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Barbuti MD, Lambert E, Myrbråten IS, Ducret A, Stamsås GA, Wilhelm L, Liu X, Salehian Z, Veening JW, Straume D, Grangeasse C, Perez C, Kjos M. The function of CozE proteins is linked to lipoteichoic acid biosynthesis in Staphylococcus aureus. mBio 2024; 15:e0115724. [PMID: 38757970 PMCID: PMC11237490 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01157-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Coordinated membrane and cell wall synthesis is vital for maintaining cell integrity and facilitating cell division in bacteria. However, the molecular mechanisms that underpin such coordination are poorly understood. Here we uncover the pivotal roles of the staphylococcal proteins CozEa and CozEb, members of a conserved family of membrane proteins previously implicated in bacterial cell division, in the biosynthesis of lipoteichoic acids (LTA) and maintenance of membrane homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus. We establish that there is a synthetic lethal relationship between CozE and UgtP, the enzyme synthesizing the LTA glycolipid anchor Glc2DAG. By contrast, in cells lacking LtaA, the flippase of Glc2DAG, the essentiality of CozE proteins was alleviated, suggesting that the function of CozE proteins is linked to the synthesis and flipping of the glycolipid anchor. CozE proteins were indeed found to modulate the flipping activity of LtaA in vitro. Furthermore, CozEb was shown to control LTA polymer length and stability. Together, these findings establish CozE proteins as novel players in membrane homeostasis and LTA biosynthesis in S. aureus.IMPORTANCELipoteichoic acids are major constituents of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. These anionic polymers are important virulence factors and modulators of antibiotic susceptibility in the important pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. They are also critical for maintaining cell integrity and facilitating proper cell division. In this work, we discover that a family of membrane proteins named CozE is involved in the biosynthesis of lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) in S. aureus. CozE proteins have previously been shown to affect bacterial cell division, but we here show that these proteins affect LTA length and stability, as well as the flipping of glycolipids between membrane leaflets. This new mechanism of LTA control may thus have implications for the virulence and antibiotic susceptibility of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Disen Barbuti
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Ine Storaker Myrbråten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Adrien Ducret
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Gro Anita Stamsås
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Linus Wilhelm
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Xue Liu
- Department of Pathogen, Biology, International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Zhian Salehian
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Straume
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Christophe Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Camilo Perez
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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2
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Sacco MD, Hammond LR, Noor RE, Bhattacharya D, McKnight LJ, Madsen JJ, Zhang X, Butler SG, Kemp MT, Jaskolka-Brown AC, Khan SJ, Gelis I, Eswara P, Chen Y. Staphylococcus aureus FtsZ and PBP4 bind to the conformationally dynamic N-terminal domain of GpsB. eLife 2024; 13:e85579. [PMID: 38639993 PMCID: PMC11062636 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
In the Firmicutes phylum, GpsB is a membrane associated protein that coordinates peptidoglycan synthesis with cell growth and division. Although GpsB has been studied in several bacteria, the structure, function, and interactome of Staphylococcus aureus GpsB is largely uncharacterized. To address this knowledge gap, we solved the crystal structure of the N-terminal domain of S. aureus GpsB, which adopts an atypical, asymmetric dimer, and demonstrates major conformational flexibility that can be mapped to a hinge region formed by a three-residue insertion exclusive to Staphylococci. When this three-residue insertion is excised, its thermal stability increases, and the mutant no longer produces a previously reported lethal phenotype when overexpressed in Bacillus subtilis. In S. aureus, we show that these hinge mutants are less functional and speculate that the conformational flexibility imparted by the hinge region may serve as a dynamic switch to fine-tune the function of the GpsB complex and/or to promote interaction with its various partners. Furthermore, we provide the first biochemical, biophysical, and crystallographic evidence that the N-terminal domain of GpsB binds not only PBP4, but also FtsZ, through a conserved recognition motif located on their C-termini, thus coupling peptidoglycan synthesis to cell division. Taken together, the unique structure of S. aureus GpsB and its direct interaction with FtsZ/PBP4 provide deeper insight into the central role of GpsB in S. aureus cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Sacco
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Lauren R Hammond
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Radwan E Noor
- Department of Chemistry, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | | | - Lily J McKnight
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Jesper J Madsen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
- Global and Planetary Health, College of Public Health, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Xiujun Zhang
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Shane G Butler
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - M Trent Kemp
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Aiden C Jaskolka-Brown
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Sebastian J Khan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Ioannis Gelis
- Department of Chemistry, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Prahathees Eswara
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaTampaUnited States
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3
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Costa SF, Saraiva BM, Veiga H, Marques LB, Schäper S, Sporniak M, Vega DE, Jorge AM, Duarte AM, Brito AD, Tavares AC, Reed P, Pinho MG. The role of GpsB in Staphylococcus aureus cell morphogenesis. mBio 2024; 15:e0323523. [PMID: 38319093 PMCID: PMC10936418 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03235-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
For decades, cells of the Gram-positive bacterial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus were thought to lack a dedicated elongation machinery. However, S. aureus cells were recently shown to elongate before division, in a process that requires a shape elongation division and sporulation (SEDS)/penicillin-binding protein (PBP) pair for peptidoglycan synthesis, consisting of the glycosyltransferase RodA and the transpeptidase PBP3. In ovococci and rod-shaped bacteria, the elongation machinery, or elongasome, is composed of various proteins besides a dedicated SEDS/PBP pair. To identify proteins required for S. aureus elongation, we screened the Nebraska Transposon Mutant Library, which contains transposon mutants in virtually all non-essential staphylococcal genes, for mutants with modified cell shape. We confirmed the roles of RodA/PBP3 in S. aureus elongation and identified GpsB, SsaA, and RodZ as additional proteins involved in this process. The gpsB mutant showed the strongest phenotype, mediated by the partial delocalization from the division septum of PBP2 and PBP4, two penicillin-binding proteins that synthesize and cross-link peptidoglycan. Increased levels of these PBPs at the cell periphery versus the septum result in higher levels of peptidoglycan insertion/crosslinking throughout the entire cell, possibly overriding the RodA/PBP3-mediated peptidoglycan synthesis at the outer edge of the septum and/or increasing stiffness of the peripheral wall, impairing elongation. Consequently, in the absence of GpsB, S. aureus cells become more spherical. We propose that GpsB has a role in the spatio-temporal regulation of PBP2 and PBP4 at the septum versus cell periphery, contributing to the maintenance of the correct cell morphology in S. aureus. IMPORTANCE Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive clinical pathogen, which is currently the second cause of death by antibiotic-resistant infections worldwide. For decades, S. aureus cells were thought to be spherical and lack the ability to undergo elongation. However, super-resolution microscopy techniques allowed us to observe the minor morphological changes that occur during the cell cycle of this pathogen, including cell elongation. S. aureus elongation is not required for normal growth in laboratory conditions. However, it seems to be essential in the context of some infections, such as osteomyelitis, during which S. aureus cells apparently elongate to invade small channels in the bones. In this work, we uncovered new determinants required for S. aureus cell elongation. In particular, we show that GpsB has an important role in the spatio-temporal regulation of PBP2 and PBP4, two proteins involved in peptidoglycan synthesis, contributing to the maintenance of the correct cell morphology in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara F. Costa
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Bruno M. Saraiva
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Helena Veiga
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Leonor B. Marques
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Simon Schäper
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Marta Sporniak
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Daniel E. Vega
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ana M. Jorge
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Andreia M. Duarte
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - António D. Brito
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Andreia C. Tavares
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Patricia Reed
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Mariana G. Pinho
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
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4
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Bartlett TM, Sisley TA, Mychack A, Walker S, Baker RW, Rudner DZ, Bernhardt TG. FacZ is a GpsB-interacting protein that prevents aberrant division-site placement in Staphylococcus aureus. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:801-813. [PMID: 38443581 PMCID: PMC10914604 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01607-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive pathogen responsible for antibiotic-resistant infections. To identify vulnerabilities in cell envelope biogenesis that may overcome resistance, we enriched for S. aureus transposon mutants with defects in cell surface integrity or cell division by sorting for cells that stain with propidium iodide or have increased light-scattering properties, respectively. Transposon sequencing of the sorted populations identified more than 20 previously uncharacterized factors impacting these processes. Cells inactivated for one of these proteins, factor preventing extra Z-rings (FacZ, SAOUHSC_01855), showed aberrant membrane invaginations and multiple FtsZ cytokinetic rings. These phenotypes were suppressed in mutants lacking the conserved cell-division protein GpsB, which forms an interaction hub bridging envelope biogenesis factors with the cytokinetic ring in S. aureus. FacZ was found to interact directly with GpsB in vitro and in vivo. We therefore propose that FacZ is an envelope biogenesis factor that antagonizes GpsB function to prevent aberrant division events in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Bartlett
- Department of Microbiology Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tyler A Sisley
- Department of Microbiology Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aaron Mychack
- Department of Microbiology Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Richard W Baker
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David Z Rudner
- Department of Microbiology Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Thomas G Bernhardt
- Department of Microbiology Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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5
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Hammond LR, White ML, Eswara PJ. Probing Bacterial Cell Division and Cell Envelope Biogenesis with Live-Cell Fluorescence Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2727:205-214. [PMID: 37815719 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3491-2_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
The development of advanced microscopy techniques has ushered in a new era of research as it helps understand biological processes on a deeper, mechanistic, and molecular level like never before. Live-cell fluorescence microscopy has importantly allowed us to visualize subcellular protein localization and incorporation of various fluorophores compatible with living cells in real time. As such, this technique offers valuable insights at the single-cell level and enables us to monitor phenotypic differences that were easily overlooked at a population level. One area of research that has benefited greatly from these advances is the study of the bacterial cell envelope biogenesis and cell division process. In this report, we provide detailed protocols, optimized in our lab, for imaging these processes in the Gram-positive organisms Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R Hammond
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Maria L White
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Prahathees J Eswara
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
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6
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Henriksen C, Baek KT, Wacnik K, Gallay C, Veening JW, Foster SJ, Frees D. The ClpX chaperone and a hypermorphic FtsA variant with impaired self-interaction are mutually compensatory for coordinating Staphylococcus aureus cell division. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:98-115. [PMID: 38041395 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated assembly and disassembly of a large protein complex called the divisome; however, the exact role of molecular chaperones in this critical process remains unclear. We here provide genetic evidence that ClpX unfoldase activity is a determinant for proper coordination of bacterial cell division by showing the growth defect of a Staphylococcus aureus clpX mutant is rescued by a spontaneously acquired G325V substitution in the ATP-binding domain of the essential FtsA cell division protein. The polymerization state of FtsA is thought to control initiation of bacterial septum synthesis and, while restoring the aberrant FtsA dynamics in clpX cells, the FtsAG325V variant displayed reduced ability to interact with itself and other cell division proteins. In wild-type cells, the ftsAG325V allele shared phenotypes with Escherichia coli superfission ftsA mutants and accelerated the cell cycle, increased the risk of daughter cell lysis, and conferred sensitivity to heat and antibiotics inhibiting cell wall synthesis. Strikingly, lethality was mitigated by spontaneous mutations that inactivate ClpX. Taken together, our results suggest that ClpX promotes septum synthesis by antagonizing FtsA interactions and illuminates the critical role of a protein unfoldase in coordinating bacterial cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Henriksen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Disease, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Kristoffer T Baek
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Disease, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | | | - Clement Gallay
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Simon J Foster
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Dorte Frees
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Disease, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
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7
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Naha A, Haeusser DP, Margolin W. Anchors: A way for FtsZ filaments to stay membrane bound. Mol Microbiol 2023; 120:525-538. [PMID: 37503768 PMCID: PMC10593102 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Most bacteria use the tubulin homolog FtsZ to organize their cell division. FtsZ polymers initially assemble into mobile complexes that circle around a ring-like structure at the cell midpoint, followed by the recruitment of other proteins that will constrict the cytoplasmic membrane and synthesize septal peptidoglycan to divide the cell. Despite the need for FtsZ polymers to associate with the membrane, FtsZ lacks intrinsic membrane binding ability. Consequently, FtsZ polymers have evolved to interact with the membrane through adaptor proteins that both bind FtsZ and the membrane. Here, we discuss recent progress in understanding the functions of these FtsZ membrane tethers. Some, such as FtsA and SepF, are widely conserved and assemble into varied oligomeric structures bound to the membrane through an amphipathic helix. Other less-conserved proteins, such as EzrA and ZipA, have transmembrane domains, make extended structures, and seem to bind to FtsZ through two separate interactions. This review emphasizes that most FtsZs use multiple membrane tethers with overlapping functions, which not only attach FtsZ polymers to the membrane but also organize them in specific higher-order structures that can optimize cell division activity. We discuss gaps in our knowledge of these concepts and how future studies can address them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arindam Naha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UTHealth-Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Daniel P. Haeusser
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UTHealth-Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Department of Biology, Canisius College, Buffalo, NY 14208, USA
| | - William Margolin
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UTHealth-Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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8
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Ramos-León F, Anjuwon-Foster BR, Anantharaman V, Ferreira CN, Ibrahim AM, Tai CH, Missiakas DM, Camberg JL, Aravind L, Ramamurthi KS. Protein coopted from a phage restriction system dictates orthogonal cell division plane selection in Staphylococcus aureus. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.03.556088. [PMID: 37886572 PMCID: PMC10602043 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.03.556088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
The spherical bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, a leading cause of nosocomial infections, undergoes binary fission by dividing in two alternating orthogonal planes, but the mechanism by which S. aureus correctly selects the next cell division plane is not known. To identify cell division placement factors, we performed a chemical genetic screen that revealed a gene which we termed pcdA. We show that PcdA is a member of the McrB family of AAA+ NTPases that has undergone structural changes and a concomitant functional shift from a restriction enzyme subunit to an early cell division protein. PcdA directly interacts with the tubulin-like central divisome component FtsZ and localizes to future cell division sites before membrane invagination initiates. This parallels the action of another McrB family protein, CTTNBP2, which stabilizes microtubules in animals. We show that PcdA also interacts with the structural protein DivIVA and propose that the DivIVA/PcdA complex recruits unpolymerized FtsZ to assemble along the proper cell division plane. Deletion of pcdA conferred abnormal, non-orthogonal division plane selection, increased sensitivity to cell wall-targeting antibiotics, and reduced virulence in a murine infection model. Targeting PcdA could therefore highlight a treatment strategy for combatting antibiotic-resistant strains of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Ramos-León
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Brandon R. Anjuwon-Foster
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Vivek Anantharaman
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Colby N. Ferreira
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, USA
| | - Amany M. Ibrahim
- Department of Microbiology, Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Lemont, USA
| | - Chin-Hsien Tai
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Dominique M. Missiakas
- Department of Microbiology, Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Lemont, USA
| | - Jodi L. Camberg
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, USA
| | - L. Aravind
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Kumaran S. Ramamurthi
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
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9
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Sutton JAF, Cooke M, Tinajero-Trejo M, Wacnik K, Salamaga B, Portman-Ross C, Lund VA, Hobbs JK, Foster SJ. The roles of GpsB and DivIVA in Staphylococcus aureus growth and division. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1241249. [PMID: 37711690 PMCID: PMC10498921 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1241249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The spheroid bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is often used as a model of morphogenesis due to its apparently simple cell cycle. S. aureus has many cell division proteins that are conserved across bacteria alluding to common functions. However, despite intensive study, we still do not know the roles of many of these components. Here, we have examined the functions of the paralogues DivIVA and GpsB in the S. aureus cell cycle. Cells lacking gpsB display a more spherical phenotype than the wild-type cells, which is associated with a decrease in peripheral cell wall peptidoglycan synthesis. This correlates with increased localization of penicillin-binding proteins at the developing septum, notably PBPs 2 and 3. Our results highlight the role of GpsB as an apparent regulator of cell morphogenesis in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A. F. Sutton
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Cooke
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Mariana Tinajero-Trejo
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Katarzyna Wacnik
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Bartłomiej Salamaga
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Callum Portman-Ross
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Victoria A. Lund
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie K. Hobbs
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J. Foster
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- The Florey Institute for Host-Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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10
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Bartlett TM, Sisley TA, Mychack A, Walker S, Baker RW, Rudner DZ, Bernhardt TG. Identification of FacZ as a division site placement factor in Staphylococcus aureus. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.24.538170. [PMID: 37162900 PMCID: PMC10168275 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.24.538170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive pathogen responsible for life-threatening infections that are difficult to treat due to antibiotic resistance. The identification of new vulnerabilities in essential processes like cell envelope biogenesis represents a promising avenue towards the development of anti-staphylococcal therapies that overcome resistance. To this end, we performed cell sorting-based enrichments for S. aureus mutants with defects in envelope integrity and cell division. We identified many known envelope biogenesis factors as well as a large collection of new factors with roles in this process. Mutants inactivated for one of the hits, the uncharacterized SAOUHSC_01855 protein, displayed aberrant membrane invaginations and multiple FtsZ cytokinetic ring structures. This factor is broadly distributed among Firmicutes, and its inactivation in B. subtilis similarly caused division and membrane defects. We therefore renamed the protein FacZ (Firmicute-associated coordinator of Z-rings). In S. aureus, inactivation of the conserved cell division protein GpsB suppressed the division and morphological defects of facZ mutants. Additionally, FacZ and GpsB were found to interact directly in a purified system. Thus, FacZ is a novel antagonist of GpsB function with a conserved role in controlling division site placement in S. aureus and other Firmicutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M. Bartlett
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tyler A. Sisley
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Aaron Mychack
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Richard W. Baker
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David Z. Rudner
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Thomas G. Bernhardt
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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11
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Puls JS, Brajtenbach D, Schneider T, Kubitscheck U, Grein F. Inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis is sufficient for total arrest of staphylococcal cell division. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eade9023. [PMID: 36947615 PMCID: PMC10032595 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ade9023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial cell wall biosynthesis is the target of many important antibiotics. Its spatiotemporal organization is closely coordinated with cell division. However, the role of peptidoglycan synthesis within cell division is not fully understood. Even less is known about the impact of antibiotics on the coordination of these two essential processes. Visualizing the essential cell division protein FtsZ and other key proteins in Staphylococcus aureus, we show that antibiotics targeting peptidoglycan synthesis arrest cell division within minutes of treatment. The glycopeptides vancomycin and telavancin completely inhibit septum constriction in all phases of cell division. The beta-lactam oxacillin stops division progress by preventing recruitment of the major peptidoglycan synthase PBP2 to the septum, revealing PBP2 as crucial for septum closure. Our work identifies cell division as key cellular target of these antibiotics and provides evidence that peptidoglycan synthesis is the essential driving force of septum constriction throughout cell division of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Samuel Puls
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 168, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Dominik Brajtenbach
- Clausius Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Wegelerstr. 12, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Tanja Schneider
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 168, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ulrich Kubitscheck
- Clausius Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Wegelerstr. 12, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Fabian Grein
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 168, 53115 Bonn, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Bonn-Cologne, 53115 Bonn, Germany
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12
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Sidders AE, Kedziora KM, Arts M, Daniel JM, de Benedetti S, Beam JE, Bui DT, Parsons JB, Schneider T, Rowe SE, Conlon BP. Antibiotic-induced accumulation of lipid II synergizes with antimicrobial fatty acids to eradicate bacterial populations. eLife 2023; 12:80246. [PMID: 36876902 PMCID: PMC10030119 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic tolerance and antibiotic resistance are the two major obstacles to the efficient and reliable treatment of bacterial infections. Identifying antibiotic adjuvants that sensitize resistant and tolerant bacteria to antibiotic killing may lead to the development of superior treatments with improved outcomes. Vancomycin, a lipid II inhibitor, is a frontline antibiotic for treating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and other Gram-positive bacterial infections. However, vancomycin use has led to the increasing prevalence of bacterial strains with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Here, we show that unsaturated fatty acids act as potent vancomycin adjuvants to rapidly kill a range of Gram-positive bacteria, including vancomycin-tolerant and resistant populations. The synergistic bactericidal activity relies on the accumulation of membrane-bound cell wall intermediates that generate large fluid patches in the membrane leading to protein delocalization, aberrant septal formation, and loss of membrane integrity. Our findings provide a natural therapeutic option that enhances vancomycin activity against difficult-to-treat pathogens, and the underlying mechanism may be further exploited to develop antimicrobials that target recalcitrant infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashelyn E Sidders
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Katarzyna M Kedziora
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
- Bioinformatics and Analytics Research Collaborative, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Melina Arts
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jan-Martin Daniel
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Jenna E Beam
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Duyen T Bui
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Joshua B Parsons
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Tanja Schneider
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sarah E Rowe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Brian P Conlon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
- Marsico Lung Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
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13
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Barbuti MD, Myrbråten IS, Morales Angeles D, Kjos M. The cell cycle of Staphylococcus aureus: An updated review. Microbiologyopen 2023; 12:e1338. [PMID: 36825883 PMCID: PMC9733580 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.1338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As bacteria proliferate, DNA replication, chromosome segregation, cell wall synthesis, and cytokinesis occur concomitantly and need to be tightly regulated and coordinated. Although these cell cycle processes have been studied for decades, several mechanisms remain elusive, specifically in coccus-shaped cells such as Staphylococcus aureus. In recent years, major progress has been made in our understanding of how staphylococci divide, including new, fundamental insights into the mechanisms of cell wall synthesis and division site selection. Furthermore, several novel proteins and mechanisms involved in the regulation of replication initiation or progression of the cell cycle have been identified and partially characterized. In this review, we will summarize our current understanding of the cell cycle processes in the spheroid model bacterium S. aureus, with a focus on recent advances in the understanding of how these processes are regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria D. Barbuti
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
| | - Ine S. Myrbråten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
| | - Danae Morales Angeles
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
| | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
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14
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Ersoy SC, Gonçalves B, Cavaco G, Manna AC, Sobral RG, Nast CC, Proctor RA, Chambers HF, Cheung A, Bayer AS. Influence of Sodium Bicarbonate on Wall Teichoic Acid Synthesis and β-Lactam Sensitization in NaHCO 3-Responsive and Nonresponsive Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0342222. [PMID: 36377886 PMCID: PMC9769754 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03422-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains pose major treatment challenges due to their innate resistance to most β-lactams under standard in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility testing conditions. A novel phenotype among MRSA, termed "NaHCO3 responsiveness," where certain strains display increased susceptibility to β-lactams in the presence of NaHCO3, has been identified among a relatively large proportion of MRSA isolates. One underlying mechanism of NaHCO3 responsiveness appears to be related to decreased expression and altered functionality of several genes and proteins involved in cell wall synthesis and maturation. Here, we studied the impact of NaHCO3 on wall teichoic acid (WTA) synthesis, a process intimately linked to peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis and functionality, in NaHCO3-responsive versus -nonresponsive MRSA isolates. NaHCO3 sensitized responsive MRSA strains to cefuroxime, a specific penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2)-inhibitory β-lactam known to synergize with early WTA synthesis inhibitors (e.g., ticlopidine). Combining cefuroxime with ticlopidine with or without NaHCO3 suggested that these latter two agents target the same step in WTA synthesis. Further, NaHCO3 decreased the abundance and molecular weight of WTA only in responsive strains. Additionally, NaHCO3 stimulated increased autolysis and aberrant cell division in responsive strains, two phenotypes associated with disruption of WTA synthesis. Of note, studies of key genes involved in the WTA biosynthetic pathway (e.g., tarO, tarG, dltA, and fmtA) indicated that the inhibitory impact of NaHCO3 on WTA biosynthesis in responsive strains likely occurred posttranslationally. IMPORTANCE MRSA is generally viewed as resistant to standard β-lactam antibiotics. However, a NaHCO3-responsive phenotype is observed in a substantial proportion of clinical MRSA strains in vitro, i.e., isolates which demonstrate enhanced susceptibility to standard β-lactam antibiotics (e.g., oxacillin) in the presence of NaHCO3. This phenotype correlates with increased MRSA clearance in vivo by standard β-lactam antibiotics, suggesting that patients with infections caused by such MRSA strains might be amenable to treatment with β-lactams. The mechanism(s) behind this phenotype is not fully understood but appears to involve mecA-PBP2a production and maturation axes. Our study adds significantly to this body of knowledge in terms of additional mechanistic targets of NaHCO3 in selected MRSA strains. This investigation demonstrates that NaHCO3 has direct impacts on S. aureus wall teichoic acid biosynthesis in NaHCO3-responsive MRSA. These findings provide an additional target for new agents being designed to synergistically kill MRSA using β-lactam antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology of Bacterial Pathogens, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, Nova School of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Nova School of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Cavaco
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology of Bacterial Pathogens, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, Nova School of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Nova School of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Adhar C. Manna
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Rita G. Sobral
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology of Bacterial Pathogens, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, Nova School of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Nova School of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Cynthia C. Nast
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Richard A. Proctor
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology/Immunology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | | | - Ambrose Cheung
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Arnold S. Bayer
- The Lundquist Institute, Torrance, California, USA
- Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
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15
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The Staphylococcus aureus cell division protein, DivIC, interacts with the cell wall and controls its biosynthesis. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1228. [DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04161-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractBacterial cell division is a complex, dynamic process that requires multiple protein components to orchestrate its progression. Many division proteins are highly conserved across bacterial species alluding to a common, basic mechanism. Central to division is a transmembrane trimeric complex involving DivIB, DivIC and FtsL in Gram-positives. Here, we show a distinct, essential role for DivIC in division and survival of Staphylococcus aureus. DivIC spatially regulates peptidoglycan synthesis, and consequently cell wall architecture, by influencing the recruitment to the division septum of the major peptidoglycan synthetases PBP2 and FtsW. Both the function of DivIC and its recruitment to the division site depend on its extracellular domain, which interacts with the cell wall via binding to wall teichoic acids. DivIC facilitates the spatial and temporal coordination of peptidoglycan synthesis with the developing architecture of the septum during cell division. A better understanding of the cell division mechanisms in S. aureus and other pathogenic microorganisms can provide possibilities for the development of new, more effective treatments for bacterial infections.
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16
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Hammond LR, Sacco MD, Khan SJ, Spanoudis C, Hough-Neidig A, Chen Y, Eswara PJ. GpsB Coordinates Cell Division and Cell Surface Decoration by Wall Teichoic Acids in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0141322. [PMID: 35647874 PMCID: PMC9241681 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01413-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cell division is a complex and highly regulated process requiring the coordination of many different proteins. Despite substantial work in model organisms, our understanding of the systems regulating cell division in noncanonical organisms, including critical human pathogens, is far from complete. One such organism is Staphylococcus aureus, a spherical bacterium that lacks known cell division regulatory proteins. Recent studies on GpsB, a protein conserved within the Firmicutes phylum, have provided insight into cell division regulation in S. aureus and other related organisms. It has been revealed that GpsB coordinates cell division and cell wall synthesis in multiple species. In S. aureus, we have previously shown that GpsB directly regulates FtsZ polymerization. In this study, using Bacillus subtilis as a tool, we isolated spontaneous suppressors that abrogate the lethality of S. aureus GpsB overproduction in B. subtilis. Through characterization, we identified several residues important for the function of GpsB. Furthermore, we discovered an additional role for GpsB in wall teichoic acid (WTA) biosynthesis in S. aureus. Specifically, we show that GpsB directly interacts with the WTA export protein TarG. We also identified a region in GpsB that is crucial for this interaction. Analysis of TarG localization in S. aureus suggests that WTA machinery is part of the divisome complex. Taken together, this research illustrates how GpsB performs an essential function in S. aureus by directly linking the tightly regulated cell cycle processes of cell division and WTA-mediated cell surface decoration. IMPORTANCE Cytokinesis in bacteria involves an intricate orchestration of several key cell division proteins and other factors involved in building a robust cell envelope. Presence of teichoic acids is a signature characteristic of the Gram-positive cell wall. By characterizing the role of Staphylococcus aureus GpsB, an essential cell division protein in this organism, we have uncovered an additional role for GpsB in wall teichoic acid (WTA) biosynthesis. We show that GpsB directly interacts with TarG of the WTA export complex. We also show that this function of GpsB may be conserved in other GpsB homologs as GpsB and the WTA exporter complex follow similar localization patterns. It has been suggested that WTA acts as a molecular signal to control the activity of autolytic enzymes, especially during the separation of conjoined daughter cells. Thus, our results reveal that GpsB, in addition to playing a role in cell division, may also help coordinate WTA biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R. Hammond
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Michael D. Sacco
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Sebastian J. Khan
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Catherine Spanoudis
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Abigail Hough-Neidig
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Prahathees J. Eswara
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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17
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Penicillin-Binding Protein 1 (PBP1) of Staphylococcus aureus Has Multiple Essential Functions in Cell Division. mBio 2022; 13:e0066922. [PMID: 35703435 PMCID: PMC9426605 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00669-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cell division is a complex process requiring the coordination of multiple components to allow the appropriate spatial and temporal control of septum formation and cell scission. Peptidoglycan (PG) is the major structural component of the septum, and our recent studies in the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus have revealed a complex, multistage PG architecture that develops during septation. Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are essential for the final steps of PG biosynthesis; their transpeptidase activity links the peptide side chains of nascent glycan strands. PBP1 is required for cell division in S. aureus, and here, we demonstrate that it has multiple essential functions associated with its enzymatic activity and as a regulator of division. Loss of PBP1, or just its C-terminal PASTA domains, results in cessation of division at the point of septal plate formation. The PASTA domains can bind PG and thereby potentially coordinate the cell division process. The transpeptidase activity of PBP1 is also essential, but its loss leads to a strikingly different phenotype of thickened and aberrant septa, which is phenocopied by the morphological effects of adding the PBP1-specific β-lactam, meropenem. Together, these results lead to a model for septal PG synthesis where PBP1 enzyme activity is required for the characteristic architecture of the septum and PBP1 protein molecules enable the formation of the septal plate.
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18
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An Interplay of Multiple Positive and Negative Factors Governs Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2022; 86:e0015921. [PMID: 35420454 PMCID: PMC9199415 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00159-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of resistance to β-lactam antibiotics has made Staphylococcus aureus a clinical burden on a global scale. MRSA (methicillin-resistant S. aureus) is commonly known as a superbug. The ability of MRSA to proliferate in the presence of β-lactams is attributed to the acquisition of mecA, which encodes the alternative penicillin binding protein, PBP2A, which is insensitive to the antibiotics. Most MRSA isolates exhibit low-level β-lactam resistance, whereby additional genetic adjustments are required to develop high-level resistance. Although several genetic factors that potentiate or are required for high-level resistance have been identified, how these interact at the mechanistic level has remained elusive. Here, we discuss the development of resistance and assess the role of the associated components in tailoring physiology to accommodate incoming mecA.
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19
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Controlled Proteolysis of an Essential Virulence Determinant Dictates Infectivity of Lyme Disease Pathogens. Infect Immun 2022; 90:e0005922. [PMID: 35416705 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00059-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Borrelia burgdorferi BB0323 protein undergoes a complex yet poorly defined proteolytic maturation event that generates N-terminal and C-terminal proteins with essential functions in cell growth and infection. Here, we report that a borrelial protease, B. burgdorferi high temperature requirement A protease (BbHtrA), cleaves BB0323 between asparagine (N) and leucine (L) at positions 236 and 237, while the replacement of these residues with alanine in the mutant protein prevents its cleavage, despite preserving its normal secondary structure. The N-terminal BB0323 protein binds BbHtrA, but its cleavage site mutant displays deficiency in such interaction. An isogenic borrelial mutant with NL-to-AA substitution in BB0323 (referred to as Bbbb0323NL) maintains normal growth yet is impaired for infection of mice or transmission from infected ticks. Notably, the BB0323 protein is still processed in Bbbb0323NL, albeit with lower levels of mature N-terminal BB0323 protein and multiple aberrantly processed polypeptides, which could result from nonspecific cleavages at other asparagine and leucine residues in the protein. The lack of infectivity of Bbbb0323NL is likely due to the impaired abundance or stoichiometry of a protein complex involving BB0238, another spirochete protein. Together, these studies highlight that a precise proteolytic event and a particular protein-protein interaction, involving multiple borrelial virulence determinants, are mutually inclusive and interconnected, playing essential roles in the infectivity of Lyme disease pathogens.
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20
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Abstract
Cell division and cell wall synthesis in staphylococci need to be precisely coordinated and controlled to allow the cell to multiply while maintaining its nearly spherical shape. The mechanisms ensuring correct placement of the division plane and synthesis of new cell wall have been studied intensively. However, hitherto unknown factors and proteins are likely to play key roles in this complex interplay. Here, we identified and investigated a protein with a major influence on cell morphology in Staphylococcus aureus. The protein, named SmdA (for staphylococcal morphology determinant A), is a membrane protein with septum-enriched localization. By CRISPRi knockdown and overexpression combined with different microscopy techniques, we demonstrated that proper levels of SmdA were necessary for cell division, including septum formation and cell splitting. We also identified conserved residues in SmdA that were critical for its functionality. Pulldown and bacterial two-hybrid interaction experiments showed that SmdA interacted with several known cell division and cell wall synthesis proteins, including penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and EzrA. Notably, SmdA also affected susceptibility to cell wall targeting antibiotics, particularly in methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Together, our results showed that S. aureus was dependent on balanced amounts of membrane attached SmdA to carry out proper cell division.
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21
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Perez AJ, Villicana JB, Tsui HCT, Danforth ML, Benedet M, Massidda O, Winkler ME. FtsZ-Ring Regulation and Cell Division Are Mediated by Essential EzrA and Accessory Proteins ZapA and ZapJ in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:780864. [PMID: 34938281 PMCID: PMC8687745 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.780864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial FtsZ-ring initiates division by recruiting a large repertoire of proteins (the divisome; Z-ring) needed for septation and separation of cells. Although FtsZ is essential and its role as the main orchestrator of cell division is conserved in most eubacteria, the regulators of Z-ring presence and positioning are not universal. This study characterizes factors that regulate divisome presence and placement in the ovoid-shaped pathogen, Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn), focusing on FtsZ, EzrA, SepF, ZapA, and ZapJ, which is reported here as a partner of ZapA. Epi-fluorescence microscopy (EFm) and high-resolution microscopy experiments showed that FtsZ and EzrA co-localize during the entire Spn cell cycle, whereas ZapA and ZapJ are late-arriving divisome proteins. Depletion and conditional mutants demonstrate that EzrA is essential in Spn and required for normal cell growth, size, shape homeostasis, and chromosome segregation. Moreover, EzrA(Spn) is required for midcell placement of FtsZ-rings and PG synthesis. Notably, overexpression of EzrA leads to the appearance of extra Z-rings in Spn. Together, these observations support a role for EzrA as a positive regulator of FtsZ-ring formation in Spn. Conversely, FtsZ is required for EzrA recruitment to equatorial rings and for the organization of PG synthesis. In contrast to EzrA depletion, which causes a bacteriostatic phenotype in Spn, depletion of FtsZ results in enlarged spherical cells that are subject to LytA-dependent autolysis. Co-immunoprecipitation and bacterial two-hybrid assays show that EzrA(Spn) is in complexes with FtsZ, Z-ring regulators (FtsA, SepF, ZapA, MapZ), division proteins (FtsK, StkP), and proteins that mediate peptidoglycan synthesis (GpsB, aPBP1a), consistent with a role for EzrA at the interface of cell division and PG synthesis. In contrast to the essentiality of FtsZ and EzrA, ZapA and SepF have accessory roles in regulating pneumococcal physiology. We further show that ZapA interacts with a non-ZapB homolog, named here as ZapJ, which is conserved in Streptococcus species. The absence of the accessory proteins, ZapA, ZapJ, and SepF, exacerbates growth defects when EzrA is depleted or MapZ is deleted. Taken together, these results provide new information about the spatially and temporally distinct proteins that regulate FtsZ-ring organization and cell division in Spn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amilcar J Perez
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Jesus Bazan Villicana
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Ho-Ching T Tsui
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Madeline L Danforth
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Mattia Benedet
- Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Orietta Massidda
- Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Malcolm E Winkler
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
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22
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Straume D, Piechowiak KW, Kjos M, Håvarstein LS. Class A PBPs: It is time to rethink traditional paradigms. Mol Microbiol 2021; 116:41-52. [PMID: 33709487 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Until recently, class A penicillin-binding proteins (aPBPs) were the only enzymes known to catalyze glycan chain polymerization from lipid II in bacteria. Hence, the discovery of two novel lipid II polymerases, FtsW and RodA, raises new questions and has consequently received a lot of attention from the research community. FtsW and RodA are essential and highly conserved members of the divisome and elongasome, respectively, and work in conjunction with their cognate class B PBPs (bPBPs) to synthesize the division septum and insert new peptidoglycan into the lateral cell wall. The identification of FtsW and RodA as peptidoglycan glycosyltransferases has raised questions regarding the role of aPBPs in peptidoglycan synthesis and fundamentally changed our understanding of the process. Despite their dethronement, aPBPs are essential in most bacteria. So, what is their function? In this review, we discuss recent progress in answering this question and present our own views on the topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Straume
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Leiv Sigve Håvarstein
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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23
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Abstract
The division and cell wall (dcw) cluster is a highly conserved region of the bacterial genome consisting of genes that encode several cell division and cell wall synthesis factors, including the central division protein FtsZ. The region immediately downstream of ftsZ encodes the ylm genes and is conserved across diverse lineages of Gram-positive bacteria and Cyanobacteria In some organisms, this region remains part of the dcw cluster, but in others, it appears as an independent operon. A well-studied protein coded from this region is the positive FtsZ regulator SepF (YlmF), which anchors FtsZ to the membrane. Recent developments have shed light on the importance of SepF in a range of species. Additionally, new studies are highlighting the importance of the other conserved genes in this neighborhood. In this minireview, we aim to bring together the current research linking the ylm region to cell division and highlight further questions surrounding these conserved genes.
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24
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Singhi D, Srivastava P. How similar or dissimilar cells are produced by bacterial cell division? Biochimie 2020; 176:71-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2020.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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25
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Silber N, Matos de Opitz CL, Mayer C, Sass P. Cell division protein FtsZ: from structure and mechanism to antibiotic target. Future Microbiol 2020; 15:801-831. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2019-0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance to virtually all clinically applied antibiotic classes severely limits the available options to treat bacterial infections. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop and evaluate new antibiotics and targets with resistance-breaking properties. Bacterial cell division has emerged as a new antibiotic target pathway to counteract multidrug-resistant pathogens. New approaches in antibiotic discovery and bacterial cell biology helped to identify compounds that either directly interact with the major cell division protein FtsZ, thereby perturbing the function and dynamics of the cell division machinery, or affect the structural integrity of FtsZ by inducing its degradation. The impressive antimicrobial activities and resistance-breaking properties of certain compounds validate the inhibition of bacterial cell division as a promising strategy for antibiotic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Silber
- Department of Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology & Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Cruz L Matos de Opitz
- Department of Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology & Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Christian Mayer
- Department of Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology & Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Peter Sass
- Department of Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology & Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
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26
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Cannabidiol is an effective helper compound in combination with bacitracin to kill Gram-positive bacteria. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4112. [PMID: 32139776 PMCID: PMC7057955 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60952-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The cannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) is characterised in this study as a helper compound against resistant bacteria. CBD potentiates the effect of bacitracin (BAC) against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus species, Listeria monocytogenes, and Enterococcus faecalis) but appears ineffective against Gram-negative bacteria. CBD reduced the MIC value of BAC by at least 64-fold and the combination yielded an FIC index of 0.5 or below in most Gram-positive bacteria tested. Morphological changes in S. aureus as a result of the combination of CBD and BAC included several septa formations during cell division along with membrane irregularities. Analysis of the muropeptide composition of treated S. aureus indicated no changes in the cell wall composition. However, CBD and BAC treated bacteria did show a decreased rate of autolysis. The bacteria further showed a decreased membrane potential upon treatment with CBD; yet, they did not show any further decrease upon combination treatment. Noticeably, expression of a major cell division regulator gene, ezrA, was reduced two-fold upon combination treatment emphasising the impact of the combination on cell division. Based on these observations, the combination of CBD and BAC is suggested to be a putative novel treatment in clinical settings for treatment of infections with antibiotic resistant Gram-positive bacteria.
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27
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Booth S, Lewis RJ. Structural basis for the coordination of cell division with the synthesis of the bacterial cell envelope. Protein Sci 2019; 28:2042-2054. [PMID: 31495975 PMCID: PMC6863701 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria are surrounded by a complex cell envelope made up of one or two membranes supplemented with a layer of peptidoglycan (PG). The envelope is responsible for the protection of bacteria against lysis in their oft-unpredictable environments and it contributes to cell integrity, morphology, signaling, nutrient/small-molecule transport, and, in the case of pathogenic bacteria, host-pathogen interactions and virulence. The cell envelope requires considerable remodeling during cell division in order to produce genetically identical progeny. Several proteinaceous machines are responsible for the homeostasis of the cell envelope and their activities must be kept coordinated in order to ensure the remodeling of the envelope is temporally and spatially regulated correctly during multiple cycles of cell division and growth. This review aims to highlight the complexity of the components of the cell envelope, but focusses specifically on the molecular apparatuses involved in the synthesis of the PG wall, and the degree of cross talk necessary between the cell division and the cell wall remodeling machineries to coordinate PG remodeling during division. The current understanding of many of the proteins discussed here has relied on structural studies, and this review concentrates particularly on this structural work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Booth
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical SciencesNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Richard J. Lewis
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical SciencesNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
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28
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Coe KA, Lee W, Stone MC, Komazin-Meredith G, Meredith TC, Grad YH, Walker S. Multi-strain Tn-Seq reveals common daptomycin resistance determinants in Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007862. [PMID: 31738809 PMCID: PMC6934316 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus remains a leading cause of antibiotic resistance-associated mortality in the United States. Given the reality of multi-drug resistant infections, it is imperative that we establish and maintain a pipeline of new compounds to replace or supplement our current antibiotics. A first step towards this goal is to prioritize targets by identifying the genes most consistently required for survival across the S. aureus phylogeny. Here we report the first direct comparison of multiple strains of S. aureus via transposon sequencing. We show that mutant fitness varies by strain in key pathways, underscoring the importance of using more than one strain to differentiate between core and strain-dependent essential genes. We treated the libraries with daptomycin to assess whether the strain-dependent differences impact pathways important for survival. Despite baseline differences in gene importance, several pathways, including the lipoteichoic acid pathway, consistently promote survival under daptomycin exposure, suggesting core vulnerabilities that can be exploited to resensitize daptomycin-nonsusceptible isolates. We also demonstrate the merit of using transposons with outward-facing promoters capable of overexpressing nearby genes for identifying clinically-relevant gain-of-function resistance mechanisms. Together, the daptomycin vulnerabilities and resistance mechanisms support a mode of action with wide-ranging effects on the cell envelope and cell division. This work adds to a growing body of literature demonstrating the nuanced insights gained by comparing Tn-Seq results across multiple bacterial strains. Antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus kills thousands of people every year in the United States alone. To stay ahead of the looming threat of multidrug-resistant infections, we must continue to develop new antibiotics and find ways to make our current repertoire of antibiotics more effective, including by finding pairs of compounds that perform best when administered together. In the age of next-generation sequencing, we can now use transposon sequencing to find potential targets for new antibiotics on a genome-wide scale, identified as either essential genes or genes that positively influence survival in the presence of an antibiotic. In this work, we created a compendium of genes that are essential across a range of S. aureus strains, as well as those that are important for growth in the presence of the antibiotic daptomycin. The results will be a resource for researchers working to develop the next generation of antibiotic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A. Coe
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Wonsik Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Madeleine C. Stone
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gloria Komazin-Meredith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Timothy C. Meredith
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TCM); (YHG); (SW)
| | - Yonatan H. Grad
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TCM); (YHG); (SW)
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TCM); (YHG); (SW)
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29
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Abstract
Reproduction in the bacterial kingdom predominantly occurs through binary fission-a process in which one parental cell is divided into two similarly sized daughter cells. How cell division, in conjunction with cell elongation and chromosome segregation, is orchestrated by a multitude of proteins has been an active area of research spanning the past few decades. Together, the monumental endeavors of multiple laboratories have identified several cell division and cell shape regulators as well as their underlying regulatory mechanisms in rod-shaped Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which serve as model organisms for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, respectively. Yet our understanding of bacterial cell division and morphology regulation is far from complete, especially in noncanonical and non-rod-shaped organisms. In this review, we focus on two proteins that are highly conserved in Gram-positive organisms, DivIVA and its homolog GpsB, and attempt to summarize the recent advances in this area of research and discuss their various roles in cell division, cell growth, and chromosome segregation in addition to their interactome and posttranslational regulation.
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30
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Bojer MS, Wacnik K, Kjelgaard P, Gallay C, Bottomley AL, Cohn MT, Lindahl G, Frees D, Veening JW, Foster SJ, Ingmer H. SosA inhibits cell division in Staphylococcus aureus in response to DNA damage. Mol Microbiol 2019; 112:1116-1130. [PMID: 31290194 PMCID: PMC6851548 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Inhibition of cell division is critical for viability under DNA‐damaging conditions. DNA damage induces the SOS response that in bacteria inhibits cell division while repairs are being made. In coccoids, such as the human pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus, this process remains poorly studied. Here, we identify SosA as the staphylococcal SOS‐induced cell division inhibitor. Overproduction of SosA inhibits cell division, while sosA inactivation sensitizes cells to genotoxic stress. SosA is a small, predicted membrane protein with an extracellular C‐terminal domain in which point mutation of residues that are conserved in staphylococci and major truncations abolished the inhibitory activity. In contrast, a minor truncation led to SosA accumulation and a strong cell division inhibitory activity, phenotypically similar to expression of wild‐type SosA in a CtpA membrane protease mutant. This suggests that the extracellular C‐terminus of SosA is required both for cell division inhibition and for turnover of the protein. Microscopy analysis revealed that SosA halts cell division and synchronizes the cell population at a point where division proteins such as FtsZ and EzrA are localized at midcell, and the septum formation is initiated but unable to progress to closure. Thus, our findings show that SosA is central in cell division regulation in staphylococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin S Bojer
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Centre for Bacterial Stress Response and Persistence, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Katarzyna Wacnik
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Peter Kjelgaard
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Clement Gallay
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Amy L Bottomley
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Marianne T Cohn
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gunnar Lindahl
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dorte Frees
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Simon J Foster
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Hanne Ingmer
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Centre for Bacterial Stress Response and Persistence, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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31
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Wang Y, Wang Y, Li J, Gong S, Sun L, Grenier D, Li Y. Pdh is involved in the cell division and Normal septation of Streptococcus suis. Microbiol Res 2019; 228:126304. [PMID: 31422235 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2019.126304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is an important zoonotic pathogen that causes major economic losses in the pig industry worldwide. The S. suis cell division process is an integral part of its growth and reproduction, which is controlled by a complex regulatory network. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), which catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA, while reducing NAD + to NADH, plays an important role in energy metabolism. Recently, we reported that pdh regulates virulence by reducing stress tolerance and biofilm formation in S. suis serotype 2. In this study, we found that deletion of the pdh gene in S. suis resulted in abnormal cell chains, plump morphology and abnormal localization of the Z rings, indicating that the knockout mutant is impaired in its ability to divide. In addition, the interaction between FtsZ and PDH in vitro was confirmed by ELISA, and qRT-PCR analysis revealed that the deletion of the pdh gene results in differential expression of the division-related genes ftsZ, ftsK, ftsl, zapA, divIC, pbp1a, rodA, mreD, and sepF. These results indicate that pdh is involved in the normal formation of Z rings and cell morphology during S. suis cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathogen and Immunology of Animal of Luoyang, Luoyang, China.
| | - Yuxin Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathogen and Immunology of Animal of Luoyang, Luoyang, China
| | - Jinpeng Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathogen and Immunology of Animal of Luoyang, Luoyang, China
| | - Shenglong Gong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathogen and Immunology of Animal of Luoyang, Luoyang, China
| | - Liyun Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathogen and Immunology of Animal of Luoyang, Luoyang, China
| | - Daniel Grenier
- Groupe de Recherche en Écologie Buccale (GREB), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Yi Li
- College of Life Science, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang, China.
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32
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Xiang Z, Li Z, Ren Z, Zeng J, Peng X, Li Y, Li J. EzrA, a cell shape regulator contributing to biofilm formation and competitiveness in Streptococcus mutans. Mol Oral Microbiol 2019; 34:194-208. [PMID: 31287946 DOI: 10.1111/omi.12264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial cell division is initiated by tubulin homologue FtsZ that assembles into a ring structure at mid-cell to facilitate cytokinesis. EzrA has been identified to be implicated in FtsZ-ring dynamics and cell wall biosynthesis during cell division of Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, the model rod and cocci. However, its role in pathogenic streptococci remains largely unknown. Here, the role of EzrA was investigated in Streptococcus mutans, the primary etiological agent of human dental caries, by constructing an ezrA in-frame deletion mutant. Our data showed that the ezrA mutant was slow-growing with a shortened length and extended width round cell shape compared to the wild type, indicating a delay in cell division with abnormalities of peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Additionally, FtsZ irregularly localized in dividing ezrA mutant cells forming angled division planes, potentially contributing to an aberrant cell shape. Furthermore, investigation using single-species cariogenic biofilm model revealed that deletion of ezrA resulted in defective biofilm formation with less extracellular polysaccharides and altered three-dimensional biofilm architecture. Unexpectedly, in a dual-species ecological model, the ezrA mutant exhibited substantially lower tolerance for H2 O2 and reduced competitiveness against one commensal species, Streptococcus sanguinis. Taken together, these results demonstrate that EzrA plays a key role in regulating cell division and maintaining a normal morphology in S. mutans and is required for its robust biofilm formation/interspecies competition. Therefore, EzrA protein represents a potential therapeutic target in the development of drugs controlling dental caries and other biofilm-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenting Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Zongbo Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Zhi Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China.,Biofilm Research Labs, Levy Center for Oral Health, Department of Orthodontics, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jumei Zeng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xian Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Yuqing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Jiyao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
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33
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Eswara PJ, Brzozowski RS, Viola MG, Graham G, Spanoudis C, Trebino C, Jha J, Aubee JI, Thompson KM, Camberg JL, Ramamurthi KS. An essential Staphylococcus aureus cell division protein directly regulates FtsZ dynamics. eLife 2018; 7:38856. [PMID: 30277210 PMCID: PMC6168285 DOI: 10.7554/elife.38856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Binary fission has been well studied in rod-shaped bacteria, but the mechanisms underlying cell division in spherical bacteria are poorly understood. Rod-shaped bacteria harbor regulatory proteins that place and remodel the division machinery during cytokinesis. In the spherical human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, we found that the essential protein GpsB localizes to mid-cell during cell division and co-constricts with the division machinery. Depletion of GpsB arrested cell division and led to cell lysis, whereas overproduction of GpsB inhibited cell division and led to the formation of enlarged cells. We report that S. aureus GpsB, unlike other Firmicutes GpsB orthologs, directly interacts with the core divisome component FtsZ. GpsB bundles and organizes FtsZ filaments and also stimulates the GTPase activity of FtsZ. We propose that GpsB orchestrates the initial stabilization of the Z-ring at the onset of cell division and participates in the subsequent remodeling of the divisome during cytokinesis. A bacterium called Staphylococcus aureus causes many infections in humans, especially in hospital patients with weakened immune systems. These infections are generally treated with drugs known as antibiotics that interact with specific proteins in the bacteria to kill the cells, or stop them from growing. However, some S. aureus infections are resistant to the antibiotics currently available so there is a need to develop new drugs that target different bacterial proteins. Bacteria multiply by dividing to make identical copies of themselves. When a bacterium is preparing to divide, filaments made of a protein called FtsZ form a ring at the site where the cell will split. Many other proteins are involved in controlling how and when a cell divides. For example, several species of bacteria harbor a dispensable cell division protein called GpsB. In at least one organism, it helps to maintain the proper shape of the cell during cell division. In S. aureus, though, GpsB is essential for cells to survive and could therefore be a potential target for new antibiotics. However, its role in S. aureus has not been studied. Eswara et al. have now used genetic and biochemical approaches to study the S. aureus form of the GpsB protein. The experiments show that GpsB moves to the middle of S. aureus cells just before they begin to divide and binds directly to FtsZ. This helps to secure the position of FtsZ across the middle of the cell and activates the protein so that the cell can begin to divide into two. In cells that produce too much GpsB, the FtsZ proteins become active too early, leading to the cells growing larger and larger until they burst. The findings of Eswara et al. reveal that GpsB plays a different role in S. aureus cells than in some other species of bacteria. Further studies into such differences could help researchers to develop new antibiotics, as well as improving our understanding of why bacteria are so diverse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prahathees J Eswara
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States.,Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, United States
| | - Robert S Brzozowski
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, United States
| | - Marissa G Viola
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, United States
| | - Gianni Graham
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States.,Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, United States
| | - Catherine Spanoudis
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, United States
| | - Catherine Trebino
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, United States
| | - Jyoti Jha
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
| | - Joseph I Aubee
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, United States
| | - Karl M Thompson
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, United States
| | - Jodi L Camberg
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, United States.,Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, United States
| | - Kumaran S Ramamurthi
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
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34
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Stamsås GA, Myrbråten IS, Straume D, Salehian Z, Veening JW, Håvarstein LS, Kjos M. CozEa and CozEb play overlapping and essential roles in controlling cell division in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2018; 109:615-632. [PMID: 29884993 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus needs to control the position and timing of cell division and cell wall synthesis to maintain its spherical shape. We identified two membrane proteins, named CozEa and CozEb, which together are important for proper cell division in S. aureus. CozEa and CozEb are homologs of the cell elongation regulator CozESpn of Streptococcus pneumoniae. While cozEa and cozEb were not essential individually, the ΔcozEaΔcozEb double mutant was lethal. To study the functions of cozEa and cozEb, we constructed a CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) system for S. aureus, allowing transcriptional knockdown of essential genes. CRISPRi knockdown of cozEa in the ΔcozEb strain (and vice versa) causes cell morphological defects and aberrant nucleoid staining, showing that cozEa and cozEb have overlapping functions and are important for normal cell division. We found that CozEa and CozEb interact with and possibly influence localization of the cell division protein EzrA. Furthermore, the CozE-EzrA interaction is conserved in S. pneumoniae, and cell division is mislocalized in cozESpn -depleted S. pneumoniae cells. Together, our results show that CozE proteins mediate control of cell division in S. aureus and S. pneumoniae, likely via interactions with key cell division proteins such as EzrA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gro Anita Stamsås
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Ine Storaker Myrbråten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Daniel Straume
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Zhian Salehian
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Leiv Sigve Håvarstein
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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35
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The serine/threonine kinase Stk and the phosphatase Stp regulate cell wall synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13693. [PMID: 30209409 PMCID: PMC6135852 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32109-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell wall synthesis pathway producing peptidoglycan is a highly coordinated and tightly regulated process. Although the major components of bacterial cell walls have been known for decades, the complex regulatory network controlling peptidoglycan synthesis and many details of the cell division machinery are not well understood. The eukaryotic-like serine/threonine kinase Stk and the cognate phosphatase Stp play an important role in cell wall biosynthesis and drug resistance in S. aureus. We show that stp deletion has a pronounced impact on cell wall synthesis. Deletion of stp leads to a thicker cell wall and decreases susceptibility to lysostaphin. Stationary phase Δstp cells accumulate peptidoglycan precursors and incorporate higher amounts of incomplete muropeptides with non-glycine, monoglycine and monoalanine interpeptide bridges into the cell wall. In line with this cell wall phenotype, we demonstrate that the lipid II:glycine glycyltransferase FemX can be phosphorylated by the Ser/Thr kinase Stk in vitro. Mass spectrometric analyses identify Thr32, Thr36 and Ser415 as phosphoacceptors. The cognate phosphatase Stp dephosphorylates these phosphorylation sites. Moreover, Stk interacts with FemA and FemB, but is unable to phosphorylate them. Our data indicate that Stk and Stp modulate cell wall synthesis and cell division at several levels.
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36
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Lee W, Do T, Zhang G, Kahne D, Meredith TC, Walker S. Antibiotic Combinations That Enable One-Step, Targeted Mutagenesis of Chromosomal Genes. ACS Infect Dis 2018. [PMID: 29534563 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Targeted modification of bacterial chromosomes is necessary to understand new drug targets, investigate virulence factors, elucidate cell physiology, and validate results of -omics-based approaches. For some bacteria, reverse genetics remains a major bottleneck to progress in research. Here, we describe a compound-centric strategy that combines new negative selection markers with known positive selection markers to achieve simple, efficient one-step genome engineering of bacterial chromosomes. The method was inspired by the observation that certain nonessential metabolic pathways contain essential late steps, suggesting that antibiotics targeting a late step can be used to select for the absence of genes that control flux into the pathway. Guided by this hypothesis, we have identified antibiotic/counterselectable markers to accelerate reverse engineering of two increasingly antibiotic-resistant pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Acinetobacter baumannii. For S. aureus, we used wall teichoic acid biosynthesis inhibitors to select for the absence of tarO and for A. baumannii, we used colistin to select for the absence of lpxC. We have obtained desired gene deletions, gene fusions, and promoter swaps in a single plating step with perfect efficiency. Our method can also be adapted to generate markerless deletions of genes using FLP recombinase. The tools described here will accelerate research on two important pathogens, and the concept we outline can be readily adapted to any organism for which a suitable target pathway can be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonsik Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Truc Do
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Ge Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Daniel Kahne
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Timothy C. Meredith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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37
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Yu W, Missiakas D, Schneewind O. Septal secretion of protein A in Staphylococcus aureus requires SecA and lipoteichoic acid synthesis. eLife 2018; 7:34092. [PMID: 29757141 PMCID: PMC5962339 DOI: 10.7554/elife.34092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Surface proteins of Staphylococcus aureus are secreted across septal membranes for assembly into the bacterial cross-wall. This localized secretion requires the YSIRK/GXXS motif signal peptide, however the mechanisms supporting precursor trafficking are not known. We show here that the signal peptide of staphylococcal protein A (SpA) is cleaved at the YSIRK/GXXS motif. A SpA signal peptide mutant defective for YSIRK/GXXS cleavage is also impaired for septal secretion and co-purifies with SecA, SecDF and LtaS. SecA depletion blocks precursor targeting to septal membranes, whereas deletion of secDF diminishes SpA secretion into the cross-wall. Depletion of LtaS blocks lipoteichoic acid synthesis and abolishes SpA precursor trafficking to septal membranes. We propose a model whereby SecA directs SpA precursors to lipoteichoic acid-rich septal membranes for YSIRK/GXXS motif cleavage and secretion into the cross-wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Yu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
| | | | - Olaf Schneewind
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
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38
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Misra HS, Maurya GK, Chaudhary R, Misra CS. Interdependence of bacterial cell division and genome segregation and its potential in drug development. Microbiol Res 2018; 208:12-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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39
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Kawai Y, Mickiewicz K, Errington J. Lysozyme Counteracts β-Lactam Antibiotics by Promoting the Emergence of L-Form Bacteria. Cell 2018; 172:1038-1049.e10. [PMID: 29456081 PMCID: PMC5847170 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
β-lactam antibiotics inhibit bacterial cell wall assembly and, under classical microbiological culture conditions that are generally hypotonic, induce explosive cell death. Here, we show that under more physiological, osmoprotective conditions, for various Gram-positive bacteria, lysis is delayed or abolished, apparently because inhibition of class A penicillin-binding protein leads to a block in autolytic activity. Although these cells still then die by other mechanisms, exogenous lytic enzymes, such as lysozyme, can rescue viability by enabling the escape of cell wall-deficient "L-form" bacteria. This protective L-form conversion was also observed in macrophages and in an animal model, presumably due to the production of host lytic activities, including lysozyme. Our results demonstrate the potential for L-form switching in the host environment and highlight the unexpected effects of innate immune effectors, such as lysozyme, on antibiotic activity. Unlike previously described dormant persisters, L-forms can continue to proliferate in the presence of antibiotic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikazu Kawai
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AX, UK
| | - Katarzyna Mickiewicz
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AX, UK
| | - Jeff Errington
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AX, UK.
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40
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Lund VA, Wacnik K, Turner RD, Cotterell BE, Walther CG, Fenn SJ, Grein F, Wollman AJ, Leake MC, Olivier N, Cadby A, Mesnage S, Jones S, Foster SJ. Molecular coordination of Staphylococcus aureus cell division. eLife 2018; 7:32057. [PMID: 29465397 PMCID: PMC5821461 DOI: 10.7554/elife.32057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial cell wall is essential for viability, but despite its ability to withstand internal turgor must remain dynamic to permit growth and division. Peptidoglycan is the major cell wall structural polymer, whose synthesis requires multiple interacting components. The human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is a prolate spheroid that divides in three orthogonal planes. Here, we have integrated cellular morphology during division with molecular level resolution imaging of peptidoglycan synthesis and the components responsible. Synthesis occurs across the developing septal surface in a diffuse pattern, a necessity of the observed septal geometry, that is matched by variegated division component distribution. Synthesis continues after septal annulus completion, where the core division component FtsZ remains. The novel molecular level information requires re-evaluation of the growth and division processes leading to a new conceptual model, whereby the cell cycle is expedited by a set of functionally connected but not regularly distributed components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A Lund
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Katarzyna Wacnik
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Robert D Turner
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Bryony E Cotterell
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Christa G Walther
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel J Fenn
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Fabian Grein
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Microbiology, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Adam Jm Wollman
- Biological Physical Sciences Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Mark C Leake
- Biological Physical Sciences Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Nicolas Olivier
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Ashley Cadby
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Stéphane Mesnage
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Jones
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J Foster
- Krebs Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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41
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Bottomley AL, Liew ATF, Kusuma KD, Peterson E, Seidel L, Foster SJ, Harry EJ. Coordination of Chromosome Segregation and Cell Division in Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1575. [PMID: 28878745 PMCID: PMC5572376 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Productive bacterial cell division and survival of progeny requires tight coordination between chromosome segregation and cell division to ensure equal partitioning of DNA. Unlike rod-shaped bacteria that undergo division in one plane, the coccoid human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus divides in three successive orthogonal planes, which requires a different spatial control compared to rod-shaped cells. To gain a better understanding of how this coordination between chromosome segregation and cell division is regulated in S. aureus, we investigated proteins that associate with FtsZ and the divisome. We found that DnaK, a well-known chaperone, interacts with FtsZ, EzrA and DivIVA, and is required for DivIVA stability. Unlike in several rod shaped organisms, DivIVA in S. aureus associates with several components of the divisome, as well as the chromosome segregation protein, SMC. This data, combined with phenotypic analysis of mutants, suggests a novel role for S. aureus DivIVA in ensuring cell division and chromosome segregation are coordinated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Bottomley
- The ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, SydneyNSW, Australia
| | - Andrew T F Liew
- The ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, SydneyNSW, Australia
| | - Kennardy D Kusuma
- The ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, SydneyNSW, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Peterson
- The ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, SydneyNSW, Australia
| | - Lisa Seidel
- The ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, SydneyNSW, Australia
| | - Simon J Foster
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Krebs Institute, University of SheffieldSheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth J Harry
- The ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, SydneyNSW, Australia
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42
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Abstract
The last three decades have witnessed an explosion of discoveries about the mechanistic details of binary fission in model bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Caulobacter crescentus. This was made possible not only by advances in microscopy that helped answer questions about cell biology but also by clever genetic manipulations that directly and easily tested specific hypotheses. More recently, research using understudied organisms, or nonmodel systems, has revealed several alternate mechanistic strategies that bacteria use to divide and propagate. In this review, we highlight new findings and compare these strategies to cell division mechanisms elucidated in model organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prahathees J Eswara
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620;
| | - Kumaran S Ramamurthi
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-5132;
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43
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Egan AJF, Cleverley RM, Peters K, Lewis RJ, Vollmer W. Regulation of bacterial cell wall growth. FEBS J 2017; 284:851-867. [PMID: 27862967 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
During growth and propagation, a bacterial cell enlarges and subsequently divides its peptidoglycan (PG) sacculus, a continuous mesh-like layer that encases the cell membrane to confer mechanical strength and morphological robustness. The mechanism of sacculus growth, how it is regulated and how it is coordinated with other cellular processes is poorly understood. In this article, we will discuss briefly the current knowledge of how cell wall synthesis is regulated, on multiple levels, from both sides of the cytoplasmic membrane. According to the current knowledge, cytosolic scaffolding proteins connect PG synthases with cytoskeletal elements, and protein phosphorylation regulates cell wall growth in Gram-positive species. PG-active enzymes engage in multiple protein-protein interactions within PG synthesis multienzyme complexes, and some of the interactions modulate activities. PG synthesis is also regulated by central metabolism, and by PG maturation through the action of PG hydrolytic enzymes. Only now are we beginning to appreciate how these multiple levels of regulating PG synthesis enable the cell to propagate robustly with a defined cell shape under different and variable growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J F Egan
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Robert M Cleverley
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Katharina Peters
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Richard J Lewis
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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44
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Wollman AJM, Miller H, Foster S, Leake MC. An automated image analysis framework for segmentation and division plane detection of single liveStaphylococcus aureuscells which can operate at millisecond sampling time scales using bespoke Slimfield microscopy. Phys Biol 2016; 13:055002. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/13/5/055002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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45
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Neumann Y, Bruns SA, Rohde M, Prajsnar TK, Foster SJ, Schmitz I. Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus eludes selective autophagy by activating a host cell kinase. Autophagy 2016; 12:2069-2084. [PMID: 27629870 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2016.1226732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy, a catabolic pathway of lysosomal degradation, acts not only as an efficient recycle and survival mechanism during cellular stress, but also as an anti-infective machinery. The human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was originally considered solely as an extracellular bacterium, but is now recognized additionally to invade host cells, which might be crucial for persistence. However, the intracellular fate of S. aureus is incompletely understood. Here, we show for the first time induction of selective autophagy by S. aureus infection, its escape from autophagosomes and proliferation in the cytoplasm using live cell imaging. After invasion, S. aureus becomes ubiquitinated and recognized by receptor proteins such as SQSTM1/p62 leading to phagophore recruitment. Yet, S. aureus evades phagophores and prevents further degradation by a MAPK14/p38α MAP kinase-mediated blockade of autophagy. Our study demonstrates a novel bacterial strategy to block autophagy and secure survival inside the host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Neumann
- a Institute of Molecular and Clinical Immunology , Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg , Magdeburg , Germany.,b Systems-oriented Immunology and Inflammation Research Group, Department of Immune Control , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Svenja A Bruns
- a Institute of Molecular and Clinical Immunology , Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg , Magdeburg , Germany.,b Systems-oriented Immunology and Inflammation Research Group, Department of Immune Control , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Manfred Rohde
- c Central Facility for Microscopy, Department of Molecular Infection Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Tomasz K Prajsnar
- d Krebs Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology , University of Sheffield, Western Bank , Sheffield , UK
| | - Simon J Foster
- d Krebs Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology , University of Sheffield, Western Bank , Sheffield , UK
| | - Ingo Schmitz
- a Institute of Molecular and Clinical Immunology , Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg , Magdeburg , Germany.,b Systems-oriented Immunology and Inflammation Research Group, Department of Immune Control , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
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46
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Abstract
A mechanistic understanding of the determination and maintenance of the simplest bacterial cell shape, a sphere, remains elusive compared with that of more complex shapes. Cocci seem to lack a dedicated elongation machinery, and a spherical shape has been considered an evolutionary dead-end morphology, as a transition from a spherical to a rod-like shape has never been observed in bacteria. Here we show that a Staphylococcus aureus mutant (M5) expressing the ftsZG193D allele exhibits elongated cells. Molecular dynamics simulations and in vitro studies indicate that FtsZG193D filaments are more twisted and shorter than wild-type filaments. In vivo, M5 cell wall deposition is initiated asymmetrically, only on one side of the cell, and progresses into a helical pattern rather than into a constricting ring as in wild-type cells. This helical pattern of wall insertion leads to elongation, as in rod-shaped cells. Thus, structural flexibility of FtsZ filaments can result in an FtsZ-dependent mechanism for generating elongated cells from cocci. The mechanisms by which bacteria generate and maintain even the simplest cell shape remain an elusive but fundamental question in microbiology. In the absence of examples of coccus-to-rod transitions, the spherical shape has been suggested to be an evolutionary dead end in morphogenesis. We describe the first observation of the generation of elongated cells from truly spherical cocci, occurring in a Staphylococcus aureus mutant containing a single point mutation in its genome, in the gene encoding the bacterial tubulin homologue FtsZ. We demonstrate that FtsZ-dependent cell elongation is possible, even in the absence of dedicated elongation machinery.
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47
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Cleverley RM, Rismondo J, Lockhart-Cairns MP, Van Bentum PT, Egan AJ, Vollmer W, Halbedel S, Baldock C, Breukink E, Lewis RJ. Subunit Arrangement in GpsB, a Regulator of Cell Wall Biosynthesis. Microb Drug Resist 2016; 22:446-60. [PMID: 27257764 PMCID: PMC5111876 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2016.0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
GpsB, a key regulator of cell division in Gram-positive bacteria, interacts with a key peptidoglycan synthase at the cell division septum, the penicillin binding protein PBP1 (a.k.a. PonA). Bacillus subtilis GpsB has been reported to interact with other components of the cell division machinery, including EzrA, MreC, and PrkC. In this study, we report an analysis of the arrangement of subunits in Listeria monocytogenes GpsB by small-angle X-ray scattering. The resulting model has an elongated shape with residues critical for interaction with PBP1 and the cell membrane clustered at one end of the molecule. Mutations that destabilize the hexameric assembly of the wild-type protein have a gpsB null phenotype, indicating that oligomerization is critical for the correct function of GpsB. We suggest a model in which a single GpsB hexamer can interact with multiple PBP1 molecules and can therefore influence the arrangement of PBP1 molecules within the cell division machinery, a dynamic multiprotein complex called the divisome, consistent with a role for GpsB in modulating the synthesis of the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M. Cleverley
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jeanine Rismondo
- FG11 Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Michael P. Lockhart-Cairns
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Harwell Science & Innovation Campus, Didcot, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Paulien T. Van Bentum
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Alexander J.F. Egan
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Sven Halbedel
- FG11 Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Clair Baldock
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Eefjan Breukink
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Richard J. Lewis
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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48
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Haeusser DP, Margolin W. Splitsville: structural and functional insights into the dynamic bacterial Z ring. Nat Rev Microbiol 2016; 14:305-19. [PMID: 27040757 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria must divide to increase in number and colonize their niche. Binary fission is the most widespread means of bacterial cell division, but even this relatively simple mechanism has many variations on a theme. In most bacteria, the tubulin homologue FtsZ assembles into a ring structure, termed the Z ring, at the site of cytokinesis and recruits additional proteins to form a large protein machine - the divisome - that spans the membrane. In this Review, we discuss current insights into the regulation of the assembly of the Z ring and how the divisome drives membrane invagination and septal cell wall growth while flexibly responding to various cellular inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Haeusser
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Biology Department, Canisius College, 2001 Main Street, Buffalo, New York 14208, USA
| | - William Margolin
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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49
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Global analysis of the impact of linezolid onto virulence factor production in S. aureus USA300. Int J Med Microbiol 2016; 306:131-40. [PMID: 26996810 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Revised: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The translation inhibitor linezolid is an antibiotic of last resort against Gram-positive pathogens including methicillin resistant strains of the nosocomial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Linezolid is reported to inhibit production of extracellular virulence factors, but the molecular cause is unknown. To elucidate the physiological response of S. aureus to linezolid in general and the inhibition of virulence factor synthesis in particular a holistic study was performed. Linezolid was added to exponentially growing S. aureus cells and the linezolid stress response was analyzed with transcriptomics and quantitative proteomics methods. In addition, scanning and transmission electron microscopy experiments as well as fluorescence microscopy analyses of the cellular DNA and membrane were performed. As previously observed in studies on other translation inhibitors, S. aureus adapts its protein biosynthesis machinery to the reduced translation efficiency. For example the synthesis of ribosomal proteins was induced. Also unexpected results like a decline in the amount of extracellular and membrane proteins were obtained. In addition, cell shape and size changed after linezolid stress and cell division was diminished. Finally, the chromosome was condensed after linezolid stress and lost contact to the membrane. These morphological changes cannot be explained by established theories. A new hypothesis is discussed, which suggests that the reduced amount of membrane and extracellular proteins and observed defects in cell division are due to the disintegration of transertion complexes by linezolid.
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50
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Adams DW, Wu LJ, Errington J. A benzamide-dependent ftsZ mutant reveals residues crucial for Z-ring assembly. Mol Microbiol 2015; 99:1028-42. [PMID: 26601800 PMCID: PMC4832351 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In almost all bacteria, cell division is co-ordinated by the essential tubulin homologue FtsZ and represents an attractive but as yet unexploited target for new antibiotics. The benzamides, e.g. PC190723, are potent FtsZ inhibitors that have the potential to yield an important new class of antibiotic. However, the evolution of resistance poses a challenge to their development. Here we show that a collection of PC190723-resistant and -dependent strains of Staphylococcus aureus exhibit severe growth and morphological defects, questioning whether these ftsZ mutations would be clinically relevant. Importantly, we show that the most commonly isolated substitution remains sensitive to the simplest benzamide 3-MBA and likely works by occluding compound binding. Extending this analysis to Bacillus subtilis, we isolated a novel benzamide-dependent strain that divides using unusual helical division events. The ftsZ mutation responsible encodes the substitution of a highly conserved residue, which lies outside the benzamide-binding site and forms part of an interface between the N- and C-terminal domains that we show is necessary for normal FtsZ function. Together with an intragenic suppressor mutation that mimics benzamide binding, the results provide genetic evidence that benzamides restrict conformational changes in FtsZ and also highlights their utility as tools to probe bacterial division.
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Affiliation(s)
- David William Adams
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Baddiley-Clark Building, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - Ling Juan Wu
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Baddiley-Clark Building, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - Jeff Errington
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Baddiley-Clark Building, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
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