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Mekonnen GG, Pearson M, Loukas A, Sotillo J. Extracellular vesicles from parasitic helminths and their potential utility as vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2018; 17:197-205. [PMID: 29353519 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2018.1431125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Helminths are multicellular parasites affecting nearly three billion people worldwide. To orchestrate a parasitic existence, helminths secrete different molecules, either in soluble form or contained within extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are secreted by most cell types and organisms, and have varied roles in intercellular communication, including immune modulation and pathogenesis. AREAS COVERED In this review, we describe the nucleic acid and proteomic composition of EVs from helminths, with a focus on the protein vaccine candidates present on the EV surface membrane, and discuss the potential utility of helminth EVs and their constituent proteins in the fight against helminth infections. EXPERT COMMENTARY A significant number of proteins present in helminth-secreted EVs are known vaccine candidates. The characterization of helminth EV proteomes will shed light on host-pathogen interactions, facilitate the discovery of new diagnostic biomarkers, and provide a novel approach for the development of new control measures against helminth infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gebeyaw Getnet Mekonnen
- a Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine , James Cook University , Cairns , Australia.,b Department of Medical Parasitology , School of Biomedical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar , Gondar , Ethiopia
| | - Mark Pearson
- a Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine , James Cook University , Cairns , Australia
| | - Alex Loukas
- a Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine , James Cook University , Cairns , Australia
| | - Javier Sotillo
- a Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine , James Cook University , Cairns , Australia
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Gao Y, Zhou X, Wang H, Liu R, Ye Q, Zhao Q, Ming Z, Dong H. Immunization with recombinant schistosome adenylate kinase 1 partially protects mice against Schistosoma japonicum infection. Parasitol Res 2017; 116:1665-1674. [PMID: 28455627 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-017-5441-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Highly effective and safe prophylactic vaccines are urgently needed to sustainably control schistosomiasis, one of the most serious endemic zoonoses in China. In this study, we characterized adenylate kinase 1 from Schistosoma japonicum (SjAK1), a phosphotransferase that regulates cellular energy and metabolism, and evaluated its potential as a recombinant vaccine. Based on real-time quantitative PCR, western blot, and immunolocalization, SjAK1 is active throughout the life of the worm, although its expression is higher in 21-day-old schistosomula, adult worms, and eggs deposited in the host liver. Further, the enzyme accumulates in the eggshell, intestinal epithelium, integument of adult worms and in the vitellaria tissue in female worms. A 594-bp full-length complementary DNA (cDNA) encoding SjAK1 was synthesized from total RNA of 3-day-old schistosomes, and immunization with recombinant SjAK1 reduced worm burden by 50%, decreased the density of eggs deposited in the host liver by 40%, and reduced the area of granulomas in the host liver by 56%. ELISA results showed that recombinant SjAK1 also stimulated Th1 cytokines such as IL-2 and IFN-γ, but not IL-5 and IL-4. Collectively, a recombinant form of the enzyme SjAK1 elicits partial protective immunity against Schistosoma japonicum infection and the induction of Th1 cytokines. Thus, the enzyme has potential as a component of a multivalent vaccine against schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanru Gao
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China.,Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning, Hubei Province, 437000, China
| | - Xiaoshan Zhou
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China
| | - Huan Wang
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China
| | - Rong Liu
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China
| | - Qing Ye
- Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430000, China
| | - Qinping Zhao
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China
| | - Zhenping Ming
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China
| | - Huifen Dong
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Parasitology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430071, China.
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Oldiges DP, Laughery JM, Tagliari NJ, Leite Filho RV, Davis WC, da Silva Vaz I, Termignoni C, Knowles DP, Suarez CE. Transfected Babesia bovis Expressing a Tick GST as a Live Vector Vaccine. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005152. [PMID: 27911903 PMCID: PMC5135042 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Rhipicephalus microplus tick is a notorious blood-feeding ectoparasite of livestock, especially cattle, responsible for massive losses in animal production. It is the main vector for transmission of pathogenic bacteria and parasites, including Babesia bovis, an intraerythrocytic apicomplexan protozoan parasite responsible for bovine Babesiosis. This study describes the development and testing of a live B. bovis vaccine expressing the protective tick antigen glutathione-S-transferase from Haemaphysalis longicornis (HlGST). The B. bovis S74-T3B parasites were electroporated with a plasmid containing the bidirectional Ef-1α (elongation factor 1 alpha) promoter of B. bovis controlling expression of two independent genes, the selectable marker GFP-BSD (green fluorescent protein–blasticidin deaminase), and HlGST fused to the MSA-1 (merozoite surface antigen 1) signal peptide from B. bovis. Electroporation followed by blasticidin selection resulted in the emergence of a mixed B. bovis transfected line (termed HlGST) in in vitro cultures, containing parasites with distinct patterns of insertion of both exogenous genes, either in or outside the Ef-1α locus. A B. bovis clonal line termed HlGST-Cln expressing intracellular GFP and HlGST in the surface of merozoites was then derived from the mixed parasite line HlGST using a fluorescent activated cell sorter. Two independent calf immunization trials were performed via intravenous inoculation of the HlGST-Cln and a previously described control consisting of an irrelevant transfected clonal line of B. bovis designated GFP-Cln. The control GFP-Cln line contains a copy of the GFP-BSD gene inserted into the Ef-1α locus of B. bovis in an identical fashion as the HIGST-Cln parasites. All animals inoculated with the HlGST-Cln and GFP-Cln transfected parasites developed mild babesiosis. Tick egg fertility and fully engorged female tick weight was reduced significantly in R. microplus feeding on HlGST-Cln-immunized calves. Collectively, these data show the efficacy of a transfected HlGST-Cln B. bovis parasite to induce detectable anti-glutathione-S-transferase antibodies and a reduction in tick size and fecundity of R. microplus feeding in experimentally inoculated animals. The cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus is a hematophagous ectoparasite, responsible for the transmission of lethal parasites such as Babesia sp, limiting cattle production in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. There is an urgent emerging need for improved methods of control for these currently neglected tick and tick borne diseases. It is hypothesized that a dual attenuated-live vector vaccine containing a stably transfected tick antigen elicits protective immune responses against the parasite and the tick vector in vaccinated cattle. Live Babesia vaccines based on attenuated parasites are the only effective method available for preventing acute babesiosis. On the other hand, glutathione-S-transferase from Haemaphysalis longicornis (HlGST) is a known effective antigen against Rhipicephalus microplus, the most common vector for B. bovis. This study describes the development and testing of a transfected, B. bovis vaccine expressing HlGST against the tick R. microplus. A B. bovis clonal line designated HlGST-Cln expressing HlGST and GFP/BSD, and separately a control transfected B. bovis clonal line expressing only GFP/BSD was used to vaccinate calves in two independent experiments. All immunized calves developed mild babesiosis, and only calves immunized with the HlGST-Cln parasite line generated anti-HlGST antibodies. Tick egg fertility and fully engorged female tick weight were reduced significantly in R. microplus feeding on HlGST-Cln-vaccinated calves. Taken together, these data demonstrates the ability of transfected B. bovis to elicit antibodies against a heterologous tick antigen in cattle and to induce partial protection in the vaccinated animals against the cattle tick for the first time, representing a step toward the goal to produce a live vector anti-tick vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiane P. Oldiges
- Centro de Biotecnologia Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jacob M. Laughery
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Nelson Junior Tagliari
- Faculdade de Veterinária Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Viana Leite Filho
- Faculdade de Veterinária Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - William C. Davis
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Itabajara da Silva Vaz
- Centro de Biotecnologia Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Faculdade de Veterinária Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Carlos Termignoni
- Centro de Biotecnologia Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Donald P. Knowles
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Carlos E. Suarez
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail: ,
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Tebeje BM, Harvie M, You H, Loukas A, McManus DP. Schistosomiasis vaccines: where do we stand? Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:528. [PMID: 27716365 PMCID: PMC5045607 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1799-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis, caused mainly by S. mansoni, S. haematobium and S. japonicum, continues to be a serious tropical disease and public health problem resulting in an unacceptably high level of morbidity in countries where it is endemic. Praziquantel, the only drug currently available for treatment, is unable to kill developing schistosomes, it does not prevent re-infection and its continued extensive use may result in the future emergence of drug-resistant parasites. This scenario provides impetus for the development and deployment of anti-schistosome vaccines to be used as part of an integrated approach for the prevention, control and eventual elimination of schistosomiasis. This review considers the present status of candidate vaccines for schistosomiasis, and provides some insight on future vaccine discovery and design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biniam Mathewos Tebeje
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia. .,School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. .,Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia.
| | - Marina Harvie
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Hong You
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alex Loukas
- Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
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Cheng PC, Lin CN, Peng SY, Kang TF, Lee KM. Combined IL-12 Plasmid and Recombinant SjGST Enhance the Protective and Anti-pathology Effect of SjGST DNA Vaccine Against Schistosoma japonicum. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004459. [PMID: 26891172 PMCID: PMC4758724 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is listed as one of most important tropical diseases and more than 200 million people are estimated to be infected. Development of a vaccine is thought to be the most effective way to control this disease. Recombinant 26-kDa glutathione S-transferase (rSjGST) has previously been reported to achieve a worm reduction rate of 42-44%. To improve the efficiency of the vaccine against Schistosoma japonicum, we immunized mice with a combination of pcDNA vector-encoded 26-kDa SjGST (pcDNA/SjGST), IL-12 expressing-plasmid (pIL-12), and rSjGST. Co-vaccination with pcDNA/SjGST, pIL-12, and rSjGST led to a reduction in worm burden, hepatic egg burden, and the size of liver tissue granulomas than that in the untreated infection controls. In addition, we detected high levels of specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a against the rSjGST antigen in infected mice vaccinated with this combination of pcDNA/SjGST, pIL-12, and rSjGST. Moreover, high expression levels of Th2 cytokines, including IL-4 and IL-10, were also detected in this group, without diminished levels of IL-12, INF-γ, and TNF-α cytokines that are related to parasite killing. In conclusion, we have developed a new vaccination regimen against S. japonicum infection and shown that co-immunization with pcDNA/SjGST vaccine, pIL-12, and rSjGST has significant anti-parasite, anti-hepatic egg and anti-pathology effects in mice. The efficacy of this vaccination method should be further validated in large animals such as water buffalo. This method may help to reduce the transmission of zoonotic schistosomiasis japonica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Ching Cheng
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Tropical Diseases, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (PCC); (KML)
| | - Ching-Nan Lin
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Mng University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, National Yang-Mng University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Yi Peng
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Fu Kang
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, National Yang-Mng University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kin-Mu Lee
- Institute of Biotechnology, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (PCC); (KML)
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Mbanefo EC, Kumagai T, Kodama Y, Kurosaki T, Furushima-Shimogawara R, Cherif MS, Mizukami S, Kikuchi M, Huy NT, Ohta N, Sasaki H, Hirayama K. Immunogenicity and anti-fecundity effect of nanoparticle coated glutathione S-transferase (SjGST) DNA vaccine against murine Schistosoma japonicum infection. Parasitol Int 2015; 64:24-31. [PMID: 25603531 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2015.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Revised: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
There is still urgent need for a vaccine against schistosomiasis, especially in Schistosoma japonicum endemic areas where even a vaccine that will interrupt zoonotic transmission will be potentially effective as an intervention tool. We had developed a novel nanoparticle gene delivery system, which has proven efficacious in gene transfection to target immune cells with complementary adjuvant effect and high protective efficacy in several diseases. Here, we applied this nanoparticle system in combination with S. japonicum glutathione S-transferase (SjGST) DNA vaccine to show the immunogenicity and anti-fecundity effect of the nanoparticle coated vaccine formulation against murine schistosomiasis. The nanoparticle-coated DNA vaccine formulation induced desired immune responses. In comparison with the nanoparticle coated empty vector, it produced significantly increased antigen-specific humoral response, T-helper 1 polarized cytokine environment, higher proportion of IFN-γ producing CD4(+) T-cells and the concomitant decrease in IL-4 producing CD4(+) T-cells. Although there was no effect on worm burden, we recorded a marked reduction in tissue egg burden. There was up to 71.3% decrease in tissue egg burden and 55% reduction in the fecundity of female adult worms. Our data showed that SjGST DNA vaccine, delivered using the nanoparticle gene delivery system, produced anti-fecundity effect on female adult schistosomes as previously described by using conventional subunit vaccine with adjuvant, proving this DNA vaccine formulation as a promising candidate for anti-pathology and transmission blocking application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evaristus Chibunna Mbanefo
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN) and Global COE Program, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Bioscience, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria
| | - Takashi Kumagai
- Section of Environmental Parasitology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Science, 113-8519, Japan
| | - Yukinobu Kodama
- Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Nagasaki University Hospital, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, 852-8501, Japan
| | - Tomoaki Kurosaki
- Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Nagasaki University Hospital, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, 852-8501, Japan
| | - Rieko Furushima-Shimogawara
- Section of Environmental Parasitology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Science, 113-8519, Japan
| | - Mahamoud Sama Cherif
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN) and Global COE Program, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Shusaku Mizukami
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN) and Global COE Program, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Mihoko Kikuchi
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN) and Global COE Program, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Nguyen Tien Huy
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Department of Clinical Product Development, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Nobuo Ohta
- Section of Environmental Parasitology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Science, 113-8519, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Sasaki
- Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Nagasaki University Hospital, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, 852-8501, Japan
| | - Kenji Hirayama
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN) and Global COE Program, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, 852-8523, Japan.
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Abstract
Schistosomiasis is one of the most prevalent, insidious and serious of the tropical parasitic diseases. Although the effective anthelmintic drug, praziquantel, is widely available and cheap, it does not protect against re-infection, drug-resistant schistosome may evolve and mass drug administration programmes based around praziquantel are probably unsustainable long term. Whereas protective anti-schistosome vaccines are not yet available, the zoonotic nature of Schistosoma japonicum provides a novel approach for developing a transmission-blocking veterinary vaccine in domestic animals, especially bovines, which are major reservoir hosts, being responsible for up to 90% of environmental egg contamination in China and the Philippines. However, a greater knowledge of schistosome immunology is required to understand the processes associated with anti-schistosome protective immunity and to reinforce the rationale for vaccine development against schistosomiasis japonica. Importantly as well, improved diagnostic tests, with high specificity and sensitivity, which are simple, rapid and able to diagnose light S. japonicum infections, are required to determine the extent of transmission interruption and the complete elimination of schistosomiasis following control efforts. This article discusses aspects of the host immune response in schistosomiasis, the current status of vaccine development against S. japonicum and reviews approaches for diagnosing and detecting schistosome infections in mammalian hosts.
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Construction and evaluation of replication-defective recombinant optimized triosephosphate isomerase adenoviral vaccination in Schistosoma japonicum challenged mice. Vaccine 2014; 32:771-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Martínez-Ibeas A, González-Lanza C, Manga-González M. Proteomic analysis of the tegument and excretory–secretory products of Dicrocoelium dendriticum (Digenea) adult worms. Exp Parasitol 2013; 133:411-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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