Effects of the Medicinal MushroomAgaricus blazeiMurill on Immunity, Infection and Cancer

Genome, transcriptome, and metabolome analyses provide new insights into the resource development in an edible fungus Dictyophora indusiata

Dictyophora indusiata (Vent. Ex Pers.) Fisch. (DI) is an edible and medicinal fungus widely used in East Asian countries. However, during DI cultivation, the formation of fruiting bodies cannot be regulated, which leads to yield and quality losses. The present study performed a combined genome, transcriptome, and metabolome analysis of DI. Using Nanopore and Illumina sequencing approaches, we created the DI reference genome, which was 67.32 Mb long with 323 contigs. We identified 19,909 coding genes on this genome, of which 46 gene clusters were related to terpenoid synthesis. Subsequent transcriptome sequencing using five DI tissues (cap, indusia, mycelia, stipe, and volva) showed high expression levels of genes in the cap, indicating the tissue's importance in regulating the fruiting body formation. Meanwhile, the metabolome analysis identified 728 metabolites from the five tissues. Mycelium was rich in choline, while volva was rich in dendronobilin; stipe had monosaccharides as the primary component, and the cap was the main source of indole acetic acid (IAA) synthesis. We confirmed the importance of tryptophan metabolism for DI fruiting body differentiation based on KEGG pathway analysis. Finally, the combined multiomics analysis identified three new genes related to IAA synthesis of the tryptophan metabolic pathway in the cap, which may regulate DI fruiting body synthesis and improve DI quality. Thus, the study's findings expand our understanding of resource development and the molecular mechanisms underlying DI development and differentiation. However, the current genome is still a rough draft that needs to be strengthened.

Health-Promoting Properties of Medicinal Mushrooms and Their Bioactive Compounds for the COVID-19 Era—An Appraisal: Do the Pro-Health Claims Measure Up?

Many mushroom species are consumed as food, while significant numbers are also utilised medicinally. Mushrooms are rich in nutrients and bioactive compounds. A growing body of in vitro, in vivo, and human research has revealed their therapeutic potentials, which include such properties as anti-pathogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, gut microbiota enhancement, and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 specificity. The uses of medicinal mushrooms (MMs) as extracts in nutraceuticals and other functional food and health products are burgeoning. COVID-19 presents an opportunity to consider how, and if, specific MM compounds might be utilised therapeutically to mitigate associated risk factors, reduce disease severity, and support recovery. As vaccines become a mainstay, MMs may have the potential as an adjunct therapy to enhance immunity. In the context of COVID-19, this review explores current research about MMs to identify the key properties claimed to confer health benefits. Considered also are barriers or limitations that may impact general recommendations on MMs as therapy. It is contended that the extraction method used to isolate bioactive compounds must be a primary consideration for efficacious targeting of physiological endpoints. Mushrooms commonly available for culinary use and obtainable as a dietary supplement for medicinal purposes are included in this review. Specific properties related to these mushrooms have been considered due to their potential protective and mediating effects on human exposure to the SARS CoV-2 virus and the ensuing COVID-19 disease processes.

Insights into health promoting effects and myochemical profiles of pine mushroom Tricholoma matsutake

Tricholoma matsutake (TM) is a valuable edible mushroom that has attracted increasing attention due to its potential medicinal values and functional uses. However, the chemical composition and molecular mechanisms behinds TM are not specifically summarized yet. Hence, this review aims to systematically analyze the research progress on the characterization of chemical compositions and the reported health effects of TM in the last 20 years. The myochemical profiles of TM consist of proteins with amino acids, fatty acids, nucleic acids with their derivatives, polysaccharides, minerals, volatile components, phenolic compounds, and steroids. The bioactive substances in TM exert their health effects mainly by regulating body immunity and restoring the balance of the redox system. NF-κB signaling pathway and its downstream cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6 are the key molecular mechanisms. In addition, MAPK, PI3K-Akt, and JAK-STAT are also involved. NF-κB, MAPK, and PI3K-Akt are also highly related to cancer regulation and thus TM has great anticancer potential. Considering that most studies have only investigated the dosage and inhibition rate of TM on cancer cell lines, more extensive studies need to focus on the specific molecular mechanisms behind these anticancer effects in the future.

Can medicinal mushrooms have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against COVID-19 and its pneumonic superinfection and complicating inflammation?

Medicinal mushrooms have documented effects against different diseases, including infections and inflammatory disorders. The related Basidiomycota Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM), Hericium erinaceus (HE), and Grifola frondosa (GF) have been shown to exert antimicrobial activity against viral agents, Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, and parasites in vitro and in vivo. Since the mechanism is immunomodulatory and not antibiotical, the mushrooms should be active against multi‐drug resistant microbes as well. Moreover, since these Basidiomycota also have anti‐inflammatory properties, they may be suited for treatment of the severe lung inflammation that often follows COVID‐19 infection. An AbM‐based mushroom extract (Andosan™), also containing HE and GF, has been shown to significantly reduce bacteraemia and increase survival in mice with pneumococcal sepsis, and to improve symptoms and quality of life in IBD patients via an anti‐inflammatory effect. Hence, such mushroom extracts could have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against the pneumonic superinfection and severe lung inflammation that often complicates COVID‐19 infection. Here, we review antimicrobial and anti‐inflammatory properties of AbM, HE and GF mushrooms, which could be used for the battle against COVID‐19.

Association between dietary intake and risk of ovarian cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

It is unclear how dietary intake influences the ovarian cancer. The present paper sets out to systematically review and meta-analyze research on dietary intake to identify cases having high- or low-risk ovarian cancer.

METHODS

Scopus, PubMed, and Wiley Online Libraries were searched up to the date November 24, 2019. Two reviewers were requested to independently extract study characteristics and to assess the bias and applicability risks with reference to the study inclusion criteria. Meta-analyses were performed to specify the relationship between dietary intake and the risk of ovarian cancer identifying 97 cohort studies.

RESULTS

No significant association was found between dietary intake and risk of ovarian cancer. The results of subgroup analyses indicated that green leafy vegetables (RR = 0.91, 95%, 0.85-0.98), allium vegetables (RR = 0.79, 95% CI 0.64-0.96), fiber (RR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.81-0.98), flavonoids (RR = 0.83, 95% CI 0.78-0.89) and green tea (RR = 0.61, 95% CI 0.49-0.76) intake could significantly reduce ovarian cancer risk. Total fat (RR = 1.10, 95% CI 1.02-1.18), saturated fat (RR = 1.11, 95% CI 1.01-1.22), saturated fatty acid (RR = 1.19, 95% CI 1.04-1.36), cholesterol (RR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.04-1.22) and retinol (RR = 1.14, 95% CI 1.00-1.30) intake could significantly increase ovarian cancer risk. In addition, acrylamide, nitrate, water disinfectants and polychlorinated biphenyls were significantly associated with an increased risk of ovarian cancer.

CONCLUSION

These results could support recommendations to green leafy vegetables, allium vegetables, fiber, flavonoids and green tea intake for ovarian cancer prevention.

Antitumor, Anti-Inflammatory and Antiallergic Effects of Agaricus blazei Mushroom Extract and the Related Medicinal Basidiomycetes Mushrooms, Hericium erinaceus and Grifola frondosa: A Review of Preclinical and Clinical Studies

Since the 1980s, medicinal effects have been documented in scientific studies with the related Basidiomycota mushrooms Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM), Hericium erinaceus (HE) and Grifola frondosa (GF) from Brazilian and Eastern traditional medicine. Special focus has been on their antitumor effects, but the mushrooms' anti-inflammatory and antiallergic properties have also been investigated. The antitumor mechanisms were either direct tumor attack, e.g., apoptosis and metastatic suppression, or indirect defense, e.g., inhibited tumor neovascularization and T helper cell (Th) 1 immune response. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms were a reduction in proinflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress and changed gut microbiota, and the antiallergic mechanism was amelioration of a skewed Th1/Th2 balance. Since a predominant Th2 milieu is also found in cancer, which quite often is caused by a local chronic inflammation, the three conditions-tumor, inflammation and allergy-seem to be linked. Further mechanisms for HE were increased nerve and beneficial gut microbiota growth, and oxidative stress regulation. The medicinal mushrooms AbM, HE and GF appear to be safe, and can, in fact, increase longevity in animal models, possibly due to reduced tumorigenesis and oxidation. This article reviews preclinical and clinical findings with these mushrooms and the mechanisms behind them.

Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 May Prevent Diet-Induced Nash Through Its Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Fibrotic Activities in the Liver

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a progressive disease that occurs in the liver. As the number of people with NASH has increased, effective prevention and treatment strategies are needed. Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (AGA) is a mushroom native to Brazil and is considered a healthy food because of its purported health benefits, including its antioxidant properties. In this study, we focused on the oxidative stress that accompanies the onset of NASH and examined whether AGA can prevent NASH development through its antioxidant activity. We used a mouse model of NASH in which pathogenesis was promoted by dietary induction. Supplementation with AGA attenuated the development of hepatic fibrosis, which is a characteristic feature of late-stage NASH. This effect appeared to be mechanistically linked to an AGA-promoted reduction in hepatic oxidative stress. These results demonstrate a novel role for AGA in NASH prevention.

Non-antibiotic adjunctive therapy: A promising approach to fight tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is currently a clinical and public health problem. There is a concern about the emergence and development of multidrug-resistant (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR-TB) species. Additionally, the lack of effective vaccines is another limitation to control the related infections. To overcome these problems various approaches have been pursued such as finding novel drug candidates with a new mechanism of action or repurposing conventional antibiotics. However, these strategies are still far from clinical application. Hence, the use of adjunctive therapy has been suggested for TB. In this paper, we review non-antibiotic adjunctive treatment options for TB. Natural products, vitamins, micronutrients, and trace elementals, as well as non-antibiotic drugs, are examples of agents which have been used as adjunctive therapies. The use of these adjunctive therapies has been shown to improve disease outcomes and reduce the adverse effects of antibiotic drugs. Employing these agents, either alone or in combination with antibiotics, might be considered as a promising approach to control TB infections and achieve better clinical outcomes. However, supportive evidence from randomized controlled trials is still scant and merits further investigations.

Medicinal mushroom: boon for therapeutic applications

Medicinal mushrooms are higher fungi with additional nutraceutical attributes having low fat content and a trans-isomer of unsaturated fatty acids along with high fibre content, triterpenes, phenolic compounds, sterols, eritadenine and chitosan. They are considered as the unmatched source of healthy foods and drugs. They have outstanding attractive taste, aroma and nutritional value, so are considered as functional food, which means they are beneficial to the body not only in terms of nutrition but also for improved health. Medicinal mushrooms and their extract have a large number of bioactive components called secondary metabolites. The presence of polysaccharide β-glucans or polysaccharide-protein complexes content in mushroom extract have great therapeutic applications in human health as they possess many properties such as anti-diabetic, anti-cancerous, anti-obesity, immunomodulatory, hypocholesteremia, hepatoprotective nature along with anti-aging. The present review focuses on the comprehensive account of the medicinal properties of various medicinal mushrooms. This will further help the researchers to understand the metabolites and find other metabolites as well from the mushrooms which can be used for the potential development of the drugs to treat various life-threatening diseases.

Antrodia cinnamomea Galactomannan Elicits Immuno-stimulatory Activity Through Toll-like Receptor 4

Antrodia cinnamomea (A. cinnamomea) is a medicinal fungus used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat different kinds of ailments, including liver diseases, abdominal pain, drug intoxication, diarrhea, itchy skin, hypertension, and cancer. Polysaccharides have been identified as one of the major pharmacologically active ingredients present in A. cinnamomea. The present study aims to investigate the immunoenhancing activity of galactomannan isolated from A. cinnamomea. The cold water-soluble polysaccharide (galactomannan-repeated; MW>70 kDa; named ACP) of A. cinnamomea was isolated, and immunostimulatory properties were studied through different immune cell models including mouse macrophages and human dendritic cells. Through Toll-like receptor 4, ACP stimulated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in J774A.1 mouse macrophages, mouse peritoneal macrophages and human dendritic cells. It was further identified that ACP elicited its immunostimulatory activity through protein kinase C-α (PKC-α) and mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) phosphorylation. Furthermore, ACP exerted the endotoxin tolerance-like effect through NF-κB inhibition. These findings demonstrate the potential of A. cinnamomea galactomannan as an immunostimulator or an adjuvant in immunotherapy and vaccination.

Cytotoxic Effect on Human Myeloma Cells and Leukemic Cells by the Agaricus blazei Murill Based Mushroom Extract, Andosan™

Agaricus blazei Murill is an edible mushroom of the Basidiomycetes family, which has been found to contain a number of compounds with antitumor properties, such as proteoglycans and ergosterol. In the present investigation, we show that the commercial mushroom product Andosan, which contains 82.4% Agaricus blazei Murill, together with medicinal mushrooms Hericium erinaceus (14.7%) and Grifola frondosa (2.9%), has a cytotoxic effect on primary myeloma cells, other myeloma cell lines, and leukemia cell lines in vitro. Although the exact content and hence the mechanisms of action of the Andosan extract are unknown, we have found in this investigation indications of cell cycle arrest when myeloma cell lines are cultivated with Andosan. This may be one of the possible explanations for the cytotoxic effects of Andosan.

Antigenotoxic Properties of Agaricus blazei against Hydrogen Peroxide in Human Peripheral Blood Cells

The ability of Agaricus blazei mushroom in its dried and powdered mycelial form was evaluated for its antigenotoxic properties for the first time. Antigenotoxic effects in human peripheral blood cells against H₂O₂-induced DNA damage were examined in pretreatment and posttreatment protocol by comet assay. The results showed better antigenotoxic properties of Agaricus blazei on the interventional level, respectively, after treatment. Agaricus blazei in concentration of 250 μg/mL after treatment was most efficient in regard to its action against DNA damage. The evaluation of repair kinetics showed decrease in H₂O₂ induced DNA damage 15 min after the application of A. blazei, reaching the maximum potency after 30 min. Analysis of antioxidant properties of Agaricus blazei revealed strong ^•OH scavenging properties and moderate reducing power, while its DPPH scavenging ability was weak. In regard to our findings, we can conclude that our preliminary results demonstrated antigenotoxic properties of Agaricus blazei and its strong ^•OH scavenging ability. Mechanisms underlying its properties should be further evaluated in in vivo studies.

A "miracle" cancer drug in the era of social media: A survey of Brazilian oncologists' opinions and experience with phosphoethanolamine

INTRODUCTION

Patients who are treating cancer have often used alternative therapies. In the internet era, information can be broadcasted widely, and this happened with phosphoethanolamine in Brazil, where this substance was claimed by the population to be the "cure for cancer."

METHOD

This is a cross-sectional study developed by the Brazilian Society of Clinical Oncology (SBOC). An objectively structured questionnaire was sent by e-mail and SMS to active MDs members of the SBOC. Descriptive statistics was used to evaluate the data. Statistical significance between the variables was tested by Pearson's Chi-squared test (p<0.05 was considered significance).

RESULTS

The survey was sent to 1,072 oncologists, and 398 (37.1%) answered at least part of it. One hundred and fifteen (28.9%) had followed patients who had used phosphoethanolamine. Among these, 14 (12.2%) observed adverse events and four (3.5%) attributed clinical benefit to the substance. Most of the oncologists (n=331; 83.2%) believe that it should only be used as part of a clinical trial protocol. Most physicians did not recommend this drug to their patients (n=311; 78.1%). Oncologists in Southeast, South and Midwest Brazil were more likely to have patients taking the drug compared to the Northern and Northeastern regions.

CONCLUSION

This is the first survey to assess the opinion and experience of oncologists about this alternative therapy. Most oncologists in Brazil do not believe that synthetic phosphoethanolamine is active in cancer treatment, do not recommend its use without proper evaluation, and state that it should only be available to patients in the context of clinical trials.

The Agaricus blazei-Based Mushroom Extract, Andosan™, Protects against Intestinal Tumorigenesis in the A/J Min/+ Mouse

Background

The novel A/J Min/+ mouse, which is a model for human Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP), develops spontaneously multiple adenocarcinomas in the colon as well as in the small intestine. Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) is an edible Basidiomycetes mushroom that has been used in traditional medicine against cancer and other diseases. The mushroom contains immunomodulating β-glucans and is shown to have antitumor effects in murine cancer models. Andosan^™ is a water extract based on AbM (82%), but it also contains the medicinal Basidiomycetes mushrooms Hericeum erinaceus and Grifola frondosa.

Methods and findings

Tap water with 10% Andosan^™ was provided as the only drinking water for 15 or 22 weeks to A/J Min/+ mice and A/J wild-type mice (one single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) difference), which then were exsanguinated and their intestines preserved in formaldehyde and the serum frozen. The intestines were examined blindly by microscopy and also stained for the tumor-associated protease, legumain. Serum cytokines (pro- and anti-inflammatory, Th1-, Th2 -and Th17 type) were measured by Luminex multiplex analysis. Andosan^™ treated A/J Min/+ mice had a significantly lower number of adenocarcinomas in the intestines, as well as a 60% significantly reduced intestinal tumor load (number of tumors x size) compared to control. There was also reduced legumain expression in intestines from Andosan^™ treated animals. Moreover, Andosan^™ had a significant cytotoxic effect correlating with apoptosis on the human cancer colon cell line, Caco-2, in vitro. When examining serum from both A/J Min/+ and wild type mice, there was a significant increase in anti-tumor Th1 type and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the Andosan^™ treated mice.

Conclusions

The results from this mouse model for colorectal cancer shows significant protection of orally administered Andosan^™ against development of intestinal cancer. This is supported by the finding of less legumain in intestines of Andosan^™ treated mice and increased systemic Th1 cytokine response. The mechanism is probably both immuno-modulatory and growth inhibition of tumor cells by induction of apoptosis.

Effect of mushroom Agaricus blazei on immune response and development of experimental cerebral malaria

BACKGROUND

Cerebral malaria (CM) is debilitating and sometimes fatal. Disease severity has been associated with poor treatment access, therapeutic complexity and drug resistance and, thus, alternative therapies are increasingly necessary. In this study, the effect of the administration of Agaricus blazei, a mushroom of Brazilian origin in a model of CM caused by Plasmodium berghei, strain ANKA, was investigated in mice.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were pre-treated with aqueous extract or fractions of A. blazei, or chloroquine, infected with P. berghei ANKA and then followed by daily administration of A. blazei or chloroquine. Parasitaemia, body weight, survival and clinical signs of the disease were evaluated periodically. The concentration of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, histopathology and in vitro analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Mice treated with A. blazei aqueous extract or fraction C, that shows antioxidant activity, displayed lower parasitaemia, increased survival, reduced weight loss and protection against the development of CM. The administration of A. blazei resulted in reduced levels of TNF, IL-1β and IL-6 production when compared to untreated P. berghei-infected mice. Agaricus blazei (aqueous extract or fraction C) treated infected mice displayed reduction of brain lesions. Although chloroquine treatment reduced parasitaemia, there was increased production of proinflammatory cytokines and damage in the CNS not observed with A. blazei treatment. Moreover, the in vitro pretreatment of infected erythrocytes followed by in vivo infection resulted in lower parasitaemia, increased survival, and little evidence of clinical signs of disease.

CONCLUSIONS

This study strongly suggests that the administration of A. blazei (aqueous extract or fraction C) was effective in improving the consequences of CM in mice and may provide novel therapeutic strategies.

The polar high molecular weight fraction of the Agaricus blazei Murill extract, AndoSan™, reduces the activity of the tumor-associated protease, legumain, in RAW 264.7 cells

AndoSan™ is an extract of Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM; 82.4%), Hericium erinaceum (14.7%), and Grifola frondosa (2.9%). The main ingredient of AndoSan, AbM, is rich in different forms of β-glucans. Since these exhibit potent antitumor activity and have immunomodulatory effects, the stimulatory effect of AndoSan on the production of different cytokines, chemokines, and leukocyte growth factors has predominantly been attributed to β-glucans. AndoSan has been claimed to consist of 90% carbohydrate, of which 2.8% is β-glucans, but in this study, we show that the carbohydrate content is only 2% of the dry weight, corresponding to 0.09% β-glucan per mL of AndoSan. Fractionation of AndoSan, followed by carbohydrate analysis and HPLC analysis revealed that most of the glucose was concentrated in the polar high molecular weight fraction of AndoSan (ethanol insoluble water extract [EIWE]-A) and that this extract was able to significantly inhibit the activity of the tumor-associated protease, legumain, in RAW 264.7 cells. Legumain is synthesized as a zymogen and undergoes pH-dependent autoactivation of the proform to reach an enzymatically active form. In this study, we demonstrate that both the polar and nonpolar AndoSan fractions are able to inhibit the autoactivation of prolegumain, and that the polar fractions of AndoSan are the most potent inhibitors of the active form of the enzyme.

The protective effect of Agaricus blazei Murrill, submerged culture using the optimized medium composition, on alcohol-induced liver injury

Agaricus blazei Murrill (ABM), an edible mushroom native to Brazil, is widely used for nonprescript and medicinal purposes. Alcohol liver disease (ALD) is considered as a leading cause for a liver injury in modern dietary life, which can be developed by a prolonged or large intake of alcohol. In this study, the medium composition of ABM was optimized using response surface methodology for maximum mycelial biomass and extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production. The model predicts to gain a maximal mycelial biomass and extracellular polysaccharide at 1.047 g/100 mL, and 0.367 g/100 mL, respectively, when the potato is 29.88 g/100 mL, the glucose is 1.01 g/100 mL, and the bran is 1.02 g/100 mL. The verified experiments showed that the model was significantly consistent with the model prediction and that the trends of mycelial biomass and extracellular polysaccharide were predicted by artificial neural network. After that, the optimized medium was used for the submerged culture of ABM. Then, alcohol-induced liver injury in mice model was used to examine the protective effect of ABM cultured using the optimized medium on the liver. And the hepatic histopathological observations showed that ABM had a relatively significant role in mice model, which had alcoholic liver damage.

Immunostimulant Activity of a Novel Polysaccharide Isolated from Lactarius deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) Gray

More and more fungal polysaccharides have been reported to exhibit a variety of biological activities, including antitumor, antioxidant and immunostimulant activity. The non-starch polysaccharides have emerged as an important class of bioactive natural products. In this study, the immune activities of a novel polysaccharide (LDG-A) isolated from Lactarius deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) Gray were investigated at 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg dose levels. The inhibitory rate in mice treated with 80 mg/kg LDG-A can reach 68.422%, being the highest in the three doses, which may be comparable to mannatide. Histology of immune organs showed that the tissues were arranged in more regular and firm pattern, but the tumor tissue arranged looser in LDG-A group than those in control group. Meanwhile, there was no obvious damage to other organs, such as heart, lung, and kidney. The antitumor activity of the LDG-A was usually believed to be a consequence of the stimulation of the cell-mediated immune response because it can significantly promote the lymphocyte and macrophage cells in the dose range of 50-200 μg/ml and 100-400 μg/ml in vitro, respectively. The level of cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and NO) of macrophage cells induced by LDG-A treatment was similar to lipopolysaccharides at different concentrations. The expression of all these genes studied (TNF-α, IL-6, and iNOS mRNA) in the untreated macrophage was little, but increased dramatically in a dose-dependent manner in the LDG-A-treated cells. The results obtained in the present study indicated that the purified polysaccharide of L. deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) Gray is a potential source of natural immune-stimulating substances.

Anti-microorganism, anti-tumor, and immune activities of a novel polysaccharide isolated from Tricholoma matsutake

Background:

Many more fungal polysaccharides have been reported to exhibit a variety of biological activities, including anti-tumor, immunostimulation, anti-oxidation, and so on. The non-starch polysaccharides have emerged as an important class of bioactive natural products.

Objective:

To investigate the anti-microorganism, anti-tumor, and immune activities of a novel polysaccharide (TMP-A) isolated from Tricholoma matsutake.

Materials and Methods:

The anti-microorganism activity of purified polysaccharides (TMP-A) was evaluated by the inhibition zone diameter, the anti-tumor activity was evaluated by the S180 tumor cells that were implanted subcutaneously into the Kunming strain male mice in vivo, and the immune activity was evaluated by lymphocyte proliferation and macrophage stimulation, respectively.

Results:

In this study, the most susceptible bacteria of TMP-A at a concentration of 20 mg/ml was Micrococcus lysodeikticus (inhibition zone diameter 24.38 ± 1.19 mm) and the TMP-A did not show any antifungal activity for the tested stains of the fungi. In addition, the inhibitory rate in mice treated with 80 mg/kg TMP-A could reach 68.422%, being the highest in the three doses, which might be comparable to mannatide. The anti-tumor activity of the TMP-A was usually believed to be a consequence of the stimulation of the cell-mediated immune response, because it could significantly promote the lymphocyte and macrophage cells in the dose range of 50–200 μg/mL and in the dose range of 100 – 400 μg/mL in vitro, respectively.

Discussion and Conclusion:

The results obtained in the present study indicate that the purification polysaccharide of Tricholoma matsutake is a potential source of natural broad-spectrum, anti-microorganism, anti-tumor, and immunomodulation.

A polysaccharide isolated from Agaricus blazei Murill (ABP-AW1) as a potential Th1 immunity-stimulating adjuvant

In the present study, a low molecular weight polysaccharide, ABP-AW1, isolated from Agaricus blazei Murill was assessed for its potential adjuvant activity. ABP-AW1 is considered to create a ‘depot’ of antigen at a subcutaneous injection site. ICR mice were immunized with 100 μg ovalbumin (OVA) alone or with 100 μg OVA formulated in 0.9% saline containing 200 μg aluminum (alum) or ABP-AW1 (50, 100 and 200 μg) on days 1 and 15. Two weeks after the secondary immunization, splenocyte proliferation, the expression of surface markers, cytokine production and the OVA-specific antibody levels in the serum were determined. The OVA/ABP-AW1 vaccine, in comparison with OVA alone, markedly increased the proliferation of splenic lymphocytes and elicited greater antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell activation, as determined by splenic CD4⁺CD69⁺ T cells and Th1 cytokine interferon (IFN)-γ release. The combination of ABP-AW1 and OVA also enhanced IgG2b antibody responses to OVA. In conclusion, these data indicated that ABP-AW1 significantly enhanced the humoral and cellular immune responses against OVA in the mice, suggesting that ABP-AW1 stimulated Th1-type immunity. We suggest that ABP-AW1 may serve as a new adjuvant.

Anaerobically digested food waste in compost for Agaricus bisporus and Agaricus subrufescens and its effect on mushroom productivity

BACKGROUND

Source-separated food waste is increasingly being treated by means of hygienisation followed by anaerobic digestion. The fibrous digester residue (digestate) is a potential mushroom substrate, while heat from the biogas can provide steam for the cultivation process. Using bag experiments the present study explored digestate as a full substitute for chicken manure conventionally used in mushroom composts.

RESULTS

After mixing, a rapid temperature development in the compost was stimulated by a small amount of chicken manure, as aerobic microbial seeding. Mechanical elimination of lumps was essential for full mycelial colonisation. Three straw digestate composts had Agaricus bisporus mushroom yields above 370 g kg⁻¹ substrate. The optimal compost water content was 600 g kg⁻¹ at inoculation, and high digestate content (up to 500 g kg⁻¹ by dry weight) did not affect yield for this species. High yields of A. subrufescens (200 g kg⁻¹) were related to drier composts of lower digestate content (more straw) and lower pH values at inoculation.

CONCLUSION

Digestate successfully substituted chicken manure in straw composts without affecting mushroom yields for both species. There were no clear differences between straw digestate and control composts in terms of mushroom dry matter, size, nitrogen or ash content.

Brefeldin A is an estrogenic, Erk1/2-activating component in the extract of Agaricus blazei mycelia

We purified an Erk1/2-activating component in Agaricus blazei and identified it as brefeldin A (BFA). The extract of A. blazei mycelia (ABE) previously showed an estrogenic gene-expression profile and positive effects in patients with cardiovascular symptoms. Here, we demonstrate that BFA has estrogenic activity in reporter gene assays and stimulates an estrogen-receptor pathway revealed by activation of Erk1/2, although BFA had no growth-stimulating activity in breast cancer MCF-7 cells. The presence of estrogenic activity without any explicit growth-stimulating effect is unique to BFA, and such components are termed here "silent estrogens". To test this hypothesis, we examined the target-gene transcription and signaling pathways induced by BFA. Furthermore, BFA was found in the mycelium but not fruiting body of A. blazei, suggesting the potential use of ABE for therapeutics and its supplementary use in traditional medicines and functional foods.

Antioxidant and antitumor activities of selenium- and zinc-enriched oyster mushroom in mice

Selenium and zinc are well-known essential trace elements with potent biological functions. However, the possible health benefits of the combined administration of dietary selenium and zinc have not been studied extensively. In this study, we prepared selenium- and zinc-enriched mushrooms (SZMs) containing increased levels of selenium and zinc. The effects of SZMs on antioxidant and antitumor activities were evaluated. Mice were fed with either a control diet or a diet supplemented with SZMs or sodium selenite and zinc sulfate for 6 weeks. Antioxidant capacity was investigated by measuring the activities of antioxidant enzymes and the levels of lipid peroxide products. Results showed that treatment with SZMs significantly increased the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase and decreased the levels of malondialdehyde and lipofuscin. Furthermore, using a mouse model of lung tumors, we found that SZMs significantly decreased the number of tumor nodes with an increase in the activity of GPx. SZMs had a greater effect on the increase in both antioxidant and antitumor activities than did sodium selenite and zinc sulfate. These findings suggest that SZMs may be effective for improving antioxidant capacity and preventing tumors.

Induction of a T-Helper 1 (Th1) immune response in mice by an extract from the Pleurotus eryngii (Eringi) mushroom

To assess the effect of edible mushroom extracts on the induction of T-helper 1 (Th1) immunity, we examined differences in interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin (IL)-4 production in mice induced by hot-water extracts of 15 species of edible mushroom. Extracts from Agaricus bisporus, Flammulina velutipes, Hypsizigus marmoreus, Lentinula edodes, and Lyophyllum decastes induced both IFN-γ and IL-4 production in mice, whereas extracts from Pleurotus ostreatus only induced IL-4. In contrast, extracts from Agaricus blazei, Grifola frondosa, Morchella esculenta, Pholiota nameko, Pleurotus citrinopileatus, and Pleurotus eryngii induced only IFN-γ production. In particular, the extract from P. eryngii induced high levels of IFN-γ and reduced levels of IL-4. We further investigated the use of a trial immunogen using the P. eryngii extract as a Th1 immunostimulator. An oil-in-water emulsion of the hot-water extract from P. eryngii (immunostimulator) and ovalbumin (OVA; antigen) was used as a trial immunogen. This immunogen induced strong OVA-specific IgG2a antibody production in mice compared with the negative controls. In addition, OVA-specific IgG1 antibody levels were lower than those for the negative controls. Marked increases in serum IFN-γ levels and high-level production of IFN-γ in the culture supernatant from the CD4(+) spleen cells in the trial immunogen group mice were observed. Our results suggested that the hot-water extract from P. eryngii induced Th1 immunity by acting as an immunostimulator.

Effect of AndoSan™ on expression of adhesion molecules and production of reactive oxygen species in human monocytes and granulocytes in vivo

BACKGROUND

Oral intake (60 ml daily) over 12 days in eight healthy volunteers of an immunostimulatory extract based on the medicinal mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM (AndoSan™)), reduced the monocyte and granulocyte release of mainly proinflammatory cytokines in vivo, suggesting an anti-inflammatory effect. In this foremost in vivo study, the aim was to examine the effect of such AndoSan™ consumption on the expression of adhesion molecules CD11b, CD11c and CD62L and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in leukocytes.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

As shown by flow cytometry, there was a significant increase of CD62L expression on monocytes and granulocytes from before (day 0) compared with 12 days after daily AndoSan™ consumption. However, only minor alterations and no clear trend in the expression of CD11b and CD11c were detected. Intracellular ROS (mainly superoxide ion) were significantly reduced in these cells from days 0 to 12.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These results support that oral intake of AndoSan™ exhibits an anti-inflammatory effect in humans in vivo.

The anti-tumorigenic mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill enhances IL-1β production and activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in human macrophages

Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) has been reported to possess immune activity against tumors and infections through stimulation of mononuclear phagocytes. Recently, AbM extract was shown to induce the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), in human monocytes. IL-1β is a key pro-inflammatory cytokine produced by activated macrophages and monocytes and its secretion is strictly controlled by the inflammasome. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of AbM water extracts on the regulation of IL-1β production and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in human THP-1 macrophages. The NLRP3 inflammasome consists of an NLRP3 receptor, an adaptor protein called ASC, and the inflammatory protease, caspase-1. Typically, stimulation of immune cells with microbial products results in production of pro-IL-1β, but a second stress-related signal activates the inflammasome and caspase-1, leading to processing and secretion of IL-1β. Our results show that AbM enhances transcription of IL-1β and triggers NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated IL-1β secretion in human THP-1 macrophages. AbM-mediated IL-1β secretion was markedly reduced in macrophages deficient in NLRP3 and ASC, demonstrating that the NLRP3 inflammasome is essential for AbM-induced IL-1β secretion. In addition, caspase-1 was activated and involved in proteolytic cleavage and secretion of IL-1β in AbM-treated macrophages. AbM-mediated IL-1β secretion also decreased in cells treated with cathepsin B inhibitor, suggesting that AbM can induce the release of cathepsin B. Furthermore, our data show that AbM-induced inflammasome activation requires the release of ATP, binding of extracellular ATP to the purinergic receptor P2X₇, the generation of reactive oxygen species, and efflux of potassium. Taken together, these findings reveal that AbM activates the NLRP3 inflammasome via multiple mechanisms, resulting in the secretion of IL-1β.

Agaricus subrufescens: A review

Medicinal mushrooms have currently become a hot issue due to their various therapeutic properties. Of these, Agaricus subrufescens, also known as the "almond mushroom", has long been valued by many societies (i.e., Brazil, China, France, and USA). Since its discovery in 1893, this mushroom has been cultivated throughout the world, especially in Brazil where several strains of A. subrufescens have been developed and used as health food and alternative medicine. This article presents up-to-date information on this mushroom including its taxonomy and health promoting benefits. Medicinal properties of A. subrufescens are emphasized in several studies which are reviewed here. In addition, safety issues concerning the use of this fungus will be discussed.

Pro-inflammatory effects of the mushroom Agaricus blazei and its consequences on atherosclerosis development

PURPOSE

Extracts of the mushroom Agaricus blazei (A. blazei) have been described as possessing immunomodulatory and potentially cancer-protective activities. However, these effects of A. blazei as a functional food have not been fully investigated in vivo.

METHODS

Using apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE(-/-)) mice, an experimental model of atherosclerosis, we evaluated the effects of 6 or 12 weeks of A. blazei supplementation on the activation of immune cells in the spleen and blood and on the development of atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

Food intake, weight gain, blood lipid profile, and glycemia were similar between the groups. To evaluate leukocyte homing and activation, mice were injected with (99m)Tc-radiolabeled leukocytes, which showed enhanced leukocyte migration to the spleen and heart of A. blazei-supplemented animals. Analysis of the spleen showed higher levels of activation of neutrophils, NKT cells, and monocytes as well as increased production of TNF-α and IFN-γ. Circulating NKT cells and monocytes were also more activated in the supplemented group. Atherosclerotic lesion areas were larger in the aorta of supplemented mice and exhibited increased numbers of macrophages and neutrophils and a thinner fibrous cap. A. blazei-induced transcriptional upregulation of molecules linked to macrophage activation (CD36, TLR4), neutrophil chemotaxy (CXCL1), leukocyte adhesion (VCAM-1), and plaque vulnerability (MMP9) were seen after 12 weeks of supplementation.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first in vivo study showing that the immunostimulatory effect of A. blazei has proatherogenic repercussions. A. blazei enhances local and systemic inflammation, upregulating pro-inflammatory molecules, and enhancing leukocyte homing to atherosclerosis sites without affecting the lipoprotein profile.

The Mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill Elicits Medicinal Effects on Tumor, Infection, Allergy, and Inflammation through Its Modulation of Innate Immunity and Amelioration of Th1/Th2 Imbalance and Inflammation

The medicinal mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill from the Brazilian rain forest has been used in traditional medicine and as health food for the prevention of a range of diseases, including infection, allergy, and cancer. Other scientists and we have examined whether there is scientific evidence behind such postulations. Agaricus blazei M is rich in the immunomodulating polysaccharides, β-glucans, and has been shown to have antitumor, anti-infection, and antiallergic/-asthmatic properties in mouse models, in addition to anti-inflammatory effects in inflammatory bowel disease patients. These effects are mediated through the mushroom's stimulation of innate immune cells, such as monocytes, NK cells, and dendritic cells, and the amelioration of a skewed Th1/Th2 balance and inflammation.

Effect of an extract based on the medicinal mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill on expression of cytokines and calprotectin in patients with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease

An immunomodulatory extract (AndoSan™) based on the medicinal mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) has shown to reduce blood cytokine levels in healthy volunteers after 12 days' ingestion, pointing to an anti-inflammatory effect. The aim was to study whether AndoSan™ had similar effects on cytokines in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). Calprotectin, a marker for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), was also measured. Patients with CD (n = 11) and with UC (n = 10) consumed 60 ml/day of AndoSan™. Patient blood plasma was harvested before and after 6 h LPS (1 ng/ml) stimulation ex vivo. Plasma and faecal calprotectin levels were analysed using ELISA and 17 cytokines [IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-12 (Th1), IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 (Th2), IL-7, IL-17, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-8, MIP-1β, MCP-1, G-CSF, GM-CSF and IL-10] by multiplex assay. After 12 days' ingestion of AndoSan™, baseline plasma cytokine levels in UC was reduced for MCP-1 (40%) and in LPS-stimulated blood for MIP-1β (78%), IL-6 (44%), IL-1β (41%), IL-8 (30%), G-CSF (29%), MCP-1 (18%) and GM-CSF (17%). There were corresponding reductions in CD: IL-2 (100%), IL-17 (55%) and IL-8 (29%) and for IL-1β (35%), MIP-1β (30%), MCP-1 (22%), IL-8 (18%), IL-17 (17%) and G-CSF (14%), respectively. Baseline concentrations for the 17 cytokines in the UC and CD patient groups were largely similar. Faecal calprotectin was reduced in the UC group. Ingestion of an AbM-based medicinal mushroom by patients with IBD resulted in interesting anti-inflammatory effects as demonstrated by declined levels of pathogenic cytokines in blood and calprotectin in faeces.

Does the Agaricus blazei Murill mushroom have properties that affect the immune system? An integrative review

There has been a significant increase in the use of mushrooms for therapeutic and medicinal purposes, in particular, use of the species Agaricus blazei Murrill, a basidiomycota of Brazilian origin. The objective of this study was to identify scientific evidence regarding the influence of A. blazei Murrill on the immune system. We undertook an integrative review of indexed publications published between 2000 and 2009, using the following question as a guideline: "What evidence can be found in the literature regarding the influence of A. blazei Murrill on the immune system?" Fourteen studies verified that there is in vitro and in vivo research demonstrating this mushroom's influence on the immune system. All research was characterized as evidence level 7 (preclinical study [animals/in vitro]). The research shows that A. blazei Murrill functions through bioactive compounds via mechanisms that are not yet entirely clear, although it has been shown that they promote action on the innate and adaptive immunological response, activation of the complement system, and synthesis of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and even aid in diapedesis. Despite broad scientific evidence demonstrating relevant immunomodulatory properties of A. blazei Murrill, randomized clinical trials with human subjects are still needed in order for the mushroom to be put into clinical practice.