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Bello-Morales R, Andreu S, Ripa I, López-Guerrero JA. HSV-1 and Endogenous Retroviruses as Risk Factors in Demyelination. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115738. [PMID: 34072259 PMCID: PMC8199333 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus that can infect the peripheral and central nervous systems, and it has been implicated in demyelinating and neurodegenerative processes. Transposable elements (TEs) are DNA sequences that can move from one genomic location to another. TEs have been linked to several diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS), including multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating disease of unknown etiology influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Exogenous viral transactivators may activate certain retrotransposons or class I TEs. In this context, several herpesviruses have been linked to MS, and one of them, HSV-1, might act as a risk factor by mediating processes such as molecular mimicry, remyelination, and activity of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). Several herpesviruses have been involved in the regulation of human ERVs (HERVs), and HSV-1 in particular can modulate HERVs in cells involved in MS pathogenesis. This review exposes current knowledge about the relationship between HSV-1 and human ERVs, focusing on their contribution as a risk factor for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Bello-Morales
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (S.A.); (I.R.); (J.A.L.-G.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Sabina Andreu
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (S.A.); (I.R.); (J.A.L.-G.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Ripa
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (S.A.); (I.R.); (J.A.L.-G.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - José Antonio López-Guerrero
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (S.A.); (I.R.); (J.A.L.-G.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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Gröger V, Emmer A, Staege MS, Cynis H. Endogenous Retroviruses in Nervous System Disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14010070. [PMID: 33467098 PMCID: PMC7829834 DOI: 10.3390/ph14010070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several nervous system disorders including multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The toxicity of HERV-derived RNAs and proteins for neuronal cells has been demonstrated. The involvement of HERV in the pathogenesis of currently incurable diseases might offer new treatment strategies based on the inhibition of HERV activities by small molecules or therapeutic antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Gröger
- Department of Drug Design and Target Validation, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Alexander Emmer
- Department of Neurology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Martin S. Staege
- Department of Surgical and Conservative Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
- Correspondence: (M.S.S.); (H.C.); Tel.: +49-345-557-7280 (M.S.S.); +49-345-13142835 (H.C.)
| | - Holger Cynis
- Department of Drug Design and Target Validation, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany;
- Correspondence: (M.S.S.); (H.C.); Tel.: +49-345-557-7280 (M.S.S.); +49-345-13142835 (H.C.)
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Weiss RA. Human endogenous retroviruses: friend or foe? APMIS 2016; 124:4-10. [PMID: 26818257 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The integration of proviral DNA into host chromosomal DNA as an obligatory step in the replication cycle of retroviruses is a natural event of genetic recombination between virus and host. When integration occurs in cells of the germ line, it results in mendelian inheritance of viral sequences that we call endogenous retroviruses (ERV) and HERV for humans. HERVs and host often establish a symbiotic relationship, especially in the placenta and in pluripotent embryonic stem cells, but HERVs occasionally have deleterious consequences for the host. This special issue of APMIS features the fascinating relationships between HERV and humans in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin A Weiss
- Division of Infection & Immunity, University College London, London, UK
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Davis J, Eyre H, Jacka FN, Dodd S, Dean O, McEwen S, Debnath M, McGrath J, Maes M, Amminger P, McGorry PD, Pantelis C, Berk M. A review of vulnerability and risks for schizophrenia: Beyond the two hit hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 65:185-94. [PMID: 27073049 PMCID: PMC4876729 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia risk has often been conceptualized using a model which requires two hits in order to generate the clinical phenotype-the first as an early priming in a genetically predisposed individual and the second a likely environmental insult. The aim of this paper was to review the literature and reformulate this binary risk-vulnerability model. We sourced the data for this narrative review from the electronic database PUBMED. Our search terms were not limited by language or date of publication. The development of schizophrenia may be driven by genetic vulnerability interacting with multiple vulnerability factors including lowered prenatal vitamin D exposure, viral infections, smoking intelligence quotient, social cognition cannabis use, social defeat, nutrition and childhood trauma. It is likely that these genetic risks, environmental risks and vulnerability factors are cumulative and interactive with each other and with critical periods of neurodevelopmental vulnerability. The development of schizophrenia is likely to be more complex and nuanced than the binary two hit model originally proposed nearly thirty years ago. Risk appears influenced by a more complex process involving genetic risk interfacing with multiple potentially interacting hits and vulnerability factors occurring at key periods of neurodevelopmental activity, which culminate in the expression of disease state. These risks are common across a number of neuropsychiatric and medical disorders, which might inform common preventive and intervention strategies across non-communicable disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Davis
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia.
| | - Harris Eyre
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia
| | - Felice N Jacka
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia; University of Melbourne, Department of Psychiatry, Level 1 North, Main Block, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, 3052, Australia; Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia; Black Dog Institute, Sydney, Australia
| | - Seetal Dodd
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia; University of Melbourne, Department of Psychiatry, Level 1 North, Main Block, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, 3052, Australia
| | - Olivia Dean
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia; University of Melbourne, Department of Psychiatry, Level 1 North, Main Block, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, 3052, Australia
| | - Sarah McEwen
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, UCLA, United States
| | - Monojit Debnath
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - John McGrath
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Queensland, Australia; Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, The Park Centre for Mental Health, Wacol, Queensland 4076, Australia
| | - Michael Maes
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia
| | - Paul Amminger
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Queensland, Australia; Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health and Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, 35 Poplar Rd., Parkville, 3052, Australia
| | - Patrick D McGorry
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health and Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, 35 Poplar Rd., Parkville, 3052, Australia; Centre of Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, 35 Poplar Rd., Parkville, 3052, Australia
| | - Christos Pantelis
- University of Melbourne, Department of Psychiatry, Level 1 North, Main Block, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, 3052, Australia; Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India; Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne & Melbourne Health, Parkville, 3052, Australia; Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, 3052, Parkville, Australia
| | - Michael Berk
- Deakin University, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia; University of Melbourne, Department of Psychiatry, Level 1 North, Main Block, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, 3052, Australia; Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, The Park Centre for Mental Health, Wacol, Queensland 4076, Australia; Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health and Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, 35 Poplar Rd., Parkville, 3052, Australia; Centre of Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, 35 Poplar Rd., Parkville, 3052, Australia; Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, 3052, Parkville, Australia
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Douville RN, Nath A. Human endogenous retroviruses and the nervous system. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2014; 123:465-85. [PMID: 25015500 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53488-0.00022-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Renée N Douville
- Department of Microbiology, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Avindra Nath
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Maliniemi P, Vincendeau M, Mayer J, Frank O, Hahtola S, Karenko L, Carlsson E, Mallet F, Seifarth W, Leib-Mösch C, Ranki A. Expression of human endogenous retrovirus-w including syncytin-1 in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76281. [PMID: 24098463 PMCID: PMC3788054 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathomechanism of mycosis fungoides (MF), the most common type of primary cutaneous T-cell lymphomas (CTCLs) and a malignancy of non-recirculating, skin-resident T-cells, is unknown albeit underlying viral infections have been sought for. Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are ancient retroviral sequences in the human genome and their transcription is often deregulated in cancers. We explored the transcriptional activity of HERV sequences in a total of 34 samples comprising MF and psoriasis skin lesions, as well as corresponding non-malignant skin using a retrovirus-specific microarray and quantitative RT-PCR. To identify active HERV-W loci, we cloned the HERV-W specific RT-PCR products, sequenced the cDNA clones and assigned the sequences to HERV-W loci. Finally, we used immunohistochemistry on MF patient and non-malignant inflammatory skin samples to confirm specific HERV-encoded protein expression. Firstly, a distinct, skin-specific transcription profile consisting of five constitutively active HERV groups was established. Although individual variability was common, HERV-W showed significantly increased transcription in MF lesions compared to clinically intact skin from the same patient. Predominantly transcribed HERV-W loci were found to be located in chromosomes 6q21 and 7q21.2, chromosomal regions typically altered in CTCL. Surprisingly, we also found the expression of 7q21.2/ERVWE1-encoded Syncytin-1 (Env) protein in MF biopsies and expression of Syncytin-1 was seen in malignant lymphocytes, especially in the epidermotropic ones, in 15 of 30 cases studied. Most importantly, no Syncytin-1 expression was detected in inflammatory dermatosis (Lichen ruber planus) with skin-homing, non-malignant T lymphocytes. The expression of ERVWE1 mRNA was further confirmed in 3/7 MF lesions analyzed. Our observations strengthen the association between activated HERVs and cancer. The study offers a new perspective into the pathogenesis of CTCL since we demonstrate that differences in HERV-W transcription levels between lesional MF and non-malignant skin are significant, and that ERVWE1-encoded Syncytin-1 is expressed in MF lymphoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilvi Maliniemi
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- * E-mail:
| | - Michelle Vincendeau
- Institute of Virology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Research Unit Cellular Signal Integration, Institute of Molecular Toxicology and Pharmacology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Jens Mayer
- Department of Human Genetics, Center of Human and Molecular Biology, Medical Faculty, University of Saarland, Homburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Frank
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Mannheim Medical Center, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Sonja Hahtola
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Leena Karenko
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Emilia Carlsson
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Francois Mallet
- Joint Unit Hospices Civils de Lyon-bioMérieux, Cancer Biomarkers Research Group, Centre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, Pierre Bénite, France
| | - Wolfgang Seifarth
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Mannheim Medical Center, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Christine Leib-Mösch
- Institute of Virology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Mannheim Medical Center, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Annamari Ranki
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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The human microbiome in multiple sclerosis: pathogenic or protective constituents? Can J Neurol Sci 2011; 37 Suppl 2:S24-33. [PMID: 21246932 DOI: 10.1017/s031716710002240x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The human microbiome is comprised of commensal and pathogenic microorganisms, which exert diverse effects in close proximity to the site of intection as well as in remote tissues through immune-mediated mechanisms. Multiple infectious agents have been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) with variable findings depending on the agent, techniques, and disease phenotype. Herein, the contributions of individual infectious agents to MS and their effects on the immune and nervous systems are reviewed, focusing on herpes viruses, coronaviruses, retroviruses, and synchronic infections. While infectious agents are often assumed to be pathogenic, their effects might also be beneficial to the host in the long-term, depending on age and the type of immunogen/pathogen exposure, as proposed by the hygiene hypothesis. The human microbiome has potential impact on future diagnostic and therapeutic issues in MS.
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Antony JM, Deslauriers AM, Bhat RK, Ellestad KK, Power C. Human endogenous retroviruses and multiple sclerosis: innocent bystanders or disease determinants? Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2010; 1812:162-76. [PMID: 20696240 PMCID: PMC7172332 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2009] [Revised: 07/14/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) constitute 5–8% of human genomic DNA and are replication incompetent despite expression of individual HERV genes from different chromosomal loci depending on the specific tissue. Several HERV genes have been detected as transcripts and proteins in the central nervous system, frequently in the context of neuroinflammation. The HERV-W family has received substantial attention in large part because of associations with diverse syndromes including multiple sclerosis (MS) and several psychiatric disorders. A HERV-W-related retroelement, multiple sclerosis retrovirus (MSRV), has been reported in MS patients to be both a biomarker as well as an effector of aberrant immune responses. HERV-H and HERV-K have also been implicated in MS and other neurological diseases but await delineation of their contributions to disease. The HERV-W envelope-encoded glycosylated protein, syncytin-1, is encoded by chromosome 7q21 and exhibits increased glial expression within MS lesions. Overexpression of syncytin-1 in glia induces endoplasmic reticulum stress leading to neuroinflammation and the induction of free radicals, which damage proximate cells. Syncytin-1's receptor, ASCT1 is a neutral amino acid transporter expressed on glia and is suppressed in white matter of MS patients. Of interest, antioxidants ameliorate syncytin-1's neuropathogenic effects raising the possibility of using these agents as therapeutics for neuroinflammatory diseases. Given the multiple insertion sites of HERV genes as complete and incomplete open reading frames, together with their differing capacity to be expressed and the complexities of individual HERVs as both disease markers and bioactive effectors, HERV biology is a compelling area for understanding neuropathogenic mechanisms and developing new therapeutic strategies.
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Freimanis G, Hooley P, Ejtehadi HD, Ali HA, Veitch A, Rylance PB, Alawi A, Axford J, Nevill A, Murray PG, Nelson PN. A role for human endogenous retrovirus-K (HML-2) in rheumatoid arthritis: investigating mechanisms of pathogenesis. Clin Exp Immunol 2010; 160:340-7. [PMID: 20345981 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2010.04110.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are remnants of ancient retroviral infections within the human genome. These molecular fossils draw parallels with present-day exogenous retroviruses and have been linked previously with immunopathology within rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Mechanisms of pathogenesis for HERV-K in RA such as molecular mimicry were investigated. To clarify a role for HERVs in RA, potential autoantigens implicated in autoimmunity were scanned for sequence identity with retroviral epitopes. Short retroviral peptides modelling shared epitopes were synthesized, to survey anti-serum of RA patients and disease controls. A novel real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was also developed to quantify accurately levels of HERV-K (HML-2) gag expression, relative to normalized housekeeping gene expression. Both serological and molecular assays showed significant increases in HERV-K (HML-2) gag activity in RA patients, compared to disease controls. The real-time PCR assay identified significant up-regulation in HERV-K mRNA levels in RA patients compared to inflammatory and healthy controls. Exogenous viral protein expression and proinflammatory cytokines were also shown to exert modulatory effects over HERV-K (HML-2) transcription. From our data, it can be concluded that RA patients exhibited significantly elevated levels of HERV-K (HML-2) gag activity compared to controls. Additional factors influencing HERV activity within the synovium were also identified. The significant variation in RA patients, both serologically and transcriptionally, may be an indication that RA is an umbrella term for a number of separate disease entities, of which particular HERV polymorphisms may play a role in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Freimanis
- Research Institute in Healthcare Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, UK
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Brudek T, Christensen T, Aagaard L, Petersen T, Hansen HJ, Møller-Larsen A. B cells and monocytes from patients with active multiple sclerosis exhibit increased surface expression of both HERV-H Env and HERV-W Env, accompanied by increased seroreactivity. Retrovirology 2009; 6:104. [PMID: 19917105 PMCID: PMC2780989 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-6-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The etiology of the neurogenerative disease multiple sclerosis (MS) is unknown. The leading hypotheses suggest that MS is the result of exposure of genetically susceptible individuals to certain environmental factor(s). Herpesviruses and human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) represent potentially important factors in MS development. Herpesviruses can activate HERVs, and HERVs are activated in MS patients. Results Using flow cytometry, we have analyzed HERV-H Env and HERV-W Env epitope expression on the surface of PBMCs from MS patients with active and stable disease, and from control individuals. We have also analyzed serum antibody levels to the expressed HERV-H and HERV-W Env epitopes. We found a significantly higher expression of HERV-H and HERV-W Env epitopes on B cells and monocytes from patients with active MS compared with patients with stable MS or control individuals. Furthermore, patients with active disease had relatively higher numbers of B cells in the PBMC population, and higher antibody reactivities towards HERV-H Env and HERV-W Env epitopes. The higher antibody reactivities in sera from patients with active MS correlate with the higher levels of HERV-H Env and HERV-W Env expression on B cells and monocytes. We did not find such correlations for stable MS patients or for controls. Conclusion These findings indicate that both HERV-H Env and HERV-W Env are expressed in higher quantities on the surface of B cells and monocytes in patients with active MS, and that the expression of these proteins may be associated with exacerbation of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Brudek
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Aarhus, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
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Brudek T, Christensen T, Hansen HJ, Petersen T, Møller-Larsen A. Synergistic Immune Responses Induced by Endogenous Retrovirus and Herpesvirus Antigens Result in Increased Production of Inflammatory Cytokines in Multiple Sclerosis Patients. Scand J Immunol 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02092_2.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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