Different phloem-loading machineries correlated with the climate

The Expanded SWEET Gene Family Following Whole Genome Triplication in Brassica rapa

The SWEET family, which includes transcripts of a cohort of plant hexose and sucrose transporters, is considered key to improving crop stress tolerance and yield through its role in manipulating the carbohydrate partitioning process. The functions and regulatory roles of this gene family are variable among different species; thus, to determine these roles, more species-specific information is needed. Brassica rapa displays complicated regulation after a whole-genome triplication (WGT) event, which provides enormous advantages for use in genetic studies, thus it is an ideal model for exploring the functional and regulatory roles of SWEETs from a genetic perspective. In this study, the results of a homology search and phylogenetic relationship analysis revealed the evolutionary footprint of SWEETs among different plant taxa, which showed that plant SWEETs may have originated from Clade II and then expanded from vascular plants. The amino acid sequence characteristics and an analysis of the exon-intron structure of BrSWEETs duplicates clarified that SWEETs retention occurred after a WGT event in B. rapa. An analysis of the transcriptional levels of BrSWEETs in different tissues identified the expression differences among duplicated co-orthologs. In addition, qRT-PCR indicated that the BrSWEETs' co-orthologs were varied in their stress responses. This study greatly enriches our knowledge of SWEETs in the B. rapa species, which will contribute to future studies on the Brassica-specific regulatory pathways and to creating genetic innovations.

Drought impacts on tree phloem: from cell-level responses to ecological significance

On-going climate change is increasing the risk of drought stress across large areas worldwide. Such drought events decrease ecosystem productivity and have been increasingly linked to tree mortality. Understanding how trees respond to water shortage is key to predicting the future of ecosystem functions. Phloem is at the core of the tree functions, moving resources such as non-structural carbohydrates, nutrients, and defence and information molecules across the whole plant. Phloem function and ability to transport resources is tightly controlled by the balance of carbon and water fluxes within the tree. As such, drought is expected to impact phloem function by decreasing the amount of available water and new photoassimilates. Yet, the effect of drought on the phloem has received surprisingly little attention in the last decades. Here we review existing knowledge on drought impacts on phloem transport from loading and unloading processes at cellular level to possible effects on long-distance transport and consequences to ecosystems via ecophysiological feedbacks. We also point to new research frontiers that need to be explored to improve our understanding of phloem function under drought. In particular, we show how phloem transport is affected differently by increasing drought intensity, from no response to a slowdown, and explore how severe drought might actually disrupt the phloem transport enough to threaten tree survival. Because transport of resources affects other organisms interacting with the tree, we also review the ecological consequences of phloem response to drought and especially predatory, mutualistic and competitive relations. Finally, as phloem is the main path for carbon from sources to sink, we show how drought can affect biogeochemical cycles through changes in phloem transport. Overall, existing knowledge is consistent with the hypotheses that phloem response to drought matters for understanding tree and ecosystem function. However, future research on a large range of species and ecosystems is urgently needed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the question.

Plasmodesmata at the crossroads between development, dormancy, and defense

Plants are frequently exposed to environmental stress and organisms that seek to benefit from their autotrophic nature. To cope with these challenges plants have developed stress-resistance mechanisms, which involve sensing, activation of signal transduction cascades, changes in gene expression, and physiological adjustment. Exposure to one kind of stress often leads to cross-tolerance, that is, resistance to different kinds of stresses. The search for a common underlying mechanism concentrates mostly on changes in cellular physiology and gene expression. We focus on the cross-protective measures that are taken at the level above the single cell. We argue that the controlled alterations in symplasmic permeability that underlie development also play a role in survival and defense strategies. In development, most of the alterations are transient and dynamic, whereas the more persistent alterations function predominantly in dormancy and defense and are under the control of two key enzymes: 1,3-β-D-glucan synthase and 1,3-β-D-glucanase. 1,3-β-D-Glucan synthase functions in the narrowing or closing of plasmodesmata, whereas 1,3-β-D-glucanase counteracts this process. We propose that the closing of symplasmic paths constitutes an unspecific but effective early measure in adaptation and defense, which is accompanied by specific strategies tailored to the various challenges plants face.Key words: cross-adaptation, dormancy sphincter, 1,3-β-D-glucanase, 1,3-β-D-glucan synthase, meristem, overwintering, plasmodesmata, virus movement.

Primary and secondary plasmodesmata: structure, origin, and functioning

In the multicellular organisms of higher plants, plasmodesmata provide pathways for intimate symplasmic communication between neighboring cells. The arguments summarized in the present review demonstrate that plasmodesmata are diverse and highly dynamic structures. Differences in the plasmodesmal origin and modifications of the plasmodesmal structure and functioning at the various cell interfaces are the basic means which give rise to a complicated and flexibile symplasmic network. This complex communication system is discussed to serve a significant role in the coordinated development and in the concerted physiological functioning of the cells within the plant tissues, organs, and organisms.

The absence of phloem loading in willow leaves

Willow (Salix babylonica L.) is representative of a large group of plants that have extensive plasmodesmatal connections between minor vein phloem and adjoining cells. Because plasmodesmata provide a diffusion pathway for small molecules, it is unclear how sucrose could be loaded from the mesophyll into the phloem against a concentration gradient. In the studies reported here, the minor vein phloem of willow leaves plasmolyzed in approximately the same concentration of osmoticum as the mesophyll. Sucrose concentrations in mesophyll cells were greater than those reported in the literature for aphid stylet exudate from willow stems. Calculated turgor pressures in the mesophyll and minor vein phloem were greater than turgor reported in the literature for sieve elements in the stems of willow. Images of minor veins were not obtained in autoradiographs when attached leaves, or leaf pieces, were provided with 14CO2 or [14C]sucrose. Therefore, no evidence could be found for accumulation of sucrose against a concentration gradient in the minor vein phloem of willow. In these leaves, the mesophyll apparently acts as the "source" for long distance transport of sugar. The mechanism of translocation in willow, and the evolution of phloem loading, are discussed.

Plasmodesmata and the supracellular nature of plants

In the classical formulation of Münch (1930), plasmodesmata are considered to form simple cytoplasmic bridges between neighbouring plant cells to create the symplasm. This concept has dominated, if not monopolized, the thinking of plant biologists and in particular plant physiologists over the last few decades. Recent advances in ultrastructural, physiological and molecular studies on plasmodesmata indicate that this simple view is in need of revision. Structurally, the higher plant plasmodesma has been revealed to be a supramolecular complex consisting of membranes and proteins. Functionally, evidence is at hand that this complex structure appears to have evolved not only to control the size exclusion limit for intercellular diffusion of metabolites and small molecules, but also to potentiate and regulate intercellular trafficking of macromolecules, including proteins and nucleic acids. In this regard, plasmodesmal transport may share parallel regulatory mechanisms with nucleocytoplasmic transport. Based on these findings, we advance the hypothesis that plants function as supracellular, rather than multicellular, organisms. As such, the dynamics of the plant body, including cell differentiation, tissue formation, organogenesis and specialized physiological function(s), is subject to plasmodesmal regulation. Plasmodesmata presumably accomplish such regulatory roles by trafficking informational molecules which orchestrate both metabolic activity and gene expression. Current and future studies on the evolutionary origin(s) of plasmodesmata are likely to provide valuable information in terms of the genetic and molecular basis for the supracellular nature of plants. Contents Summary 435 I. Introduction 436 II. Plasmodesmal formation, structure and biochemistry 436 III. Evolution of plasmodesmata 445 IV. Symplasmic dynamics 452 V. Plasniodesmal trafficking of macromolecules: parallels with nucleocytoplasmic transport 457 VI. Role of plasmodesmata in plant development 464 VII. Concluding remarks 469 Acknowledgements 470 References 470.