Increased mortality of male adults with AIDS related to poor compliance to antiretroviral therapy in Malawi

Predictors of Treatment Adherence and Virological Failure Among People Living with HIV Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy in a South African Rural Community: A Sub-study of the ITREMA Randomised Clinical Trial

A large proportion of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in sub-Saharan Africa reside in rural areas. Knowledge of enablers and barriers of adherence to antiretroviral treatment (ART) in these populations is limited. We conducted a cohort study of 501 adult PLHIV on ART at a rural South African treatment facility as a sub-study of a clinical trial (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03357588). Socio-economic, psychosocial and behavioral characteristics were assessed as covariates of self-reported adherence difficulties, suboptimal pill count adherence and virological failure during 96 weeks of follow-up. Male gender was an independent risk factor for all outcomes. Food insecurity was associated with virological failure in males. Depressive symptoms were independently associated with virological failure in both males and females. Household income and task-oriented coping score were protective against suboptimal pill-count adherence. These results underscore the impact of low household income, food insecurity and depression on outcomes of ART in rural settings and confirm other previously described risk factors. Recognition of these factors and targeted adherence support strategies may improve patient health and treatment outcomes.

Uptake and Short-Term Retention in HIV Treatment Among Men in South Africa: The Coach Mpilo Pilot Project

In this pilot project, providing peer support to men living with HIV retained a high proportion of men living with HIV in the early stages of HIV treatment and successfully supported men in returning to care after a treatment interruption.

Introduction:

Gender disparities persist across the HIV care continuum in sub-Saharan Africa. Men are tested, linked, and retained at lower rates than women. Men experience more treatment interruptions, resulting in higher rates of virological failure and increased mortality. Peer support is an approach to improving men’s engagement and retention in HIV treatment. We assessed uptake and early retention in HIV care among men in the ‘Coach Mpilo’ peer support pilot project in South Africa.

Methods:

We conducted a pilot project from March 2020 to September 2020 in 3 districts: Ehlanzeni and Gert Sibande (Mpumalanga) and Ugu (KwaZulu-Natal). Men living with HIV were invited to receive one-on-one coaching from a peer supporter who was stable on treatment. We analyzed participants’ self-reported data on demographics, uptake, and retention in HIV treatment. We described baseline characteristics using summary statistics and reported uptake and early retention proportions overall and by testing history (newly and previously diagnosed).

Results:

Among 4,182 men living with HIV, most were previously diagnosed (n=2,461, 64%) and uptake was high (92%, n=3,848). Short-term retention was 80% (n=1,979) among men previously diagnosed and 88% (n=1,213) among newly diagnosed. In September 2020, 95% (n=3,653/3,848) of all participants reported being active on HIV treatment, including those retained consistently and those who had interrupted and returned to care. Among participants experiencing treatment interruption after enrolling, the majority (82%, n=464) returned to treatment, largely within 2 months.

Conclusions:

Improving linkage to and retention in HIV treatment among men is essential for their health and for treatment as prevention. This pilot project provided preliminary evidence that a peer-led support model was acceptable, retained a high proportion of men in the early stages of ART, and supported men returning to care after treatment interruption. These promising results require further investigation to assess impact, scalability, and cost-effectiveness.

Predictors of mortality among adolescents and young adults living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: a retrospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Global AIDS-related deaths have declined by only 10% among adolescents since its peak in 2003. This is disproportionately low compared to a decline of 74% among children aged 0-9 years old. We determined the magnitude of, and predictors of mortality among adolescents and young adults living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted among adolescents (aged 10-19) and young adults (aged 20-24) living with HIV and enrolled in care and treatment centres in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania between January 2015 and December 2019. Data were analysed using STATA version 16. Cumulative hazard curves were used to estimate and illustrate 1-year mortality. Predictors for mortality were assessed by the Fine and Gray competing risk regression model. Sub-hazard ratios (SHR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were then reported.

RESULTS

A total of 15,874 young people living with HIV were included: 4916 (31.3%) were adolescents and 10,913 (68.7%) were young adults. A total of 3843 (77.5%) adolescents and 9517 (87.2%) young adults were female. Deaths occurred in 2.3% (114/4961) of adolescents and 1.2% (135/10,913) of young adults (p < 0.001). Over a follow-up of 9292 person-years, the mortality rate was 3.8 per 100 person years [95% CI 3.2-4.6/100 person-years] among adolescents and 2.1 per 100 person-years among young adults [95% CI 1.8-2.5/100 person-years]. Independent predictors of mortality among adolescents were male sex (adjusted (SHR) aSHR = 1.90, 95% CI: 1.3-2.8), CD4 count < 200 cells/mm³ (aSHR = 2.7, 95% CI: 1.4-5.0) and attending a private health facility (aSHR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1-2.5). Predictors of mortality among young adults were CD4 count < 200 cells/mm³ (aSHR = 2.8, 95% CI 1.7-4.5), being underweight (aSHR = 2.1, 95% CI: 1.4-3.3) and using nevirapine-based therapy (aHR = 8.3, 95% CI: 3.5-19.5).

CONCLUSIONS

The mortality rate for persons living with HIV and on ART in Tanzania was significantly higher in adolescents than young adults. Age- and sex-specific risk factors identify targets for intervention to reduce mortality among affected adolescents and young adults.

Determinants of loss to follow-up among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy in Nigeria

Background: Considerable success has been recorded in the global fight against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Retention in care is the key to the attainment of set goals in the fight against the disease. We aim to determine the factors associated with loss to follow-up (LTFU) among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a limited resource setting.Method: This was a retrospective cohort study that included adult patients who accessed ART at the study site between January 2005 and October 2018. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to obtain adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of independent determinants of LTFU.Results: Of the 8 679 patients included in the study, 3 716 (43%) were males, 4 009 (46%) were enrolled during the years 2005 to 2008, 8 421 (97%) spent less than two hours travelling from their residence to the treatment centre, and 3 523 (41%) had their first-line ART regimen changed. Among the characteristics that determine LTFU were male patients (OR = 1.167, 95% CI: 1.071-1.272), and World Health Organization clinical stage 3 (OR = 2.091, 95% CI: 1.485-2.944).Conclusion: In our study, male gender, enrolment year 2005 to 2008, no change in first-line ART and nevirapine-based therapy were more likely to be associated with LTFU.

Effects of undernutrition on mortality and morbidity among adults living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Undernutrition is one of the most common problems among people living with HIV, contributing to premature death and the development of comorbidities within this population. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the impacts of these often inter-related conditions appear in a series of fragmented and inconclusive studies. Thus, this review examines the pooled effects of undernutrition on mortality and morbidities among adults living with HIV in SSA.

Methods

A systematic literature search was conducted from PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Scopus databases. All observational studies reporting the effects of undernutrition on mortality and morbidity among adults living with HIV in SSA were included. Heterogeneity between the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane Q-test and I² statistics. Publication bias was assessed using Egger’s and Begg’s tests at a 5% significance level. Finally, a random-effects meta-analysis model was employed to estimate the overall adjusted hazard ratio.

Results

Of 4309 identified studies, 53 articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. Of these, 40 studies were available for the meta-analysis. A meta-analysis of 23 cohort studies indicated that undernutrition significantly (AHR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.8, 2.4) increased the risk of mortality among adults living with HIV, while severely undernourished adults living with HIV were at higher risk of death (AHR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.9, 2.8) as compared to mildly undernourished adults living with HIV. Furthermore, the pooled estimates of ten cohort studies revealed that undernutrition significantly increased the risk of developing tuberculosis (AHR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.6, 2.7) among adults living with HIV.

Conclusion

This review found that undernutrition has significant effects on mortality and morbidity among adults living with HIV. As the degree of undernutrition became more severe, mortality rate also increased. Therefore, findings from this review may be used to update the nutritional guidelines used for the management of PLHIV by different stakeholders, especially in limited-resource settings.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-020-05706-z.

Sex differences in HIV treatment outcomes and adherence by exposure groups among adults in Guangdong, China: A retrospective observational cohort study

INTRODUCTION

We aimed to assess sex differences in treatment outcomes and adherence comparing men who have sex with women (MSW), men who have sex with men (MSM), and women who have sex with men (WSM), as well as men and women who inject drugs living with HIV on combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Guangdong, China.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective observational cohort study with data from the National Free Antiretroviral Treatment Program database. We included ART-naive patients aged 18 to 80 years who had contracted HIV through sex or injecting drugs, initiated first-line ART between January 2004 and December 2016, and had at least 60 days of follow-up. Participants were followed for five years. Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazard models were used to evaluate all-cause mortality. Cumulative incidence function and Cox proportional hazards models accounting for competing risks were used to evaluate disease progression to AIDS. Modified Poisson regression models were used to evaluate immunological and virological responses and loss to follow-up. Repeated measures analysis was used to evaluate regular CD4+ cell count, HIV viral load monitoring, ART adherence, side effects, and interruption of ART.

FINDINGS

We included 26,409 persons living with HIV. 21,779 (82·5%) people acquired HIV through sex (5118 WSM [23·5%], 8506 MSW [39·0%], 8175 MSM [37·5%]), and 4610 people (17·5%) through injection drug use (249 women [5·4%], 4361 men [94·6%]). Among those infected through sex, MSW had increased risks of all-cause mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 1·48, 95% CI 1·20-1·83), progression to AIDS (1·27, 1·09-1·47), virological failure (adjusted incidence rates ratio [aIRR] 1·27, 95% CI 1·09-1·48), and loss to follow-up (1·22, 1·10-1·35) compared to WSM. In contrast, MSM had lower risk of all-cause mortality (aHR 0·49, 95%CI 0·32-0·76), disease progression to AIDS (0·83, 0·68-1·00), and virological failure (aIRR 0·78, 95%CI 0·65-0·94), were more likely to receive regular CD4+ cell count (1·08, 1·07-1·10) and HIV viral load monitoring (1·13, 1·12-1·15), were less likely to report missing ART doses (0·54, 0·49-0·61), interrupt ART (0·34, 0·26-0·44), or be lost to follow-up (0·56, 0·49-0·65) compared to WSM. Men who inject drugs were almost twice as likely as women who inject drugs to die (aHR 1·72, 95%CI 1·03-2·85), experience disease progression to AIDS (2·05, 1·18-3·57), virological failure (aIRR 1·81, 95%CI 1·19-2·76), report ART side effects (1·78, 1·43-2·22), and interruptions in ART (2·29, 1·50-3·50).

INTERPRETATION

Our findings highlight the importance of identifying potentially at-risk MSW and promoting HIV education and testing among them. Particular attention is warranted among men who inject drugs to improve timely HIV diagnosis, drug interaction management, and retention in treatment. Additional research from rural settings is needed to assess the long-term treatment outcomes and adherence in MSM with HIV.

Glutathione, glutathione peroxidase and some hematological parameters of HIV-seropositive subjects attending clinic in University of Calabar teaching hospital, Calabar, Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Despite the numerous intervention programmes, HIV still remains a public health concern with a high impact in Sub-Saharan Africa region. Oxidative stress has been documented in HIV subjects as viral infection promotes prolonged activation of immune system, hence, production of increased reactive oxygen species.

METHODS

We studied 180 subjects. Of these, 60 were HIV-infected on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 40 were ART naïve HIV-infected and 80 were apparent healthy non HIV-infected subjects. The complete blood count was performed by automated hemoanalyzer, the CD4⁺ T-cell count was performed by cyflow cytometer, while the antioxidant assay was performed using ELISA technique.

RESULT

All evaluated parameters; glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), CD4⁺ T-cell count, haemoglobin (Hb), total white blood cell count (WBC) and platelet count were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in the HIV-infected subjects. All assessed parameters were found to be significantly (P < 0.5) reduced in the HIV-infected subjects that are ART naive when compared with those on ART. HIV-infected subjects with CD4⁺ T-cell count < 200 cells/mm³ had significantly (P < 0.05) reduced values in all assessed parameters when compared to those with CD4⁺ T-cell count ≥200 cells/mm³. GSH and WBC were found to be significantly (P < 0.05) increased in the female HIV-infected subjects when compared with the male counterpart. Anemia prevalence of 74 and 33% were recorded for the HIV-infected and control subjects, respectively. Gender and ART treatment were found to be associated with anemia in HIV. Male HIV-infected subjects on ART were found to be more likely to have anemia.

CONCLUSION

Antioxidants; GSH and GPX were found to be significantly reduced in HIV infection. Further probe showed that the antioxidant status was improved in the HIV-infected group on ART.

Secular trends in HIV/AIDS mortality in China from 1990 to 2016: Gender disparities

OBJECTIVES

HIV/AIDS has become the leading cause of death by infectious disease in China since 2009. However, the trend of gender disparities in HIV/AIDS has not been reported in China since 1990. Our study aimed to explore the secular trend of HIV/AIDS mortality in China from 1990 to 2016 and to identify its gender disparities over the past 27 years.

METHOD

The mortality data of HIV/AIDS were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 (GBD 2016). Logistic regression was used to estimate the prevalence odds ratio (POR) of gender for HIV/AIDS mortality in different surveys.

RESULTS

The standardized mortality of HIV/AIDS in China rose dramatically from 0.33 per 100,000 people in 1990 to 2.50 per 100,000 people in 2016. The rate of HIV/AIDS mortality increased more quickly in men than in women, and the sex gap of mortality of HIV/AIDS widened. By 2016, the HIV/AIDS mortality in men was 3 times that in women and was 5.74 times that in women within the 75- to 79-year-old age group.

CONCLUSIONS

The mortality of HIV/AIDS in China is increasing, with a widening gender disparity. It is critical for policymakers to develop policies to eliminate these disparities and to ensure that everyone can live a long life in full health.

Predictors of mortality in adult people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy in Nepal: A retrospective cohort study, 2004-2013

Background

In Nepal, since 2004, 19,388 people living with HIV (PLHIV) have been enrolled on antiretroviral therapy (ART). The aim of this study was to measure mortality rate and to identify predictors of mortality in adult (≥15 years) PLHIV who initiated ART between 2004 and 2013 in five large ART centers of Nepal.

Methods

This retrospective cohort study of 3,799 (60.5% male) adult PLHIV uses secondary data collected from standard ART registers. Time from ART initiation (baseline) to death or censoring (loss to follow-up or December 31, 2013) was assessed. Mortality rates per 100 person-years were calculated. Kaplan-Meier models were used to estimate the probability of mortality over time. Predictors of mortality were determined using Cox-regression models.

Results

The overall mortality rate was 6.98 (95% CI: 6.46–7.54) per 100 person-years, 4.11 (95% CI: 3.53–4.79) in females and 9.14 (95% CI: 8.36–9.99) in males. Mortality rates were higher in early months after ART initiation, particularly in the first three months. Baseline predictors of mortality were ART center, male gender (adjusted HR = 2.08, 95% CI: 1.69–2.57), residence outside the ART district (AHR = 1.45, 95% CI:1.19–1.76), World Health Organization clinical stage III (AHR = 1.67, 95% CI: 1.13–2.46) and IV (AHR = 2.21, 95% CI: 1.45–3.36), bedridden <50% time in the last month (AHR = 1.92, 95% CI: 1.52–2.41), bedridden >50% time in the last month (AHR = 3.82, 95% CI: 2.95–4.94), lower bodyweight/kg (AHR = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03–1.05), CD4 count <150 cell/mm³ (AHR = 2.14, 95% CI: 1.05–4.34) and treatment not switched to second-line regimen (AHR = 3.05, 95% CI: 1.35–6.90).

Conclusions

Mortality rates were higher soon after ART initiation, particularly in males and gradually decreased over time. Poor baseline clinical characteristics were significantly associated with higher mortality. Increased ART coverage with decentralization of sites to lower levels including community dispensing, differentiated and improved service delivery and initiation of ART at a less advanced disease stage may reduce early mortality.

High rates of retention and viral suppression in the scale-up of antiretroviral therapy adherence clubs in Cape Town, South Africa

INTRODUCTION

Increasingly, there is a need for health authority scale up of successfully piloted differentiated models of antiretroviral therapy (ART) delivery. However, there is a paucity of evidence on system-wide outcomes after scale-up. In the Cape Town health district, stable adult patients were referred to adherence clubs (ACs) - a group model of ART delivery with five visits per year. By the end of March 2015, over 32,000 ART patients were in an AC. We describe patient outcomes of a representative sample of AC patients during this scale-up.

METHODS

Patients enrolled in an AC at non-research supported sites between 2011 and 2014 were eligible for analysis. We sampled 10% of ACs (n = 100) in quintets proportional to the number of ACs at each facility, linking each patient to city-wide laboratory and service access data to validate retention and virologic outcomes. We digitized registers and used competing risks regression and cross-sectional methods to estimate outcomes: mortality, transfers, loss to follow-up (LTFU) and viral load suppression (≤400 copies/mL). Predictors of LTFU and viral rebound were assessed using Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

Of the 3216 adults contributing 4019 person years of follow-up (89% in an AC, median 1.1 years), 70% were women. Retention was 95.2% (95% CI, 94.0-96.4) at 12 months and 89.3% (95% CI, 87.1-91.4) at 24 months after AC enrolment. In the 13 months prior to analysis closure, 88.1% of patients had viral load assessments and of those, viral loads ≤400 copies/mL were found in 97.2% (95% CI, 96.5-97.8) of patients. Risk of LTFU was higher in younger patients and in patients accessing ART from facilities with larger ART cohorts. Risk of viral rebound was higher in younger patients, those that had been on ART for longer and patients that had never sent a buddy to collect their medication.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first analysis reporting patient outcomes after health authorities scaled-up a differentiated care model across a high burden district. The findings provide substantial reassurance that stable patients on long-term ART can safely be offered care options, which are more convenient to patients and less burdensome to services.

Gender Differences in Outcomes of Antiretroviral Treatment Among HIV-Infected Patients in China: A Retrospective Cohort Study, 2010-2015

BACKGROUD

Women now account for about half of all people living with HIV worldwide, but researchers lack clear information and large population-based study about gender differences in treatment outcomes.

METHODS

A nationwide retrospective observational cohort study with data from the China National Free Antiretroviral Treatment Program was performed. Antiretroviral-naive patients older than 18 years initiating standard antiretroviral therapy between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2011, were included and followed up to December 31, 2015. We used modified Poisson regression models to estimate the impact of gender on virological suppression and retention in treatment, and Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazard models to evaluate gender difference in mortality.

RESULTS

Sixty-eight thousand six hundred forty-six patients [46,083 (67.1%) men and 22,563 (32.9%) women] with HIV met eligibility criteria. Women were significantly more likely to achieve virological suppression than men both at 12 months [adjusted relative risk (aRR) 1.02, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01 to 1.03, P < 0.001] and 48 months (aRR 1.01, 95% CI: 1.00 to 1.02, P = 0.005) after initiating antiretroviral treatment. Women were also more likely to remain in treatment at 12 months (aRR 1.02, 95% CI: 1.01 to 1.02, P < 0.001) and 48 months (aRR 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03 to 1.05, P < 0.001), although the difference became insignificant in alive patients. All-cause mortality was lower in women than in men (2.34 vs. 4.03 deaths/100PY, adjusted hazard ratio 0.72, 95% CI: 0.67 to 0.77, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In China, women are more likely to achieve virological suppression, remain in treatment, and have a significantly lower risk of death than men. Future studies could take both biological and sociobehavioral factors into analysis to clarify the influence factors.

Mortality in the First 3 Months on Antiretroviral Therapy Among HIV-Positive Adults in Low- and Middle-income Countries: A Meta-analysis

Previous meta-analyses reported mortality estimates of 12-month post-antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation; however, 40%-60% of deaths occur in the first 3 months on ART, a more sensitive measure of averted deaths through early ART initiation. To determine whether early mortality is dropping as treatment thresholds have increased, we reviewed studies of 3 months on ART initiation in low- to middle-income countries. Studies of 3-month mortality from January 2003 to April 2016 were searched in 5 databases. Articles were included that reported 3-month mortality from a low- to middle-income country; nontrial setting and participants were ≥15. We assessed overall mortality and stratified by year using random effects models. Among 58 included studies, although not significant, pooled estimates show a decline in mortality when comparing studies whose enrollment of patients ended before 2010 (7.0%; 95% CI: 6.0 to 8.0) with the studies during or after 2010 (4.0%; 95% CI: 3.0 to 5.0). To continue to reduce early HIV-related mortality at the population level, intensified efforts to increase demand for ART through active testing and facilitated referral should be a priority. Continued financial investments by multinational partners and the implementation of creative interventions to mitigate multidimensional complex barriers of accessing care and treatment for HIV are needed.

Sex disparities in outcomes among adults on long-term antiretroviral treatment in northern Nigeria

BACKGROUND

There are conflicting reports of sex differences in HIV treatment outcomes in Africa. We investigated sex disparities in treatment outcomes for adults on first line antiretroviral treatment (ART) in Nigeria.

METHODS

We compared clinical and immunologic responses to ART between HIV-infected men (n=205) and women (n=140) enrolled in an ART program between June 2004 and December 2007, with follow-up through June 2014. We employed Kaplan-Meier estimates to examine differences in time to immunologic failure and loss to follow-up (LTFU), and generalized estimating equations to assess changes in CD4+ count by sex.

RESULTS

Men had lower baseline mean CD4+ count compared to women (327.6 cells/µL vs 413.4, respectively, p<0.01). Women had significantly higher rates of increase in CD4+ count than men, even after adjusting for confounders, p<0.0001. There was no significant difference in LTFU by sex: LTFU rate was 2.47/1000 person-months (95% CI 1.6-3.9) in the first five years for men vs 1.98/1000 person-months (95% CI (1.3-3.0) for women. There was no difference in time to LTFU by sex over the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

Women achieved better long-term immune response to ART at baseline and during treatment, but had similar rates of long-term retention in care to men. Targeted efforts are needed to improve immune outcomes in men in our setting.

Marked sex differences in all-cause mortality on antiretroviral therapy in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

While women and girls are disproportionately at risk of HIV acquisition, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), globally men and women comprise similar proportions of people living with HIV who are eligible for antiretroviral therapy. However, men represent only approximately 41% of those receiving antiretroviral therapy globally. There has been limited study of men’s outcomes in treatment programmes, despite data suggesting that men living with HIV and engaged in treatment programmes have higher mortality rates. This systematic review (SR) and meta-analysis (MA) aims to assess differential all-cause mortality between men and women living with HIV and on antiretroviral therapy in LMIC.

Methods

A SR was conducted through searching PubMed, Ovid Global Health and EMBASE for peer-reviewed, published observational studies reporting differential outcomes by sex of adults (≥15 years) living with HIV, in treatment programmes and on antiretroviral medications in LMIC. For studies reporting hazard ratios (HRs) of mortality by sex, quality assessment using Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (cohort studies) and an MA using a random-effects model (Stata 14.0) were conducted.

Results

A total of 11,889 records were screened, and 6726 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. There were 31 included studies in the final MA reporting 42 HRs, with a total sample size of 86,233 men and 117,719 women, and total time on antiretroviral therapy of 1555 months. The pooled hazard ratio (pHR) showed a 46% increased hazard of death for men while on antiretroviral treatment (1.35–1.59). Increased hazard was significant across geographic regions (sub-Saharan Africa: pHR 1.41 (1.28–1.56); Asia: 1.77 (1.42–2.21)) and persisted over time on treatment (≤12 months: 1.42 (1.21–1.67); 13–35 months: 1.48 (1.23–1.78); 36–59 months: 1.50 (1.18–1.91); 61 to 108 months: 1.49 (1.29–1.71)).

Conclusions

Men living with HIV have consistently and significantly greater hazards of all-cause mortality compared with women while on antiretroviral therapy in LMIC. This effect persists over time on treatment. The clinical and population-level prevention benefits of antiretroviral therapy will only be realized if programmes can improve male engagement, diagnosis, earlier initiation of therapy, clinical outcomes and can support long-term adherence and retention.

Are there differences in disease progression and mortality among male and female HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy? A meta-analysis of observational cohorts

Studies examining the sex differences in morbidity and mortality among HIV/AIDS patients have yielded inconsistent results. We conducted a meta-analysis of sex differences in disease progression and mortality among HIV/AIDS patients. Medical literature databases from inception to August 2014 were searched for published observational studies assessing sex differences in immunologic and virologic response, disease progression and mortality among HIV-infected patients. Random effects meta-analyses of 115 eligible studies were conducted to obtain pooled estimates of outcomes and heterogeneity was explored in sub-group analyses. Pooled estimates showed an increased risk of progression to AIDS (relative risk [RR]=1.11,95% CI=1.02-1.21) and all-cause mortality (RR=1.23, 95% CI=1.17-1.29) among males compared to females. All-cause mortality differed by sex only in low and middle income countries. The risk of AIDS-related mortality (RR=1.03, 95% CI=0.82-1.30), immunologic failure (RR=1.19,95% CI: 0.97-1.47), virologic suppression (RR=0.98, 95% CI=0.84-1.14), virologic failure (RR=1.26, 95% CI=0.99-1.61) and the change in CD4 cell count (Weighted mean difference [WMD] = -5.15, 95% CI= -13.57 to 3.28) did not differ by sex. These findings were modified by disease severity, adherence and use of highly active antiretroviral therapy. We conclude that HIV-related disease progression and survival outcomes are poorer in males.

Treatment Buddies Improve Clinic Attendance among Women but Not Men on Antiretroviral Therapy in the Nyanza Region of Kenya

Background. Kenyan antiretroviral (ART) guidelines encourage treatment buddies (TBy) to maximize treatment adherence. This study examined the effect of TBys on clinic attendance in men and women on ART. Methods. This retrospective cohort study included all adult patients initiating ART from August 2007 to December 2011 at four health facilities in Kenya. Data were abstracted from electronic medical records and analyzed using Poisson regression. Results. Of 2,430 patients, 2,199 (91%) had a TBy. Relationship between TBy and clinic attendance differed in females and males (interaction p = 0.09). After demographic and clinic factor adjustment, females with a TBy were 28% more likely to adhere to all appointments than those without (adjusted aRR = 1.28; 95% CI 1.08–1.53), whereas males were no more likely to adhere (aRR = 1.01; 95% CI 0.76–1.32). Males reported partner/spouse (33%) or brother (11%) as the TBy while females reported sister (17%), partner/spouse (14%), or another family member (12%). Multivariable analysis found no association between clinic attendance and TBy relationship in either gender. Conclusion. Clinic attendance was higher among women with TBys but not men. Results support TBys to help women achieve ART success; alternate strategies to bolster TBy benefits are needed for men.

Trends and determinants of survival for over 200 000 patients on antiretroviral treatment in the Botswana National Program: 2002-2013

Objectives:

To determine the incidence and risk factors of mortality for all HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral treatment at public and private healthcare facilities in the Botswana National HIV/AIDS Treatment Programme.

Design:

We studied routinely collected data from 226 030 patients enrolled in the Botswana National HIV/AIDS Treatment Programme from 2002 to 2013.

Methods:

A person-years (P-Y) approach was used to analyse all-cause mortality and follow-up rates for all HIV-infected individuals with documented antiretroviral therapy initiation dates. Marginal structural modelling was utilized to determine the effect of treatment on survival for those with documented drug regimens. Sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of our results.

Results:

Median follow-up time was 37 months (interquartile range 11–75). Mortality was highest during the first 3 months after treatment initiation at 11.79 (95% confidence interval 11.49–12.11) deaths per 100 P-Y, but dropped to 1.01 (95% confidence interval 0.98–1.04) deaths per 100 P-Y after the first year of treatment. Twelve-month mortality declined from 7 to 2% of initiates during 2002–2012. Tenofovir was associated with lower mortality than stavudine and zidovudine.

Conclusion:

The observed mortality rates have been declining over time; however, mortality in the first year, particularly first 3 months of antiretroviral treatment, remains a distinct problem. This analysis showed lower mortality with regimens containing tenofovir compared with zidovudine and stavudine. CD4⁺ cell count less than 100 cells/μl, older age and being male were associated with higher odds of mortality.

A Second Look at the Association between Gender and Mortality on Antiretroviral Therapy

Objective

We assessed the association between gender and mortality on antiretroviral therapy (ART) using identical models with and without sex-specific categories for weight and hemoglobin.

Design

Cohort study of adult patients on ART.

Setting

GHESKIO Clinic in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

Participants

4,717 ART-naïve adult patients consecutively enrolled on ART at GHESKIO from 2003 to 2008.

Main Outcome Measure

Mortality on ART; multivariable analyses were conducted with and without sex-specific categories for weight and hemoglobin.

Results

In Haiti, male gender was associated with mortality (OR 1.61; 95% CI: 1.30–2.00) in multivariable analyses with hemoglobin and weight included as control variables, but not when sex-specific interactions with hemoglobin and weight were used.

Conclusions

If sex-specific categories are omitted, multivariable analyses indicate a higher risk of mortality for males vs. females of the same weight and hemoglobin. However, because males have higher normal values for weight and hemoglobin, the males in this comparison would generally have poorer health status than the females. This may explain why gender differences in mortality are sometimes observed after controlling for differences in baseline variables when gender-specific interactions with weight and hemoglobin are omitted.

A Description of Mortality Associated with IPT plus ART Compared to ART Alone among HIV-Infected Individuals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: A Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) is the most common human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) associated opportunistic infection. It is the leading cause of death in HIV-infected individuals in sub-Saharan Africa. Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) and isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) are the two useful TB preventative strategies available to reduce TB among people living with HIV (PLHIV). Therefore, the aim of this study is to compare mortality associated with IPT taken together with ART, as well as ART alone, among PLHIV.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was undertaken at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital (TASH) and Zewditu Memorial Hospital (ZMH) on 185 patients receiving IPT (6 months) plus ART and 557 patients receiving ART alone. Mortality rates (MR) per 100 person-years (PYs) were used to compare mortality rates amongst the groups. Time-to-death and survival probabilities of the patients were determined using the Kaplan Meier Method. The Cox Proportional Hazard Model was employed to estimate the effect of IPT plus ART on survival of PLHIV.

RESULTS

The mortality cases noted in patients treated by IPT plus ART versus ART alone were 18 (4.5 cases/100 PYs) and 116 (10 cases/100 PYs), respectively. In reference to the ART alone, the IPT plus ART reduced the likelihood of death significantly (aHR 0.48; 95% CI 0.38-0.69) and median time to death was about 26 months (IQR 19-34). Moreover, WHO stage IV (aHR 2.42: 95% CI 1.42-4.11), CD4 values ≥350 cells/mm3 (aHR 0.52; 95% CI 0.28-0.94), adherence to ART (aHR 0.12; 95% CI 0.08-0.20), primary levels of education (aHR 2.20; 95% CI 1.07-4.52); and alcohol consumption (aHR 1.71; 95% CI 1.04-2.81) were factors strongly associated with mortality.

CONCLUSION

We found that PLHIV treated by the IPT plus ART had a lower likelihood of mortality and delayed time-to-death when compared to patients treated by ART alone.

Pregnant women with HIV in rural Nigeria have higher rates of antiretroviral treatment initiation, but similar loss to follow-up as non-pregnant women and men

BACKGROUND

We examined antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation and retention by sex and pregnancy status in rural Nigeria.

METHODS

We studied HIV-infected ART-naïve patients aged ≥15 years entering care from June 2009 to September 2013. We calculated the probability of early ART initiation and cumulative incidence of loss to follow-up (LTFU) during the first year of ART, and examined the association between LTFU and sex/pregnancy using Cox regression.

RESULTS

The cohort included 3813 ART-naïve HIV-infected adults (2594 women [68.0%], 273 [11.8%] of them pregnant). The proportion of pregnant clients initiating ART within 90 days of enrollment (78.0%, 213/273) was higher than among non-pregnant women (54.3%,1261/2321) or men (53.0%, 650/1219), both p<0.001. Pregnant women initiated ART sooner than non-pregnant women and men (median [IQR] days from enrollment to ART initiation for pregnant women=7 days [0-21] vs 14 days [7-49] for non-pregnant women and 14 days [7-42] for men; p<0.001). Cumulative incidence of LTFU during the first year post-ART initiation was high and did not differ by sex and pregnancy status. Persons who were unemployed, bedridden, had higher CD4+ counts, and/or in earlier WHO clinical stages were more likely to be LTFU.

CONCLUSIONS

Pregnant women with HIV in rural Nigeria were more likely to initiate ART but were no more likely to be retained in care. Our findings underscore the importance of effective retention strategies across all patient groups, regardless of sex and pregnancy status.

Gender-related differences in outcomes and attrition on antiretroviral treatment among an HIV-infected patient cohort in Zimbabwe: 2007-2010

Objectives

To determine (1) gender-related differences in antiretroviral therapy (ART) outcomes, and (2) gender-specific characteristics associated with attrition.

Methods

This was a retrospective patient record review of 3919 HIV-infected patients aged ≥15 years who initiated ART between 2007 and 2009 in 40 randomly selected ART facilities countrywide.

Results

Compared to females, males had more documented active tuberculosis (12% vs. 9%; p < 0.02) and a lower median CD4 cell count (117 cells/μl vs. 143 cells/μl; p < 0.001) at ART initiation. Males had a higher risk of attrition (adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) 1.28, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.10–1.49) and mortality (AHR 1.56, 95% CI 1.10–2.20). Factors associated with attrition for both sexes were lower baseline weight (<45 kg and 45–60 kg vs. >60 kg), initiating ART at an urban health facility, and care at central/provincial or district/mission hospitals vs. primary healthcare facilities.

Conclusions

Our findings show that males presented late for ART initiation compared to females. Similar to other studies, males had higher patient attrition and mortality compared to females and this may be attributed in part to late presentation for HIV treatment and care. These observations highlight the need to encourage early HIV testing and enrolment into HIV treatment and care, and eventually patient retention on ART, particularly amongst men.

Prevalence and socioeconomic factors associated with smoking in people living with HIV by sex, in Recife, Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the world. The prevalence of smoking is higher in people infected with HIV than in the general population. Although it is biologically plausible that smoking increases the morbidity and mortality of people living with HIV/AIDS, few studies in developing countries have analyzed the determinants and consequences of smoking in HIV infected people.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the prevalence of smoking and identify the socioeconomic factors associated with smoking and smoking cessation in patients with HIV by sex.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted with baseline data, obtained from an ongoing prospective cohort study of patients with HIV attending two referral centers in Recife, Northeast Region of Brazil, between July 2007 and October 2009.

RESULTS

The prevalence of current smoking was 28.9%. For both sexes, smoking was independently associated with heavy alcohol drinking and marijuana use. Among women, smoking was associated with living alone, not being married and illiteracy; and among men, being 40 years or older, low income and using crack. Compared with ex-smokers, current smokers were younger and more likely to be unmarried, heavy drinkers and marijuana users.

CONCLUSIONS

It is important to incorporate smoking cessation interventions for the treatment of heavy alcohol drinkers and marijuana users with HIV/AIDS, which may increase life expectancy and quality of life, as smoking is related to risk of death, relapse of tuberculosis, and non communicable diseases.

Follow-Up Visit Patterns in an Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) programme in Zomba, Malawi

Background

Identifying follow-up (FU) visit patterns, and exploring which factors influence them are likely to be useful in determining which patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) may become Lost to Follow-Up (LTFU). Using an operation and implementation research approach, we sought 1) to describe the timing of FU visits amongst patients who have been on ART for shorter and longer periods of time; and 2) to determine the median time to late visits, and 3) to identify specific factors that may be associated with these patterns in Zomba, Malawi.

Methods and Findings

Using routinely collected programme monitoring data from Zomba District, we performed descriptive analyses on all ART visits among patients who initiated ART between Jan. 1, 2007–June 30, 2010. Based on an expected FU date, each FU visit was classified as early (≥4 day before an expected FU date), on time (3 days before an expected FU date/up to 6 days after an expected FU date), or late (≥7 days after an expected FU date). In total, 7,815 patients with 76417 FU visits were included. Ninety-two percent of patients had ≥2 FU visits. At the majority of visits, patients were either on time or late. The median time to a first late visit among those with 2 or more visits was 216 days (IQR: 128–359). Various patient- and visit-level factors differed significantly across Early, On Time, and Late visit groups including ART adherence and frequency of, and type of side effects.

Discussion

The majority of patients do not demonstrate consistent FU visit patterns. Individuals were generally on ART for at least 6 months before experiencing their first late visit. Our findings have implications for the development of effective interventions that meet patient needs when they present early and can reduce patient losses to follow-up when they are late. In particular, time-varying visit characteristics need further research.

Sex differentials in the uptake of antiretroviral treatment in Zambia

This study explores socio-structural factors that influence uptake of antiretroviral treatment (ART) in Zambia and assess differences between men and women. We conducted a case-control study nested in a community- and health facility-based survey, between September 2010 and February 2011. Cases were defined as HIV-positive individuals who, while eligible, never started ART and controls were HIV-positive individuals who were on ART. Cases and controls were matched by place of residence. We performed a conditional logistic regression analysis using a discrete logistic model stratified by sex. Overall, a significantly larger proportion of men (32.7%) than women (25.6%) did not uptake ART (Pearson χ(2) = 5.9135; p = 0.015). In the crude analysis, poor health status and low self-efficacy were common factors associated with non-uptake in both sexes. After adjusting for covariates, men were more likely than women to refuse ART even though men's self-rated health was lower than women's. In general, the adjusted analysis suggests that HIV status disclosure affects uptake in both sexes but women's uptake of ART is largely hampered by poverty-related factors while for men, side effects and social pressure, probably associated with masculinity, are more important barriers. Alarmingly men's health seems to deteriorate until they start treatment, in contrast to women. Understanding gender differences in uptake and attitudes to ART is a crucial component to providing effective and appropriate health care to both men and women living with HIV/AIDS in Zambia.

The vulnerability of men to virologic failure during antiretroviral therapy in a public routine clinic in Burkina Faso

INTRODUCTION

Gender differences in antiretroviral therapy (ART) outcomes are critical in sub-Saharan Africa. We assessed the association between gender and virologic failure among adult patients treated in a public routine clinic (one of the largest in West Africa) in Burkina Faso.

METHODS

We performed a case-control study between July and October 2012 among patients who had received ART at the Bobo Dioulasso Day Care Unit. Patients were eligible if they were 15 years or older, positive for HIV-1 or HIV-1+2, and on first-line ART for at least six months. Cases were all patients with two consecutive HIV loads >1000 copies/mL (Biocentric Generic or Abbott Real Time assays), or one HIV load >1000 copies/mL associated with immunologic or clinical failure criteria. Controls were all patients who only had HIV loads <300 copies/mL. The association between gender and virologic failure was assessed using a multivariate logistic regression, adjusted on age, level of education, baseline CD4+ T cell count, first and current antiretroviral regimens and time on ART.

RESULTS

Of 2303 patients (74.2% women; median age: 40 years; median time on ART: 34 months), 172 had virologic failure and 2131 had virologic success. Among the former, 130 (75.6%) had confirmed virologic failure, 38 (22.1%) had viro-immunologic failure, and four (2.3%) had viro-clinical failure. The proportion of men was significantly higher among the cases than among the controls (37.2% vs. 24.9%; p<0.001). Compared to controls, cases were also younger, more immunodeficient at ART initiation, less likely to receive a protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral regimen and had spent a longer period of time on ART. After adjustment, male gender remained strongly associated with virologic failure (odds ratio 2.52, 95% CI: 1.77-3.60; p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Men on ART appeared more vulnerable to virologic failure than women. Additional studies are needed to confirm the poorer prognosis of men in this setting and to determine the causes for their vulnerability in order to optimize HIV care. From now on, efforts should be made to support the adherence of men to ART in the African setting.

HIV-infected adolescents in southern Africa can achieve good treatment outcomes: results from a retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVES

In this study we examine whether adolescents treated for HIV/AIDS in southern Africa can achieve similar treatment outcomes to adults.

DESIGN

We have used a retrospective cohort study design to compare outcomes for adolescents and adults commencing antiretroviral therapy (ART) between 2004 and 2010 in a public sector hospital clinic in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.

METHODS

Cox proportional hazards modelling was used to investigate risk factors for death and loss to follow-up (LTFU) (defined as missing a scheduled appointment by ≥3months).

RESULTS

One thousand, seven hundred and seventy-six adolescents commenced ART, 94% having had no previous history of ART. The median age at ART initiation was 13.3 years. HIV diagnosis in 97% of adolescents occurred after presentation with clinical disease and a higher proportion had advanced HIV disease at presentation compared with adults [WHO Stage 3/4 disease (79.3 versus 65.2%, P < 0.001)]. Despite this, adolescents had no worse mortality than adults, assuming 50% mortality among those LTFU (6.4 versus 7.3 per 100 person-years, P = 0.75) with rates of loss to follow-up significantly lower than in adults (4.8 versus 9.2 per 100 person-years, P < 0.001). Among those who were followed for 5 years or more, 5.8% of adolescents switched to a second-line regimen as a result of treatment failure, compared with 2.1% of adults (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

With adolescent-focused services, it is feasible to achieve good outcomes for adolescents in large-scale ART programs in sub-Saharan Africa. However, adolescents are at high risk of treatment failure, which compromises future drug options. Interventions to address poor adherence in adolescence should be prioritized.

HIV and H2O: tracing the connections between gender, water and HIV

The health consequences for HIV-affected families of insufficient access to safe water and sanitation are particularly dire: inadequate access complicates medication adherence and increases vulnerability to opportunistic infections for persons living with HIV. The gendered nature of water collection and HIV care--with women disproportionately bearing the burden in both areas--presents an unrealized opportunity to improve HIV outcomes through investments in water/sanitation. We synthesize the literature on HIV and water/sanitation to develop a conceptual model that maps the connections between women's double burden of resource collection and HIV care. Drawing on theories of gender and systems science, we posit that there are multiple paths through which improved water/sanitation could improve HIV-related outcomes. Our findings suggest that the positive synergies of investing in water/sanitation in high HIV prevalence communities that are also expanding access to ART would be significant, with health multiplying effects that impact women and entire communities.

The social and clinical characteristics of patients on antiretroviral therapy who are 'lost to follow-up' in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a prospective study

A significant proportion of those initiating antiretroviral treatment (ART) for HIV infection are lost to follow-up. Causes (including HIV symptoms, quality of life, depression, herbal treatment and alcohol use) for discontinuing ART follow-up in predominantly rural resource-limited settings are not well understood. This is a prospective study of the treatment-naïve patients recruited from three (one urban, one-semi-urban and one rural) public hospitals in Uthukela health district in KwaZulu-Natal from October 2007 to February 2008. The aim of this study was to investigate predictors of loss to follow-up or all caused attrition from an ART programme within a cohort followed up for over 12 months. A total of 735 patients (217 men and 518 women) prior to initiating ART completed a baseline questionnaire and 6- and 12-months' follow-up. At 12-months follow-up 557 (75.9%) individuals continued active ART, 177 (24.1%) were all cause attrition, there were 82 deaths (13.8%), 58 (7.9%) transfers, 7 (1.0%) refused participation, 8 (1.1%) were not yet on ART and 22 (3.0%) could not be traced. Death by 12-months of follow-up was associated with lower CD4 cell counts (risk ratio, RR=2.05, confidence intervals, CI=1.20-3.49) and higher depression levels (RR=1.05, CI=1.01-1.09) at baseline assessment. The high early mortality rates indicate that patients are enrolling into ART programmes with far too advanced immunodeficiency; median CD4 cell counts 119 (IQR=59-163). Causes of late access to the ART programme, such as delays in health care access (delayed health care seeking), health system delays, or inappropriate treatment criteria, need to be addressed. Differences in health status (lower CD4 cell counts and higher depression scores) should be taken into account when initiating patients on ART. Treating depression at ART initiation is recommended to improve treatment outcome.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and clinical outcomes among young adults reporting high-risk sexual behavior, including men who have sex with men, in coastal Kenya

African men who have sex with men (MSM) face significant stigma and barriers to care. We investigated antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence among high-risk adults, including MSM, participating in a clinic-based cohort. Survival analysis was used to compare attrition across patient groups. Differences in adherence, weight gain, and CD4 counts after ART initiation were assessed. Among 250 HIV-1-seropositive adults, including 108 MSM, 15 heterosexual men, and 127 women, patient group was not associated with attrition. Among 58 participants who were followed on ART, 40 % of MSM had less than 95 % adherence, versus 28.6 % of heterosexual men and 11.5 % of women. Although MSM gained less weight after ART initiation than women (adjusted difference −3.5 kg/year), CD4 counts did not differ. More data are needed on barriers to adherence and clinical outcomes among African MSM, to ensure that MSM can access care and derive treatment and prevention benefits from ART.

Prevalence and determinants of virological failure in HIV-infected children on antiretroviral therapy in rural Cameroon: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

In Africa, success of antiretroviral treatment (ART) seems to lag behind in children compared with adults, and high therapeutic failure rates have been reported. We aimed to identify prevalence and determinants of virological failure in HIV-infected children treated under programmatic conditions.

METHODS

All patients <18 years on ART presenting to the HIV clinic at the Bamenda Regional Hospital, a secondary referral hospital in rural Cameroon, from September 2010 to August 2011, were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Clinical data, self-reported adherence, CD4(+) T-cell counts and viral load were recorded. Therapeutic drug monitoring was performed on stored plasma samples. Determinants of virological failure were identified using descriptive statistics and logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 230 children with a mean age of 8.9 years (sd 3.7) were included. At the time of analysis, the mean duration of HAART was 3.5 years (sd 1.7) and 12% had a CD4(+) T-cell count <200 cells/µl. In total, 53% of children experienced virological failure (>200 copies/ml). Among children on nevirapine (NVP), plasma levels were subtherapeutic in 14.2% and supratherapeutic in 42.2%. Determinants of virological failure included male sex, lower CD4(+) T-cell counts, subtherapeutic drug levels, longer time on ART and a deceased mother. Poor adherence was associated with subtherapeutic NVP plasma levels and advanced disease stages (WHO stage 3/4).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates high virological failure rates and a high variability of NVP plasma levels among HIV-infected children in a routine ART programme in rural Cameroon. Strategies to improve adherence to ART in HIV-infected children are urgently needed.

Determinants of Mortality among HIV Positives after Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy in Western Ethiopia: A Hospital-Based Retrospective Cohort Study

Studies revealed that there are various determinants of mortality among HIV positives after ART initiation. These determinants are so variable with context and dynamic across time with the advancement of cares and treatments. In this study we tried to identify determinants of mortality among HIV positives after initiating ART. A retrospective cohort study was conducted among 416 ART attendees enrolled between July 2005 to January 2012 in Nekemte Referral Hospital, Western Ethiopia. Actuarial table was used to estimate survival of patients after ART initiation and log rank test was used to compare the survival curves. Cox proportional-hazard regression was applied to determine the independent determinants of time to death. The estimated mortality was 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, and 7% at 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 months respectively with mortality incidence density of 1.89 deaths per 100 person years (95% CI 1.74, 3.62). Forty years and above AHR = 3.055 (95% CI 1.292, 7.223), low baseline hemoglobin level (AHR = 0.523 (95% CI .335, 0.816)), and poor ART adherence (AHR 27.848 (95% CI 8.928, 86.8)) were found to be an independent determinants of mortality. These determinants of mortality have to be taken into account to enhance better clinical outcomes of ART attendees.

Women experience a better long-term immune recovery and a better survival on HAART in Lao People's Democratic Republic

Background

In April 2003, Médecins Sans Frontières launched an HIV/AIDS programme to provide free HAART to HIV-infected patients in Laos. Although HIV prevalence is estimated as low in this country, it has been increasing in the last years. This work reports the first results of an observational cohort study and it aims to identify the principal determinants of the CD4 cells evolution and to assess mortality among patients on HAART.

Methods

We performed a retrospective database analysis on patients initiated on HAART between 2003 and 2009 (CD4<200cells/μL or WHO stage 4). We excluded from the analysis patients who were less than 16 years old and pregnant women. To explore the determinants of the CD4 reconstitution, a linear mixed model was adjusted. To identify typical trajectories of the CD4 cells, a latent trajectory analysis was carried out. Finally, a Cox proportional-hazards model was used to reveal predictors of mortality on HAART including appointment delay greater than 1 day.

Results

A total of 1365 patients entered the programme and 913 (66.9%) received an HAART with a median CD4 of 49 cells/μL [IQR 15–148]. High baseline CD4 cell count and female gender were associated with a higher CD4 level over time. In addition, this gender difference increased over time. Two typical latent CD4 trajectories were revealed showing that 31% of women against 22% of men followed a high CD4 trajectory. In the long-term, women were more likely to attend appointments without delay. Mortality reached 6.2% (95% CI 4.8-8.0%) at 4 months and 9.1% (95% CI 7.3-11.3%) at 1 year. Female gender (HR=0.17, 95% CI 0.07-0.44) and high CD4 trajectory (HR=0.19, 95% CI 0.08-0.47) were independently associated with a lower death rate.

Conclusions

Patients who initiated HAART were severely immunocompromised yielding to a high early mortality. In the long-term on HAART, women achieved a better CD4 cells reconstitution than men and were less likely to die. This study highlights important differences between men and women regarding response to HAART and medical care, and questions men’s compliance to treatment.

The pattern of attrition from an antiretroviral treatment program in Nigeria

Objective

To evaluate the rate and factors associated with attrition of patients receiving ART in tertiary and secondary hospitals in Nigeria.

Methods and Findings

We reviewed patient level data collected between 2007 and 2010 from 11 hospitals across Nigeria. Kaplan-Meier product-limit and Cox regression were used to determine probability of retention in care and risk factors for attrition respectively. Of 6,408 patients in the cohort, 3,839 (59.9%) were females, median age of study population was 33years (IQR: 27–40) and 4,415 (69%) were from secondary health facilities. The NRTI backbone was Stavudine (D4T) in 3708 (57.9%) and Zidovudine (ZDV) in 2613 (40.8%) of patients. Patients lost to follow up accounted for 62.7% of all attrition followed by treatment stops (25.3%) and deaths (12.0%). Attrition was 14.1 (N = 624) and 15.1% (N = 300) in secondary and tertiary hospitals respectively (p = 0.169) in the first 12 months on follow up. During the 13 to 24 months follow up period, attrition was 10.7% (N = 407) and 19.6% (N = 332) in secondary and tertiary facilities respectively (p<0.001). Median time to lost to follow up was 11.1 (IQR: 6.1 to 18.5) months in secondary compared with 13.6 (IQR: 9.9 to 17.0) months in tertiary sites (p = 0.002). At 24 months follow up, male gender [AHR 1.18, 95% CI: 1.01–1.37, P = 0.038]; WHO clinical stage III [AHR 1.30, 95%CI: 1.03–1.66, P = 0.03] and clinical stage IV [AHR 1.90, 95%CI: 1.20–3.02, p = 0.007] and care in a tertiary hospital [AHR 2.21, 95% CI: 1.83–2.67, p<0.001], were associated with attrition.

Conclusion

Attrition could potentially be reduced by decentralizing patients on ART after the first 12 months on therapy to lower level facilities, earlier initiation on treatment and strengthening adherence counseling amongst males.

Antiretroviral treatment for HIV in rural Uganda: two-year treatment outcomes of a prospective health centre/community-based and hospital-based cohort

BACKGROUND

In sub-Saharan Africa, a shortage of trained health professionals and limited geographical access to health facilities present major barriers to the expansion of antiretroviral therapy (ART). We tested the utility of a health centre (HC)/community-based approach in the provision of ART to persons living with HIV in a rural area in western Uganda.

METHODS

The HIV treatment outcomes of the HC/community-based ART program were evaluated and compared with those of an ART program at a best-practice regional hospital. The HC/community-based cohort comprised 185 treatment-naïve patients enrolled in 2006. The hospital cohort comprised of 200 patients enrolled in the same time period. The HC/community-based program involved weekly home visits to patients by community volunteers who were trained to deliver antiretroviral drugs to monitor and support adherence to treatment, and to identify and report adverse reactions and other clinical symptoms. Treatment supporters in the homes also had the responsibility to remind patients to take their drugs regularly. ART treatment outcomes were measured by HIV-1 RNA viral load (VL) after two years of treatment. Adherence was determined through weekly pill counts.

RESULTS

Successful ART treatment outcomes in the HC/community-based cohort were equivalent to those in the hospital-based cohort after two years of treatment in on-treatment analysis (VL≤400 copies/mL, 93.0% vs. 87.3%, p = 0.12), and in intention-to-treat analysis (VL≤400 copies/mL, 64.9% and 62.0%, p = 0.560). In multivariate analysis patients in the HC/community-based cohort were more likely to have virologic suppression compared to hospital-based patients (adjusted OR = 2.47, 95% CI 1.01-6.04).

CONCLUSION

Acceptable rates of virologic suppression were achieved using existing rural clinic and community resources in a HC/community-based ART program run by clinical officers and supported by lay volunteers and treatment supporters. The results were equivalent to those of a hospital-based ART program run primarily by doctors.

Second-line antiretroviral therapy in a workplace and community-based treatment programme in South Africa: determinants of virological outcome

Background: As antiretroviral treatment (ART) programmes in resource-limited settings mature, more patients are experiencing virological failure. Without resistance testing, deciding who should switch to second-line ART can be difficult. The consequences for second-line outcomes are unclear. In a workplace- and community-based multi-site programme, with 6-monthly virological monitoring, we describe outcomes and predictors of viral suppression on second-line, protease inhibitor-based ART.

Methods: We used prospectively collected clinic data from patients commencing first-line ART between 1/1/03 and 31/12/08 to construct a study cohort of patients switched to second-line ART in the presence of a viral load (VL) ≥400 copies/ml. Predictors of VL<400 copies/ml within 15 months of switch were assessed using modified Poisson regression to estimate risk ratios.

Results: 205 workplace patients (91.7% male; median age 43 yrs) and 212 community patients (38.7% male; median age 36 yrs) switched regimens. At switch compared to community patients, workplace patients had a longer duration of viraemia, higher VL, lower CD4 count, and higher reported non-adherence on first-line ART. Non-adherence was the reported reason for switching in a higher proportion of workplace patients. Following switch, 48.3% (workplace) and 72.0% (community) achieved VL<400, with non-adherence (17.9% vs. 1.4%) and virological rebound (35.6% vs. 13.2% with available measures) reported more commonly in the workplace programme. In adjusted analysis of the workplace programme, lower switch VL and younger age were associated with VL<400. In the community programme, shorter duration of viraemia, higher CD4 count and transfers into programme on ART were associated with VL<400.

Conclusion: High levels of viral suppression on second-line ART can be, but are not always, achieved in multi-site treatment programmes with both individual- and programme-level factors influencing outcomes. Strategies to support both healthcare workers and patients during this switch period need to be evaluated; sub-optimal adherence, particularly in the workplace programme must be addressed.

Mortality and loss to follow-up in the first year of ART: Malawi national ART programme

OBJECTIVES

To analyse mortality, loss to follow-up (LTFU) and retention on antiretroviral treatment (ART) in the first year of ART across all age groups in the Malawi national ART programme.

DESIGN

Cohort study including all patients who started ART in Malawi's public sector clinics between 2004 and 2007.

METHODS

ART registers were photographed, information entered into a database and merged with data from clinics with electronic records. Rates per 100 patient-years and cumulative incidence of retention were calculated. Subhazard ratios (sHRs) of outcomes adjusted for patient and clinic-level characteristics were calculated in multivariable analysis, applying competing risk models.

RESULTS

A total of 117,945 patients contributed 85,246 person-years: 1.0% were infants below 2 years, 7.4% children 2-14, 7.5% young people 15-24, and 84.2% adults 25 years and above. Sixty percent of patients were female: women outnumbered men from age 14 to 35 years. Mortality and LTFU were higher in men from age 20 years. Infants and young people had the highest rates per 100 person-years for mortality (23.0 and 19.4) and LTFU (24.7 and 19.3), and the highest adjusted relative risks compared to age group 25-34 years: sHRs were 1.37 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.17-1.60] and 1.17 (95% CI 1.10-1.25) for death and 1.37 (95% CI 1.18-1.59) and 1.27 (95% CI 1.19-1.35) for LTFU, respectively.

CONCLUSION

In this country-wide study patients aged 0-1 and 15-24 years had the highest risk of death and LTFU, and from age 20 men were at higher risk than women. Interventions to improve outcomes in these patient groups are required.

Tracing patients on antiretroviral treatment lost-to-follow-up in an urban slum in India

AIM

  This article describes a cooperative initiative between an HIV-clinic and non-government organization network providing lost-to-follow-up tracing and delayed appointment follow-up of patients on antiretroviral treatment.

BACKGROUND

  Loss-to-follow-up among patients on antiretroviral treatment is a major challenge in resource-constrained settings. A model of cooperation between a Médecins Sans Frontières HIV-clinic and a non-governmental-organization network was piloted in a Mumbai slum. A steady decline in delayed appointments and loss-to-follow-up was observed over 4 years.

DESIGN

  Mixed method study.

METHODS

  A study conducted in January 2011 explored potential reasons for declining loss-to-follow-up-rates. A retrospective, quantitative analysis of patient data was undertaken complemented by 22 semi-structured interviews, four focus-group discussions to explore patients' and providers' perceptions of tracing activities.

RESULTS/FINDINGS

  The clinic loss-to-follow-up-rate has steadily declined from mid-2008-2011. Thirty-eight (4·6%) of 819 patients registered during the period were lost-to-follow-up with most lost during the first year. Rates of loss-to-follow-up between 0·3-2·4% were observed over the last 2 years. Phoning the day before an appointment was perceived as the most useful intervention to avoid missing appointments. The analysis revealed a widespread fear of forced disclosure by patients during home visits.

CONCLUSIONS

  The low loss-to-follow-up-rate cannot be attributed to the network tracing activities alone. Phoning before appointments may result in fewer delayed appointments and prevent loss-to-follow-up. Home visits should be a last resort method of patient tracing because of the risk of HIV-status disclosure and the opportunity of discrimination from family and neighbours.

Comparative outcomes of tenofovir-based and zidovudine-based antiretroviral therapy regimens in Lusaka, Zambia

BACKGROUND

Although tenofovir (TDF) is a common component of antiretroviral therapy (ART), recent evidence suggests inferior outcomes when it is combined with nevirapine (NVP).

METHODS

We compared outcomes among patients initiating TDF + emtricitabine or lamivudine (XTC) + NVP, TDF + XTC + efavirenz (EFV), zidovudine (ZDV) + lamuvidine (3TC) + NVP, and ZDV + 3TC + EFV. We categorized drug exposure by initial ART dispensation by a time-varying analysis that accounted for drug substitutions and by predominant exposure (>75% of drug dispensations) during an initial window period. Risks for death and program failure were estimated using Cox proportional hazard models. All regimens were compared with ZDV + 3TC + NVP.

RESULTS

Between July 2007 and November 2010, 18,866 treatment-naive adults initiated ART: 18.2% on ZDV + 3TC + NVP, 1.8% on ZDV + 3TC + EFV, 36.2% on TDF + XTC + NVP, and 43.8% on TDF + XTC + EFV. When exposure was categorized by initial prescription, patients on TDF + XTC + NVP [adjusted hazard ratio (AHR): 1.45; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03 to 2.06] had a higher post-90-day mortality. TDF + XTC + NVP was also associated with an elevated risk for mortality when exposure was categorized as time-varying (AHR: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.18 to 1.95) or by predominant exposure over the first 90 days (AHR: 1.91, 95% CI: 1.09 to 3.34). However, these findings were not consistently observed across sensitivity analyses or when program failure was used as a secondary outcome.

CONCLUSION

TDF + XTC + NVP was associated with higher mortality when compared with ZDV + 3TC + NVP but not consistently across sensitivity analyses. These findings may be explained in part by inherent limitations to our retrospective approach, including residual confounding. Further research is urgently needed to compare the effectiveness of ART regimens in use in resource-constrained settings.

Development and validation of a clinical score for prognosis stratification in patients requiring antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa: a prospective open cohort study

Background

Mortality rates among patients initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa continue high. Also HIV treatment services from the region are affronting the challenges of been attending more patients than never. In this scenario, there are no integrated scoring systems capable of an adequate risk identification/ prognostic stratification among patients requiring ART; in order of optimize actual programmes outcomes. Several independent risk factors at baseline are associated with a poor prognosis after ART initiation. These include: male sex, low body mass index, anemia, low CD4 count and stage-4 WHO disease. The aim of this research was evaluate prospectively a new scoring system composed by these factors.

Methods

An open cohort study was conducted in 1769 patients from May 2008 to December 2010 at two HIV clinics of Zimbabwe. A new clinical model (MASIB score) was applied at ART initiation and patients were followed for 4 months. After that, validation characteristics of the score were examined.

Results

Patients selected in this cohort exhibited similar baseline characteristics that the patients selected in previous cohorts from the region. Overall performance for mortality prediction of MASIB score was accurate, as reflected by the Brier score test result 0.084 (95%CI: 0.080–0.088). Calibration was adequate taking in consideration a p>0.05 in the Hosmer Lemeshow test and discrimination was also good (Area Under Curve: 0.915, 95%CI: 0,901– 0,928).

Conclusion

The new model developed exhibited adequate validation characteristics supporting the clinical use. Further evaluations of this model in others scenarios from the sub-Saharan region are needed.

Combining qualitative and quantitative evidence to determine factors leading to late presentation for antiretroviral therapy in Malawi

Background

Treatment seeking delays among people living with HIV have adverse consequences for outcome. Gender differences in treatment outcomes have been observed in sub-Saharan Africa.

Objective

To better understand antiretroviral treatment (ART) seeking behaviour in HIV-infected adults in rural Malawi.

Methods

Qualitative interviews with male and female participants in an ART cohort study at a treatment site in rural northern Malawi triangulated with analysis of baseline clinical and demographic data for 365 individuals attending sequentially for ART screening between January 2008 and September 2009.

Results

43% of the cohort presented with late stage HIV disease classified as WHO stage 3/4. Respondents reported that women's frequency of testing, health awareness and commitment to children led to earlier ART uptake and that men's commitment to wider social networks of influence, masculine ideals of strength, and success with sexual and marital partners led them to refuse treatment until they were sick. Quantitative analysis of the screening cohort provided supporting evidence for these expressed views. Overall, male gender (adjusted OR 2.3, 95% CI1.3–3.9) and never being married (adjusted OR 4.1, 95% CI1.5–11.5) were risk factors for late presentation, whereas having ≥3 dependent children was associated with earlier presentation (adjusted OR 0.31, 95% CI0.15–0.63),compared to those with no dependent children.

Conclusion

Gender-specific barriers and facilitators operate throughout the whole process of seeking care. Further efforts to enrol men into care earlier should focus on the masculine characteristics that they value, and the risks to these of severe health decline. Our results emphasise the value of exploring as well as identifying behavioural correlates of late presentation.

Utility of routine viral load, CD4 cell count, and clinical monitoring among adults with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy in Uganda: randomised trial

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the use of routine laboratory monitoring in terms of clinical outcomes among patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Uganda.

DESIGN

Randomised clinical trial

SETTING

A home based ART programme in rural Uganda.

PARTICIPANTS

All participants were people with HIV who were members of the AIDS Support Organisation. Participants had CD4 cell counts <250 cells × 10(6)/L or World Health Organization stage 3 or 4 disease.

INTERVENTIONS

Participants were randomised to one of three different monitoring arms: a viral load arm (clinical monitoring, quarterly CD4 counts, and viral load measurements), CD4 arm (clinical monitoring and CD4 counts), or clinical arm (clinical monitoring alone).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Serious morbidity (newly diagnosed AIDS defining illness) and mortality.

RESULTS

1094 participants started ART; median CD4 count at baseline was 129 cells × 10(6)/L. Median follow-up was three years. In total, 126 participants died (12%), 148 (14%) experienced new AIDS defining illnesses, and 61(6%) experienced virological failure, defined as two consecutive viral loads >500 copies/mL occurring more than three months after the start of ART. After adjustment for age, sex, baseline CD4 count, viral load, and body mass index, the rate of new AIDS defining events or death was higher in the clinical arm than the viral load arm (adjusted hazard ratio 1.83, P = 0.002) or the CD4 arm (1.49, P = 0.032). There was no significant difference between the CD4 arm and the viral load arm (1.23, P = 0.31).

CONCLUSION

In patients receiving ART for HIV infection in Uganda, routine laboratory monitoring is associated with improved health and survival compared with clinical monitoring alone. Trial registration Clinical Trials NCT00119093.

Male gender predicts mortality in a large cohort of patients receiving antiretroviral therapy in Uganda

Background

Because men in Africa are less likely to access HIV/AIDS care than women, we aimed to determine if men have differing outcomes from women across a nationally representative sample of adult patients receiving combination antiretroviral therapy in Uganda.

Methods

We estimated survival distributions for adult male and female patients using Kaplan-Meier, and constructed multivariable regressions to model associations of baseline variables with mortality. We assessed person-years of life lost up to age 55 by sex. To minimize the impact of patient attrition, we assumed a weighted 30% mortality rate among those lost to follow up.

Results

We included data from 22,315 adults receiving antiretroviral therapy. At baseline, men tended to be older, had lower CD4 baseline values, more advanced disease, had pulmonary tuberculosis and had received less treatment follow up (all at p < 0.001). Loss to follow up differed between men and women (7.5 versus 5.9%, p < 0.001). Over the period of study, men had a significantly increased risk of death compared with female patients (adjusted hazard ratio 1.43, 95% CI 1.31-1.57, p < 0.001). The crude mortality rate for males differed importantly from females (43.9, 95% CI 40.7-47.0/1000 person-years versus 26.9, 95% CI 25.4-28.5/1000 person years, p < 0.001). The probability of survival was 91.2% among males and 94.1% among females at 12 months. Person-years of life lost was lower for females than males (689.7 versus 995.9 per 1000 person-years, respectively).

Conclusions

In order to maximize the benefits of antiretroviral therapy, treatment programmes need to be gender sensitive to the specific needs of both women and men. Particular efforts are needed to enroll men earlier into care.

Anti-retroviral treatment outcomes among older adults in Zomba district, Malawi

BACKGROUND

There are approximately 3 million people aged 50 and older in sub-Saharan Africa who are HIV-positive. Despite this, little is known about the characteristics of older adults who are on treatment and their treatment outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort analysis was performed using routinely collected data with Malawi Ministry of Health monitoring tools from facilities providing antiretroviral therapy services in Zomba district. Patients aged 25 years and older initiated on treatment from July 2005 to June 2010 were included. Differences in survival, by age group, were determined using Kaplan-Meier survival plots and Cox proportional hazards regression models.

RESULTS

There were 10,888 patients aged 25 and older. Patients aged 50 and older (N = 1419) were more likely to be male (P<0.0001) and located in rural areas (P = 0.003) than those aged 25-49. Crude survival estimates among those aged 50-59 were not statistically different from those aged 25-49 (P = 0.925). However, survival among those aged 60 and older (N = 345) was worse (P = 0.019) than among those 25-59. In the proportional hazards model, after controlling for sex and stage at initiation, survival in those aged 50-59 did not differ significantly from those aged 25-49 (hazard ratio 1.00 (95% CI: 0.79 to 1.27; P = 0.998) but the hazard ratio was 1.46 (95% CI: 1.03 to 2.06; P = 0.032) for those aged 60 and older compared to those aged 25-49.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment outcomes of those aged 50-59 are similar to those aged 25-49. A better understanding of how older adults present for and respond to treatment is critical to improving HIV services.

Resistance to antiretroviral drugs in treated and drug-naive patients in the Democratic Republic of Congo

BACKGROUND

We studied virological outcome and drug resistance in patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in health care centers in the Democratic Republic of Congo and looked for the presence of drug resistance in antiretroviral-naive patients attending the same clinics.

METHODS

In 2008, we conducted a cross-sectional survey among patients on ART for ≥ 12 months in 4 major cities [Kinshasa (n = 289), Matadi (n = 198), Lubumbashi (n = 77), and Mbuji-Mayi (n = 103)]. Genotypic drug resistance tests were done with an in-house assay on samples with viral load >1000 copies/mL. ART-naive patients (n = 283) were also consecutively enrolled in the same clinics.

RESULTS

Of the 667 patients on ART, >98% received Lamivudine + Stavudine/azidothymidine + Nevirapine/Efavirenz as first-line regimen and 74.4% were women. Median time on ART was 25 months [interquartile ratio (IQR), 19-32] in Kinshasa, 26 months (IQR, 19-32) in Matadi, 27 months (IQR, 19-44) in Lubumbashi, and 19 months (IQR, 16-24) in Mbuji-Mayi. A total of 97 patients (14.6%) had viral load >1000 copies/mL, and among the 93 successfully sequenced samples, 78 (83.9%) were resistant to at least 1 drug of their ART regimen: 68 harbored resistance mutations to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), 2 to NRTI only, 7 to NNRTI only, and 1 to NRTI + NNRTI + protease inhibitor. The majority of patients, 70/78 (89.7%), were resistant to at least 2 of the 3 drugs from their treatment. The use of next-generation NNRTI, etravirine was already compromised for 19.2% (15/78) of the patients and 7 patients had the K65R mutation compromising the use of tenofovir in second-line regimens. The proportion of antiretroviral-resistant patients increased over time from 8.4% to 18.6% for patients on ART for 12-23 months or >35 months (P = 0.013), respectively. Virological failure and rates of drug resistance were significantly higher among men than women, 19.9% versus 8.8%, respectively (P = 0.0001). Among the 253 recently diagnosed patients, 20 (7.9%) harbored resistance mutations.

CONCLUSIONS

The accumulation of drug resistance mutations with time on ART needs further attention, and surveillance should be reinforced in ART programs in sub-Saharan Africa.

In-hospital mortality rates and HIV: a medical ward review, Lilongwe, Malawi

In order to determine inpatient hospital mortality rates, causes of mortality and characteristics of inpatients at Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH) in Lilongwe, Malawi, we conducted a prospective observational study of all patients admitted to KCH medical ward from 20 September 2008 to April 2, 2009. All admission diagnoses, HIV status and antiretroviral therapy (ART) use were recorded. Patients' vital status was determined at discharge. A descriptive analysis and two logistic regression models were used for the analysis. Of the 1895 enrolled patients, the overall hospital mortality rate was 14.6%, substantially higher among known HIV-infected patients (24.2% versus 10.8%, P = 0.0009) and men (17.1% versus 12%, P = 0.033). Patients with multiple diagnoses had significantly higher mortality (odds ratio [OR] 2.33; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.47, 3.71). Most patients (62.3%) had unknown HIV status at admission. Among HIV-infected patients, ART use did not reduce hospital mortality or alter the spectrum of diseases. The majority of diagnoses were infectious (63.4%). The high inpatient mortality rate, especially among HIV-infected patients combined with the limited spectrum of diagnoses, emphasizes the need for improved inpatient management and diagnostic services. Expansion of HIV testing is warranted. Despite the rollout of ART, there remains a significant need for treatment of HIV-infected individuals.

Risk factors associated with increased mortality among HIV infected children initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) in South Africa

OBJECTIVE

To identify demographic and clinical risk factors associated with mortality after initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a cohort of human immunodeficiency (HIV) infected children in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study of 537 children initiating antiretroviral therapy at McCord Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Data were extracted from electronic medical records and risk factors associated with mortality were assessed using Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

Overall there were 47 deaths from the cohort of 537 children initiating ART with over 991 child-years of follow-up (median 22 months on ART), yielding a mortality rate of 4.7 deaths per 100 child years on ART. Univariate analysis indicated that mortality was significantly associated with lower weight-for-age Z-score (p<0.0001), chronic diarrhea (p = 0.0002), lower hemoglobin (p = 0.002), age <3 years (p = 0.003), and CD4% <10% (p = 0.005). The final multivariable Cox proportional hazards mortality model found age less than 3 years (p = 0.004), CD4 <10% (p = 0.01), chronic diarrhea (p = 0.03), weight-for-age Z-score (<0.0001) and female gender as a covariate varying with time (p = 0.03) all significantly associated with mortality.

CONCLUSION

In addition to recognized risk factors such as young age and advanced immunosuppression, we found female gender to be significantly associated with mortality in this pediatric ART cohort. Future studies are needed to determine whether intrinsic biologic differences or socio-cultural factors place female children with HIV at increased risk of death following initiation of ART.

Gender differences in retention and survival on antiretroviral therapy of HIV-1 infected adults in Malawi

BACKGROUND; There is currently a dearth of knowledge on gender differences in mortality among patients on ART in Africa.

METHODS

Using data from the national ART monitoring and evaluation system, a survival analysis of all healthcare workers, teachers, and police/army personnel who accessed ART in Malawi by June, September and December 2006 respectively, was undertaken. Gender differences in survival were analysed using Kaplan-Meier estimates and rate ratios were derived from Poisson regression adjusting for confounding.

RESULTS

4670 ART patients (49.8% female) were followed up for a median of 8.7 months after starting ART. Probability of death was significantly higher for men than women (p < 0.001). Controlling for age, WHO clinical stage and occupation, men experienced nearly 2 times the mortality of women RR 1.90 [95% CI: 1.57-2.29]. A higher proportion of men initiated ART in WHO stage 4 (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Among healthcare workers, teachers, police/army personnel, men have higher mortality on ART than women. Possible reasons are unclear but could be biological or because men present for ART at a later clinical stage or have poorer adherence to therapy. Improving early access to ART may reduce mortality, especially among men. A gender difference in adherence to therapy needs further investigation.

Sex differences in antiretroviral treatment outcomes among HIV-infected adults in an urban Tanzanian setting

OBJECTIVE

To determine the relationship between sex and antiretroviral therapy (ART) outcomes in an urban Tanzanian setting.

DESIGN

Longitudinal analysis of a cohort of HIV-infected adult men and women on ART enrolled at the Management and Development for Health (MDH)-President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) HIV care and treatment program in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

METHODS

Clinical and immunologic responses to ART were compared between HIV-infected men and women enrolled from November 2004 to June 2008. Cox regression analyses were used to study sex differences with regard to mortality, immunologic failure (WHO, 2006) and loss to follow-up, after adjusting for other risk factors for the outcomes.

RESULTS

Four thousand, three hundred and eighty-three (34%) men and 8459 (66%) women were analyzed. Men were significantly more immunocompromised than women at enrollment in terms of stage IV disease (27 vs. 23%, P < 0.001) and mean CD4⁺ cell count (123 vs. 136 cells/μl, P < 0.001). In multivariate analyses, men had a significantly higher risk of overall mortality [hazard ratio 1.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05-1.30, P < 0.001], immunologic nonresponse defined as CD4 cell count less than 100 cells/μl after at least 6 months of initiating ART (hazard ratio 1.74, 95% CI 1.44-2.11, P < 0.001) and loss to follow-up (hazard ratio 1.19, 95% CI 1.10-1.30, P < 0.001) than that in women. Associations did not change significantly when restricting analyses to the period of good adherence for all patients.

CONCLUSION

Nonadherence to care and advanced immunodeficiency at enrollment explained only 17% of the inferior mortality in HIV-infected men in this resource-limited setting. Additional study of behavioral and biologic factors that may adversely impact treatment outcomes in men is needed to reduce these sex disparities.