptional regulators of the cbb operons of Rhodobacter sphaeroides

CbbR and RegA (PrrA) are transcriptional regulators of the cbb(I) and cbb(II) (Calvin-Benson-Bassham CO(2) fixation pathway) operons of Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Both proteins interact specifically with promoter sequences of the cbb operons. RegA has four DNA binding sites within the cbb(I) promoter region, with the CbbR binding site and RegA binding site 1 overlapping each other. This study demonstrated that CbbR and RegA interact and form a discrete complex in vitro, as illustrated by gel mobility shift experiments, direct isolation of the proteins from DNA complexes, and chemical cross-linking analyses. For CbbR/RegA interactions to occur, CbbR must be bound to the DNA, with the ability of CbbR to bind the cbb(I) promoter enhanced by RegA. Conversely, interactions with CbbR did not require RegA to bind the cbb(I) promoter. RegA itself formed incrementally larger multimeric complexes with DNA as the concentration of RegA increased. The presence of RegA binding sites 1, 2 and 3 promoted RegA/DNA binding at significantly lower concentrations of RegA than when RegA binding site 3 was not present in the cbb(I) promoter. These studies support the premise that both CbbR and RegA are necessary for optimal transcription of the cbb(I) operon genes of R. sphaeroides.

Transcription factors CysB and SfnR constitute the hierarchical regulatory system for the sulfate starvation response in Pseudomonas putida

Pseudomonas putida DS1 is able to utilize dimethyl sulfone as a sulfur source. Expression of the sfnFG operon responsible for dimethyl sulfone oxygenation is directly regulated by a sigma(54)-dependent transcriptional activator, SfnR, which is encoded within the sfnECR operon. We investigated the transcription mechanism for the sulfate starvation-induced expression of these sfn operons. Using an in vivo transcription assay and in vitro DNA-binding experiments, we revealed that SfnR negatively regulates the expression of sfnECR by binding to the downstream region of the transcription start point. Additionally, we demonstrated that a LysR-type transcriptional regulator, CysB, directly activates the expression of sfnECR by binding to its upstream region. CysB is a master regulator that controls the sulfate starvation response of the sfn operons, as is the case for the sulfonate utilization genes of Escherichia coli, although CysB(DS1) appeared to differ from that of E. coli CysB in terms of the effect of O-acetylserine on DNA-binding ability. Furthermore, we investigated what effector molecules repress the expression of sfnFG and sfnECR in vivo by using the disruptants of the sulfate assimilatory genes cysNC and cysI. The measurements of mRNA levels of the sfn operons in these gene disruptants suggested that the expression of sfnFG is repressed by sulfate itself while the expression of sfnECR is repressed by the downstream metabolites in the sulfate assimilatory pathway, such as sulfide and cysteine. These results indicate that SfnR plays a role independent of CysB in the sulfate starvation-induced expression of the sfn operons.

Molecular mechanism of the regulation of Bacillus subtilis gltAB expression by GltC

In Bacillus subilis, glutamate synthase, a major enzyme of nitrogen metabolism, is encoded by the gltAB operon. Significant expression of this operon requires the activity of GltC, a LysR-family protein, encoded by the divergently transcribed gene. We purified a soluble, active form of GltC and found that it requires alpha-ketoglutarate, a substrate of glutamate synthase, to fully activate gltA transcription in vitro, and that its activity is inhibited by glutamate, the product of glutamate synthase. GltC regulated gltAB transcription through binding to three dyad-symmetry elements, Box I, Box II and Box III, located in the intergenic region of gltC and gltA. Free GltC bound almost exclusively to Box I and activated gltAB transcription only marginally. Glutamate-bound GltC bound to Box I and Box III, and repressed gltAB transcription. In the presence of alpha-ketoglutarate, GltC bound to Box I and Box II, stabilized binding of RNA polymerase to the gltA promoter, and activated gltAB transcription. The binding of GltC to Box II, which partially overlaps the -35 region of the gltA promoter, seems to be essential for activation of the gltAB operon. Due to the high concentration of glutamate in B. subtilis cells grown under most conditions, alterations of the concentration of alpha-ketoglutarate seem to be crucial for modulation of GltC activity and gltAB expression.

Mutational analysis to define an activating region on the redox-sensitive transcriptional regulator OxyR

The OxyR transcription factor is a key regulator of the Escherichia coli response to oxidative stress. Previous studies showed that OxyR binding to a target promoter enhances RNA polymerase binding and vice versa, suggesting a direct interaction between OxyR and RNA polymerase. To identify the region of OxyR that might contact RNA polymerase, we carried out alanine scanning and random mutagenesis of oxyR. The combination of these approaches led to the identification of several mutants defective in the activation of an OxyR target gene. A subset of the mutations map to the DNA-binding domain, other mutations appear to affect dimerization of the regulatory domain, while another group is suggested to affect disulfide bond formation. The two mutations, D142A and R273H, giving the most dramatic phenotype are located in a patch on the surface of the oxidized OxyR protein and possibly define an activating region on OxyR.

Structural basis of the sulphate starvation response in E. coli: crystal structure and mutational analysis of the cofactor-binding domain of the Cbl transcriptional regulator

Cbl is a member of the large family of LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) common in bacteria and found also in Archaea and algal chloroplasts. The function of Cbl is required in Escherichia coli for expression of sulphate starvation-inducible (ssi) genes, associated with the biosynthesis of cysteine from organic sulphur sources (sulphonates). Here, we report the crystal structure of the cofactor-binding domain of Cbl (c-Cbl) from E. coli. The overall fold of c-Cbl is very similar to the regulatory domain (RD) of another LysR family member, CysB. The RD is composed of two subdomains enclosing a cavity, which is expected to bind effector molecules. We have constructed and analysed several full-length Cbl variants bearing single residue substitutions in the RD that affect cofactor responses. Using in vivo and in vitro transcription assays, we demonstrate that pssuE, a Cbl responsive promoter, is down-regulated not only by the cofactor, adenosine phosphosulphate (APS), but also by thiosulphate, and, that the same RD determinants are important for the response to both cofactors. We also demonstrate the effects of selected site-directed mutations on Cbl oligomerization and discuss these in the context of the structure. Based on the crystal structure and molecular modelling, we propose a model for the interaction of Cbl with adenosine phosphosulphate.

Importance of tetramer formation by the nitrogen assimilation control protein for strong repression of glutamate dehydrogenase formation in Klebsiella pneumoniae

The nitrogen assimilation control protein (NAC) from Klebsiella pneumoniae is a very versatile regulatory protein. NAC activates transcription of operons such as hut (histidine utilization) and ure (urea utilization), whose products generate ammonia. NAC also represses the transcription of genes such as gdhA, whose products use ammonia. NAC exerts a weak repression at gdhA by competing with the binding of a lysine-sensitive activator. NAC also strongly represses transcription of gdhA (about 20-fold) by binding to two separated sites, suggesting a model involving DNA looping. We have identified negative control mutants that are unable to exert this strong repression of gdhA expression but still activate hut and ure expression normally. Some of these negative control mutants (e.g., NAC(86ter) and NAC(132ter)) delete the C-terminal domain, thought to be required for tetramerization. Other negative control mutants (e.g., NAC(L111K) and NAC(L125R)) alter single amino acids involved in tetramerization. In this work we used gel filtration to show that NAC(86ter) and NAC(L111K) are dimers in solution, even at high concentration (NAC(WT) is a tetramer). Moreover, using a combination of DNase I footprints and gel mobility shifts assays, we showed that when NAC(WT) binds to two adjacent sites on a DNA fragment, NAC(WT) binds as a tetramer that bends the DNA fragment significantly. NAC(L111K) binds to such a fragment as two independent dimers without inducing the strong bend. Thus, NAC(L111K) is a dimer in solution or when bound to DNA. NAC(L111K) (typical of the negative control mutants) is wild type for every other property tested: (i) it activates transcription at hut and ure; (ii) it competes with the lysine-sensitive activator for binding at gdhA; (iii) it binds to the same sites at the hut, ure, nac, and gdhA promoters as NAC(WT); (iv) the relative affinity of NAC(L111K) for these sites follows the same order as NAC(WT) (ure > gdhA > nac > hut); (v) it induces the same slight bend as dimers of NAC(WT); and (vi) its DNase I footprints at these sites are indistinguishable from those of NAC(WT) (except for features ascribed to tetramer formation). The only two phenotypes we know for negative control mutants of NAC are their inability to tetramerize and their inability to cause the strong repression of gdhA. Thus, we propose that in order for NAC(WT) to exert the strong repression, it must form a tetramer that bridges the two sites at gdhA (similar to other DNA looping models) and that the negative control mutants of NAC, which fail to tetramerize, cannot form this loop and thus fail to exert the strong repression at gdhA.

Residues that influence in vivo and in vitro CbbR function in Rhodobacter sphaeroides and identification of a specific region critical for co-inducer recognition

CbbR is a LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) that is required to activate transcription of the cbb operons, responsible for CO2 fixation, in Rhodobacter sphaeroides. LTTR proteins often require a co-inducer to regulate transcription. Previous studies suggested that ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) is a positive effector for CbbR function in this organism. In the current study, RuBP was found to increase the electrophoretic mobility of the CbbR/cbb(I) promoter complex. To define and analyse the co-inducer recognition region of CbbR, constitutively active mutant CbbR proteins were isolated. Under growth conditions that normally maintain transcriptionally inactive cbb operons, the mutant CbbR proteins activated transcription. Fourteen of the constitutively active mutants resulted from a single amino acid substitution. One mutant was derived from amino acid substitutions at two separate residues that appeared to act synergistically. Different mutant proteins showed both sensitivity and insensitivity to RuBP and residues that conferred constitutive transcriptional activity could be highlighted on a three-dimensional model, with several residues unique to CbbR shown to be at locations critical to LTTR function. Many of the constitutive residues clustered in or near two specific loops in the LTTR tertiary structure, corresponding to a proposed site of co-inducer binding.

Functional interactions between the carbon and iron utilization regulators, Crp and Fur, in Escherichia coli

In Escherichia coli, the ferric uptake regulator (Fur) controls expression of the iron regulon in response to iron availability while the cyclic AMP receptor protein (Crp) regulates expression of the carbon regulon in response to carbon availability. We here identify genes subject to significant changes in expression level in response to the loss of both Fur and Crp. Many iron transport genes and several carbon metabolic genes are subject to dual control, being repressed by the loss of Crp and activated by the loss of Fur. However, the sodB gene, encoding superoxide dismutase, and the aceBAK operon, encoding the glyoxalate shunt enzymes, show the opposite responses, being activated by the loss of Crp and repressed by the loss of Fur. Several other genes including the sdhA-D, sucA-D, and fumA genes, encoding key constituents of the Krebs cycle, proved to be repressed by the loss of both transcription factors. Finally, the loss of both Crp and Fur activated a heterogeneous group of genes under sigmaS control encoding, for example, the cyclopropane fatty acid synthase, Cfa, the glycogen synthesis protein, GlgS, the 30S ribosomal protein, S22, and the mechanosensitive channel protein, YggB. Many genes appeared to be regulated by the two transcription factors in an apparently additive fashion, but apparent positive or negative cooperativity characterized several putative Crp/Fur interactions. Relevant published data were evaluated, putative Crp and Fur binding sites were identified, and representative results were confirmed by real-time PCR. Molecular explanations for some, but not all, of these effects are provided.